Impact of golf courses on water quality of bui river in headwater catchment

The impact of Phoenix Golf Course on water quality of Bui River from upstream to downstream ..... This study was conducted to examine water quality of the Bui River under the impact of

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and above all, I feel great pleasure in expressing my deep sense of gratitude, obligation and heartiest respect to Dr Bui Xuan Dung for his kind support, meticulous guidance and heart touching inspiration throughout this thesis work

I gratefully acknowledge the blessings and valuable suggestions from teacher in the laboratory of Faculty of Biology in University of Science, would especially like to thanks to the help provided for by laboratory work at Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology Institute of Chemistry

I am thankful to Ms.Nhan, Mr Tuc to provide the information of Phoenix Golf Course

Last but not least, I take this opportunity to express my thanks and gratitude to my parents and my friends for their never ending affection and encouragement

CONTENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 1

CONTENT 2

LIST OF TABLE 4

LIST OF PICTURE 5

LIST OF FIGURE 6

ABSTRACT 1

I INTRODUCTION 2

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 Literature review 4

II OBJECTIVES 9

2.1 Goal 9

2.2 Objectives 9

III STUDY SITE AND METHODOLOGY 10

3.1 Study site 10

3.2 Methodology 16

3.2.1 Experiment design 16

3.2.2 Laboratory sample processing 22

3.2.3 Data analysis 23

IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 27

4.1 Impact of Phoenix Golf Course on invertebrate composition and diversity 27

4.2 Physical and chemical parameters 39

4.2.1 Evaluating water quality in Bui River based on Vietnam’s water quality standard 39

4.2.2 Evaluating water quality in Bui River based on Water Quality Index (WQI) 48

4.3 Suggestion for Golf Course management 50

V CONCLUSION 52

VI REFFERENCES 1

LIST OF TABLE

Table 3.1 Climate - Hydrology indicators at Lam Son commune Luong Son district, Hoa

Binh province 11

Table 3.2 Parts of the Phoenix golf course 13

Table 3.2 Weighting factors of water quality parameters 23

Table 3.3 Water quality range 25

Table 3.4 The relationship between bio – index ASPT and population level 26

Table 4.1 List of invertebrate present in sample location 27

Table 4.2 List of macroinvertebrates were found in sample location that lay in BMWPVIET scoring system 34

Table 4.3 Biological index in sample location 1: 35

Table 4.4 Biological index in sample location 2: 36

Table 4.5 Biological index in sample location 3 37

Table 4.6 Results of WQI calculating by using the formula of WQI with missing parameters 48

LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 3.1 Location of study site in Lam Son commune 10

Figure 3.2 Map of Phoenix Golf Course (Source: Phoenix Golf Course) 12

Figure 3.3 Operations of the Phoenix Golf course that affect amount of chemicals and water applications 14

Figure 3.2 Map of sample locations in Bui River 16

Figure 3.3 Water samples location in study site 18

Figure 3.4 Map of biological sample 22

Figure 4.1 The ratio of species composition in 3 sample locations of Bui River 30

Figure 4.2 The Shannon Wiener index of diversity values at study site 31

Figure 4.3 The proportion of invertebrate feed groups corresponds to changes in the physical factor in the longitudinal direction (Source: USDA 2001) 32

Figure 4.4 The respond of the number of families and ASPT score 38

Figure 4.5.pH fluctuation in four periods at three different locations 39

Figure 4.6 The amount of TSS in four periods at three locations 40

Figure 4.7 Values for BOD in four periods at three different locations 41

Figure 4.8 COD concentration in four periods at three different locations 42

Figure 4.9 DO level of Bui River in 4 periods at 3 locations 43

Figure 4.10 Total nitrogen of Bui River in 4 periods at 3 locations 44

Figure 4.11 Total phosphorus of Bui River in 4 periods at 3 locations 45

Figure 4.12 Total coliform of Bui River in 4 periods at 3 locations 46

Figure 4.13 The impact of Phoenix Golf Course on water quality of Bui River from upstream to downstream 47

