Tài liệu Mastering skills for the toefl ibt advanced part 33 pdf

While each style varies in many ways, three of them are generally considered negative conflict styles, Called direct aggression, passive aggression, and nonassertive behavior, these styl

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of people's lives While the necessity of conflict is common to all, the

psychologists study what they have termed personal conflict styles

While each style varies in many ways, three of them are generally considered negative conflict styles, Called direct aggression, passive aggression, and nonassertive behavior, these styles are distinctly different and rarely solve a given conflict successfully

Direct aggression can be understood as one of the most harmful conflict styles for bath.parties involved Direct aggression is considered

a highly combative style, in which an individual verbally attacks the other person involved This may include verbal criticism of a person’s character or appearance, teasing, threats, and the use of intimidating body language This behavior can have various impacts both upon the aggressor and the other party Perhaps most obvious are the effects , upon the target of the aggression Victims can feel sadness, humiliation,

* embarrassment, or even be driven to aggression themselves Ina volatile

, Situation, parties may be driven to physical violence, especially if both

’, individuals use a style of direct aggression Thus, the original aggressor

may be in danger of physical harm due to the use of an aggressive conflict style Rather than solving the conflict, aggression generally exacerbates a problem or introduces new conflicts To exemplify direct aggression, imagine an older brother who teases or embarrasses a little brother when he wants to play with the younger child’s toy While

it is likely that the older brother will not get his way, even his success may lead to further problems Anger may grow in the younger brother, leading to an increase in conflict in the future

_ A similar reliance upon aggressive behavior can be seen in the passive aggressive style In contrast with the obvious antagonism of direct aggressors, passive aggression can be understood as an indirect communication of hostility Generally, individuals find roundabout ways to express aggression, often avoiding direct conflict Like direct aggression, passive aggressive behavior rarely has a positive effect upon the resolution of a conflict Generally, the aggressor struggles

to convey displeasure with a given situation He or she attempts to

‘send subtle messages to the other party, while perpetuating a front

of friendliness While this pretense can often last for the duration of one

or many conflicts, its eventual breakdown can cause strong feelings

of anger or emotional pain in the aggressor’s victim For example, a

manners in which individuals solve their conflicts vary widely Many’

volatile:

tending to become violent hostility:

unfriendly or aggressive

behavior roundabout:

indirect

pretense:

a false show of behavior

amiable:

friendly

escalate:

to increase the intensity ˆ

oblige:

to accommodate; to do a favor.for someone recurring:

frequent

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Table/Chart Questions 225 _ „

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girl may become angry at a friend However, instead of expressing \

friend to others, while remaining amiable to her face Thus, the conflict

However, the friend may discover after some time that the girl is behind the rumors The conflict will understandably escalate after this point Like direct aggression, the passive aggressive style rarely leads

to a successful resolution and, instead, create new conflicts

Nonassertive behavior is another conflict style that is generally believed to engender negative results However, it can in some cases

be successtully used tơ avoid minor conflicts Nonassertive behavior

is defined as an unwillingness to participate in and solve a conflict

Nonassertive behavior can be caused by a fear of the other person

or a lack of self-confidence in general, nonassertive.behavior manifests

in one of two ways: through accommodation, in which the individual ignores his or her.own needs in order to oblige the other party, or

through avoidance, in which the individual simply refuses to face the

conflict In either case, the individual believes that, by not dealing with the issue, it will simply go away in some situations, this behavior is successful When faced with a very minor situation, many people who use nonassertive behavior can successfully avoid a more serious conflict by either staying away from or accommodating the other person

However, this is rarely satisfying Also, such behavior can often lead

strong relationship

_ Conflicts, 5,

Type 1: Explanation:

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Type 2: Explanation:

Type 3: Explanation:

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Directions: Complete the table below to summarize information about conflicts discussed in the passage Match the appropriate statements to the conflict style to which they-relate WO

Passive Aggression

Nonassertive Behavior

-Answer Choices (A) Always involves physical force to solve conflicts (B) Sometimes leads to a positive outcome

) Often humiliates the other person

) Avoids the problem until it goes away ) Fakes kindness to avoid a confrontation

) Communicates anger through subtle hints

) Leads to depression after failed solution

) Can negatively impact both people involved

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C

D

E

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Fill in the blanks to complete the summary

Psychologists have defined three unsuccessful ways of dealing with conflict, Direct aggression involves a person becoming verbally abusive or showing other signs of

if both parties use direct aggression In passive-aggressive behavior, a person may behave

to the face of the person with whom they have a problem, while they

spread rumors and speak negatively behind their back There is still aggression in passive-

Nonassertive behavior involves complete avoidance of a problem or source of conflict

