Tài liệu Oxfore guide to english grammar part 55 doc

• 207 286 Vowel and consonant changes 2 There can be a different consonant sound.. Also: advise advice, descend descent, prove proof, speak speech 3 Sometimes more than one sound changes

h Noun + ly: friendly, costly, cowardly, neighbourly, monthly

i Verb + able/ible: eatable, manageable, excusable, acceptable, comprehensible,

defensible

These mean that something 'can be done'

This sweater is washable (= It can be washed.)

But not all adjectives in able/ible have this meaning, e.g.

pleasurable (= giving pleasure), valuable (= worth a lot).

j Verb + ing: exciting, fascinating • 203

k Verb + ed: excited, fascinated • 203

6 Adverbs

We form many adverbs from an adjective + ly, e.g quickly • 207

286 Vowel and consonant changes

2 There can be a different consonant sound

That's what I believe That's my belief.

Also: advise advice, descend descent, prove proof, speak speech

3 Sometimes more than one sound changes: choose choice, lend loan,

287 Words belonging to more than one class

1 Many words can be both verbs and nouns

Verb: You mustn't delay I hope I win.

Noun: a short delay my hope of victory

Some words of this kind are answer, attack, attempt, call, care, change, climb,

control, copy, cost, damage, dance, delay, doubt, drink, drive, experience, fall, help, hit, hope, interest, joke, laugh, look, love, need, promise, rest, ride, run, search, sleep, smile, sound, swim, talk, trouble, visit, wait, walk, wash, wish.

NOTE For We swim/We have a swim, • 87.

2 Some verbs and nouns differ in their stress The verb is usually stressed on the second syllable, and the noun is stressed on the first

Verb: How do you trans'port the goods?

Noun: What 'transport do you use?

live life , succeed success, think thought

Also: blood bleed,food feed,full fill, lose loss, proud pride,

sell sale, shoot shot, sing song, sit seat, tell tale

1 Sometimes two related words have a different vowel sound

It was very hot We could feel the heat.

Some words of this kind are conflict, contest, contrast, decrease, discount, export,

import, increase, insult, permit, produce, progress, protest, rebel, record, refund, suspect, transfer, transport.

NOTE For nouns formed from phrasal verbs, e.g hold-up, • 2 3 1 ( 7 )

Some concrete nouns can also be verbs

He pocketed the money (= put it in his pocket)

We've wallpapered this room (= put wallpaper on it)

The man was gunned down (= shot with a gun)

The goods were shipped to America (= taken by ship)

Some others are bottle (wine), box, brake, butter (bread), garage (a car), glue,

hammer, mail, oil, parcel, (tele)phone.

Some adjectives can also be verbs

This wind will soon dry the clothes (= make them dry)

The clothes will soon dry (= become dry)

Some words of this kind are calm, cool, dry, empty, narrow, smooth, warm, wet NOTE Some adjectives with similar meanings take en as verbs, e.g widen • 285(4b)

288 Nationality words

1 We form nationality words from the name of a country: Italy Italian,

France French, Japan Japanese We can use them in different ways.

NOTE Some of these words do not refer to a political nation, e.g European, Jewish.

a As an adjective

Italian food a French town Japanese technology a Russian novel

b As the name of a language

I learnt Italian at evening classes.

Do you speak Russian?

I don't know any Greek.

c Referring to a specific person or group of people

Debbie is married to an Italian.

There are some Russians staying at the hotel.

The Japanese were looking round the cathedral.

d Referring to a whole people

Italians are passionate about football.

The French are proud of their language.

These expressions take a plural verb

We can also say e.g Italian people, Russian people.

The stress can make a difference to the vowel sounds For example, progress as a

verb is and as a noun

2 There are different kinds of nationality words.

a Many end in an: Italian, American, Mexican We can add s to form a plural noun.

Three Italians are doing the course.

(The) Americans think they can see Europe in a week.

NOTE

a To this group also belong Greek, Czech, Thai, Arab and words ending in i, e.g Pakistani,

Israeli.

The Greeks invented democracy.

b The language of the Arabs is Arabic.

b Some end in ese: Chinese, Portuguese We cannot add s.

Several Chinese (people) were waiting in the queue.

When we talk about a whole people, we must use the or people.

The Chinese welcome/Chinese people welcome western tourists.

NOTE Swiss (= from Switzerland) also belongs in this group.

c With some words, the adjective is different from the noun

She's Danish./She's a Dane.

I like Danish people./I like (the) Danes.

Also: Swedish/a Swede, Finnish/a Finn, Polish/a Pole, Spanish/a Spaniard,

Turkish/a Turk, Jewish/a Jew.

NOTE

From Britain we form the adjective British.

There are a lot of British people in this part of Spain.

The nouns Brit and Briton are not very usual in spoken British English.

There are a lot of Brits/Britons in this part of Spain.

This usage is rather journalistic Brit is informal The Americans say Britisher.

For the whole people we say the British.

The British prefer houses to flats.

d With some words, the noun has the suffix man

He's English./He's an Englishman.

Englishmen are reserved.

Also: Welsh/a Welshman, Irish/an Irishman, French/a Frenchman, Dutch/a

Dutchman.

For a whole people, we can use the adjective with the or people.

The English are/English people are reserved.

NOTE

a It is less usual to use woman as a suffix, but we can use an adjective + woman.

The English woman works at the university.

b When we talk about people from Scotland, we can use the adjective Scottish or the nouns

Scot and Scotsman.

He's Scottish./He's a Scot/He's a Scotsman.

How do you like Scottish people/Scots?

We use Scotch mainly in fixed expressions such as Scotch whisky.