Figure 4.14 WQI values in 4 periods at 3 locations 49

ABSTRACT

In the current time, more and more golf courses are beginning to take form in the world However, under many activities of golf courses which are using fertilizers and

pesticides for turfgrasses, water quality has declined significantly This study was conducted

to examine water quality of the Bui River under the impact of the Phoenix Golf Course using two main methods: macroinvertebrate community through BMWPVIET and ASPT scoring systems, along with physical and chemical parameters characteristics (pH, pH, TSS, DO, COD, BOD5, NO3-, PO4, total coliforms) at three locations: upstream, in the stream passing

through the golf course, and downstream Measurements were taken in 4 different periods: on

a sunny day without using fertilizers and pesticides, one day after applying fertilizers and pesticides, after applying fertilizers and pesticides on a rainy day, and using fertilizers and pesticides on a sunny day The results show that: (1) Operations of the Phoenix Golf course in applying fertilizers and pesticides with 76 – 78 tons fertilizers per year, 41280 liter pesticides per year; (2) pollution level decreases dramatically from upstream to downstream (from 6.4 to 4.2) based on ASPT method; (3) The concentrations of pollutants increased significantly from upstream to downstream Almost parameters exceeded B1 standard, only pH, total nitrogen and total coliform range in B1 standard limit based on Vietnam water quality Standard while WQI also depicted that water quality decreases from upstream to downstream This finding suggested some solutions to reduce the influence of golf course to water quality and aquatic ecosystem of Bui River catchment including improved pesticide management and riparian buffer zones

I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

The ecological value of streams and rivers globally is influenced by increasing human land use (Allan, 2004) Currently, there are estimated to be more than 31,500 golf courses worldwide (Tanner and Gange, 2005) In Vietnam, golf is one of the most luxury sports, which is reserved for the upper class, and in the past - it was not popular However, in recent years, more golf courses are beginning to take form in the whole country According to the information of Ministry of Planning and Investment, there are 144 golf course projects in 39 provinces, with another 35 golf courses operating in Vietnam The total area using for these projects go up to 49.000 ha which makes golf become an appreciable portion of land use in our country

In the lower level, golf courses seem to be harmless sport, not only do they bring a lot

of profits but they also become a developing project for using land, keeping water, and being one of the most important places to connect many parts of nature, landscape river, ocean, mountain, and the local community However, in the upper level, building golf courses has negative impacts on the environment such as: releasing the natural vegetation cover, forest fire, damaging natural resources, causing the changing in topography Furthermore, a major focus of discussion regarding known or suspected ecological impacts of golf courses has been water quality, typically focusing on chemical toxicology (Wheeler & Nauright, 2006)

Golf courses depend on agrochemicals for pest control, turf management, and esthetic purposes To maintain the landscape of golf courses, which is created mainly by turf grass, the staffs in there need to take care if this grass very carefully with great amount of pesticides In addition, worker in here have to use pesticides and fertilizers regularly to grow them Professor Charles Melton in California University, Davis, United State had a report about this

issue This report show that most of pesticides and fertilizers using in golf courses consist of some organic compound such as nitrogen and phosphorus These organic compounds are helpful to golf course but they have negative impact to environment around it

Moreover, if a golf course is built near water and the around area which can have negative impacts to the water quality and stream ecology of the stream which is passed through the course ground When it rains or golf course irrigates after fertilizing, the nutrients and chemicals in fertilizers will be dissolves and drift downstream Since water had nitrogen

in fertilizers, phytoplankton – a microorganism dependent on nitrogen will grow rapidly The more phytoplankton growth, the more their waste transport into environment and some of their carcass will sink to river bottom and become food for another microorganism such as bacteria When these bacteria increase dramatically and then break out, the river will not have enough oxygen for fish and other aquatic animal Due to the lack of oxygen, this area will become dead area To clarify this issue and provide information to latter researches, I decide

to choose the research: Impact of golf courses on water quality of Bui River in headwater

catchment

1.2 Literature review

Freshwater is one of the most important resources to the health and wellbeing of human life One worldwide problem is water pollution due to excreta and chemical waste Agriculture urban developments and golf courses commonly overuse pesticides and fertilizers which can cause water quality to decline Therefore, many scientists took interest in this issue Due mostly to the local permitting process, research about the impact of golf course to water quality has increases significantly since the late 1980s (Cohen et al 1999) In addition to concerns about pesticides, attention has recently been directed toward the impacts of fertilizers (Minnesota Statutes, 2004)