Rather than seeking a resolution to a problem, a person might put on the

—— of comfort, or of not being bothered

Table/Chart Questions 227

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Small societies around the world have various systems of political order that differ greatly from the typical conception of government Due

to the complexity of modern major nations, government has become

| : nation However, many small societies often do not require the same level

of authority Such governments can be placed into three categories:

band: governments, tribe governments, and chiefdoms While each

respective societies

The political orders of bands exhibit an adaptation to the needs of

a mobile society A society is generally labeled a band if its primary

means of survival involves foraging for wild food in groups of less

than 100 Due to their reliance upon finding food, bands generally do

not settle in a single location Instead, they move in order to discover new

sources of food Their societies, then, are not static and well-organized

This lack of organization is also evident in their political systems

Generally, bands do not form governments with any sort of hierarchy

Instead, due to their small size, all members of a group are given a

voice in addressing problems Since political problems are likely to

affect all members of a band, each member may give an opinion on

up with more of a voice than others, though formal systems of leadership

are rarely established Similarly, laws are not written in band societies

instead, the general consensus that emerges from a discussion becomes

the equivalent of societal rule An example of such a society can be

seen in the Inuit of northern Canada To address the issue of an overly

aggressive band member, another member visited the other members

individually to ask for opinions on the aggressor’s behavior When the

consensus was reached that the member was a threat to the band as

a whole, the agreement acted as authorization for the man to retaliate

Tribes can be understood as larger societies that domesticate food sources and generally settle in one place Tribes also have no established,

full-time governmental body However, their larger size- makes the

system used in bands impractical Instead, tribes leave small issues up

to families to resolve and form voluntaty governmental associations called sodalities to handle larger issues These organizations consist of

at least one member from most families in the tripe While the associations

——— 228 Chapter 10

conception:

an idea mobile:

capable of easy

Inovement

charisma:

personal.magnetism or

charm consensus:

a state of agreement

retallate:

to take action in response

to another action

domesticate:

to adapt a plant or animal

in order to benefit humans

welfare:

the state of mental and physical health

dispute:

do not have regular meetings, they will convene to address a problem

within the community Sodalities have two roles in the community: a

policing role and a social role Members of the sodality will attend to any matters of behavior deemed inappropriate by the members of the

society For example, a tribe of Plains Indians protected the tribe’s welfare through their enforcement of societal guidelines If a hunter accidentally scared away wild game during a hunt, the hunter was likely punished for threatening the tribe’s food supply

Chiefdoms unite more than one village under a central political figure, called a chief In a chiefdom, the villages recognize a chief as

the official with the most political power However, individual families retain a very similar role to that of a tribe In order to properly govern villages that may be far from the chief's own village, many smailer

matters are left to family law, in which relatives from the village decide the result of a familial conflict Larger crimes affecting the entire village—

or even all villages under the chiefdorh—require the involvement of

government officials, such as the chief, in order to bring about a truly

authoritative resolution, Often, the chief will meet with other appointed

~ Village officials to decide the fate of an individual involved in a dispute

Unlike bands or tribes, the chief has the power to create laws, punish offenders, and wield power over those who are not a part of his or her

* own family or community Chiefs have the power to tax individual villages,

” regulate the distribution of food and other resources, and draft labor

Arabian Peninsula structured their societies around chiefs, which

they called sheikhs, who governed individual villages There was also

a central chief, sometimes called a prince, who held power over each

of the regional chiefs : ¬

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Table/Chart Questions 229 ——|

1 Directions: Complete the table below to summarize information about political orders discussed

in the passage Match the appropriate statements to the type of government to which they relate

TWO of the answer choices will NOT be used This question is worth 4 points

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Tribes

e

e

Answer Choices

Allow all members to aid in the development of laws Consist of numerous villages connected through a governmental system

Require that punishments be approved by each individual member Write laws prohibiting the endangerment of the group

Create familial organizations that handle major issues Does not form any system of hierarchical leadership Inhabit one area and form basic political structures

OR —-Tro7

Fill in the blanks to complete the summary

than the massive nations of today Smaller groups of people have an easier time settling a

Groups of people that forage for wild food are usually and rarely have more than 100 individuals, These groups organize

This led to the development of tribes and chiefdoms Chiefdoms are usually a collection of villages with a single person as leader, whereas tribes are only one village or group

i 230 Chapter 10

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Read the following passage Then fill in the diagram with the information that you read Km

learned from studying their pottery The durable vessels created by role resist damage

the ancient Greeks were often decorated with scenes from daily life, to cut words or a design

giving scholars insight into their culture The two most recognized into something

pottery Both share similarities and differences in their artistic shoklng only the stops of

designs,

something

used to make the vessel and ground into a fine paste using alkaline — edge of something

water Decorations were then painstakingly incised into the clay using lee dn design

.sharp, wooden tools Black figure pottery featured elaborate geometric structure oe ee

Subjects, animal motifs, and legendary episodes Figures were often the introduction of a new

2, did not overlap, or else they would blend together and become

x; unrecognizable after the firing process Once the design was completed,

: the pottery would be placed in the kiin

Using air vents, artisans manipulated the amount of oxygen

allowed in the kiln More oxygen would keep the reddish brown color,

and less oxygen would result in grays and blacks When the ‘kitn was

i at its hottest temperature, a piece of green wood would be inserted

ị reacted with the iron in the clay The kiln vents would be opened to

together blocked the oxygenation that would have turned exposed areas back into their original reddish brown color:

The red figure technique developed around 530 BC Itused a reverse

firing process from the black figure method This more advanced technique allowed for painting on the vessel using brushes rather than incising designs into the clay The red figure technique offered more possibilities for artistic images, since smaller details could now

_ be made Figures first were outlined in a liquid glaze, and then conicurs

: and inner lines were added, However, since the paint color only appeared

of invisible lines ended at the right points to prevent overlapping of the

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Table/Chart Questions 231 — _