288 Nationality words

3 Here is an overview of nationality words

Adjective Person/man A whole people

Africa African an African Africans

America American an American (the) Americans

Arab/Arabic an Arab (the) Arabs Asia Asian an Asian Asians

Australia Australian an Australian (the) Australians Austria Austrian an Austrian (the) Austrians

Belgium Belgian a Belgian (the) Belgians

Brazil Brazilian a Brazilian (the) Brazilians

Britain British • (2c) Note the British

China Chinese a Chinese the Chinese

Czech Republic Czech a Czech (the) Czechs

Denmark Danish a Dane (the) Danes

England - English an Englishman the English

Europe European a European Europeans

Finland Finnish a Finn (the) Finns

France French a Frenchman the French

Germany German a German (the) Germans

Greece Greek a Greek (the) Greeks

Holland Dutch a Dutchman the Dutch

Hungary Hungarian a Hungarian (the) Hungarians India Indian an Indian (the) Indians

Ireland Irish an Irishman the Irish

Israel Israeli an Israeli (the) Israelis

Italy Italian an Italian (the) Italians

Japan Japanese a Japanese the Japanese

Jewish a Jew (the) Jews Mexico Mexican a Mexican (the) Mexicans

Norway Norwegian a Norwegian (the) Norwegians Pakistan Pakistani a Pakistani (the) Pakistanis

Poland Polish a Pole (the) Poles

Portugal Portuguese a Portuguese the Portuguese

Russia Russian a Russian (the) Russians

Scotland Scottish a Scotia Scotsman (the) Scots

Spain Spanish a Spaniard the Spanish

Sweden Swedish a Swede (the) Swedes

Switzerland Swiss a Swiss the Swiss

Thailand Thai a Thai (the) Thais

Turkey Turkish a Turk (the) Turks

Wales Welsh a Welshman the Welsh

PAGE 375

Word endings: pronunciation and spelling

289 Summary

Some words have grammatical endings A noun can have a plural or possessive

form: friends, friend's A verb can have an s-form, ed-form or ing-form: asks, asked,

asking Some adjectives can have a comparative and superlative form: quicker, quickest A word can also end with a suffix: argument, idealist, weekly, drinkable.

When we add these endings to a word, there are sometimes changes in

pronunciation or spelling

The s/es ending • 290

290 The s/es ending

To form a regular noun plural or the s-form of a verb, we usually add s.

rooms games looks opens hides

After a sibilant sound we add es.

kisses watches bushes taxes

But if the word ends in e, we add s.

places supposes prizes

match matches

The ed ending •291

wait waited

Leaving out e • 292

make making insure insurance

The doubling of consonants • 293

big bigger regret regrettable

Consonant + y • 294

easy easily beauty beautiful

2 A few nouns ending in o add es.

potatoes tomatoes heroes echoes

But most add s.

radios stereos pianos photos studios discos kilos zoos

291 The ed ending

1 The ed-form of most regular verbs is simply verb + ed.

played walked seemed offered filled

If the word ends in e, we add d.

moved continued pleased smiled

NOTE

For the doubling of consonants before ed, • 293.

For y before ed, • 294.

2 The ending is pronounced /t/ after a voiceless sound, /d/ after a voiced sound and

292 Leaving out e

We normally leave out e when it comes before an ing-form.

make making shine shining use using

But we keep a double e before ing.

see seeing agree agreeing

When e comes before ed, er or est, we do not write a double e.

type typed late later fine finest

We usually leave out e before other endings that start with a vowel, e.g able, ize, al.

love lovable private privatize culture cultural

NOTE

292 Leaving out e

or after a sibilant

3 The ending is pronounced /s/ after a voiceless sound, /z/ after a voiced sound and

Voiceless: hopes , fits , clocks

Voiced: cabs , rides , days , throws

Sibilant: loses or , bridges or , washes or

4 The possessive form of a noun is pronounced in the same way

But we do not write es for the possessive, even after a sibilant.

Mr Jones's the boss's

after /t/ or /d/.

, guided , handed

, expected waited

jumped /pt/, baked /kt/, wished robbed /bd/, closed /zd/, enjoyed , allowed

Voiceless:

Voiced:

or

1

2

3

But when a word ends in ce /s/ or ge , we keep the e before a or o.

enforce enforceable courage courageous

We can also keep the e in some other words: saleable/salable, likeable/likable, mileage/milage.

37 WORD ENDINGS PAGE 378

4 We keep e before a consonant.

hate hates nice nicely care careful

NOTE

Exceptions are words ending in ue: argue argument, true truly, due duly.

Also: whole wholly, judge judgment/judgement.

5 To form an adverb from an adjective ending in a consonant + le, we change e to y.

simple simply possible possibly

To form an adverb from an adjective in ic, we add ally.

dramatic dramatically idiotic idiotically

NOTE An exception is publicly.

293 The doubling of consonants

1 Doubling happens in a one-syllable word that ends with one written vowel and

one written consonant, such as win, put, sad, plan We double the consonant

before a vowel

win winner put putting sad saddest plan planned

NOTE

3 The rule about doubling is also true for words of more than one syllable, but only if the last syllable is stressed

for'get forgetting prefer preferred

We do not usually double a consonant in an unstressed syllable

'open 'opening 'enter 'entered

NOTE

In British English there is some doubling in an unstressed syllable We usually double l.

travel travelling tunnel tunnelled marvel marvellous

jewel jeweller

We also double p in some verbs.

handicap handicapped worship worshipping

But in the USA there is usually a single l or p in an unstressed syllable, e.g traveling,

worshiping.

4 When a word ends in ll and we add ly, we do not write a third l.

full fully

a Compare top tapping and tope taping.

b The consonant also doubles before y: fog foggy.

2 We do not double y, w or x.

stay staying slow slower fix fixed

We do not double when there are two consonants

hold holding ask asking

And we do not double after two written vowels

keep keeping broad broader