The regular use of pesticides and fertilizers on golf courses often leads to the assumption that these chemicals are transported into surface water and ground water following application (Hindahl et al 2009) For example, in 1990, the leaching of pesticides that was applied to four golf courses in Cape Cod was described by Cohen and others They detected eight pesticide and metabolites as well as two pesticide impurities in the ground water However, only chlordane and heptachlor were present in toxicologically significant levels Moreover, in this research, Cohen and others found more pesticides in water from monitor wells associated with greens and tees than fairways (three grasses were used for golf courses) They concluded that in the conditions of hydrologic at Cape Cod, the use of turf pesticides applied in the golf course had minimal impact on ground water quality They also recommended that this type of study was repeated in other areas, especially in southern climates where more nematicides are applied to turf After that, the United States Golf Association (USGA) invested $3.2 million in 1991 to start a research program studying environmental relates issues pertaining to the golf industry, followed by twenty – one research projects were funded across the United States to investigated: the fate of fertilizers and pesticides when applied to golf courses in different geographic regions, the implications of

applying recycled water to golf courses and alternative pest management techniques that are more environmentally friendly (Starrett, 1994)

In 1990, Guam Municipal Golf, INC at Guam International Country Club (Guam EPA, 1992) also had a program to test water quality in these golf courses In this study, more than 86000 individual analyses for NO3 and pesticides have been performed on water samples

in lakes and wells at the golf course and then the results showed that no pesticides were detected Despite the potential negative impacts golf course development and maintenance can have on landscapes, a number of studies have found golf courses to have a general positive conservation value on the species studied, including amphibians (Boone, Semlitsch, & Mosby, 2008; Colding, Lundberg, Lindberg, & Andersson, 2009), butterflies (Porter, Pennington, Bulluck, & Blair, 2004) pond breeding macroinvertebrates (Porter, Pennington, Bulluck, & Blair, 2004), birds (Merola – Zwartjed & Delong, 2005; Rodewald & Santiago, 2004), and mammals (Eisenberg, Noss, Waterman & Main, 2011)

In 1999, Cohen and others reviewed surface water and ground water quality monitoring results from golf courses around the United States The authors concluded that widespread water quality impacts by golf courses were not occurring and none of the individual studies reviewed observed significant toxicological effects despite health advisory levels and maximum contaminant levels being occasionally However, according to Cockerham and Leinauer, these conclusions appeared to be based on risk assessment rather than toxicity testing and the conclusion was not accurate due to the limited geographic and climatic distribution of the golf courses in the study (Cockerham and Leinauer 2011)

In 1990, Klein asserted that the quantities of fertilizers applied to the turfgrasses of golf courses is roughly the same as that used on cropfields (Klein 1990) However, to maintain the landscape, the golf courses have to use fertilizers and pesticides regularly

with the average hovering between 5% and 10% (Petrovic, 1990) Nitrate may pose a threat to the health of infants when the concentration in drinking water exceeds 10 mg/l as N Of the various studies of nitrogen leaching reviewed by Petrovic, 14% reported nitrate concentrations of 10 mg/l N or greater in leachate To object to these studies, at least two papers were reviewed that defend the use of irrigation following chemical application for decreasing the average losses of these chemicals (Kelling and Peterson, 1975; Mugass, Agnew and Christians, 1991) Losses of fertilizer were 1.6 percent of that applied when a simulated storm was applied immediately after fertilizer application The losses were reduced

to 1.7 percent of the amount applied when application was followed by a recommended watering before the simulated storm However, some researchers found that, there are many factors dictate the quantity of nitrogen which reach groundwater such as: irrigation practices, grass species, type of nitrogen applied, timing of fertilizer application, and application rates (Klein 1990) For instance, irrigation can increase the leaching of fertilizers and pesticides to ground water A typical 18 holes golf course may require 100,000 to 150000 gallons of irrigation water per day (Hammond and McKinney 1990)

Moreover, studies in the United States have found that nitrate levels in creeks increases while passing through golf course (Mallin and Wheeler, 2000) and that nutrient concentrations in golf course ponds and coastal areas adjacent to golf courses were higher than those in reference locations (Lewis et al, 2002) In 1999, a research was conducted in Japan suggested that there were increased in conductivity and total nitrogen, total phosphorus, potassium and sodium concentrations in a stream at the outflow of a golf course relative to the inflow (Kunimatsu et al., 1999) One study also concluded that mean annual concentrations of

K, TN and NO3 were higher in all of the golf course streams than in the forested reference streams in both hydrologic years (Winter and Dillon 2006)

Besides making negative impact on ground and surface water, when fertilizers or excess nutrients enter aquatic ecosystem, it leads to a phenomenon known as eutrophication

In 1988, Wong and others found that, with current fertilizer application rates, the nutrient inputs from the golf course would undoubtedly cause adverse environmental impacts, including eutrophication as well as surface and ground water pollution With the same opinion, in 2015, a study of Colorado University stated that, eutrophication can be stimulated

by runoff from golf courses And the authors gave an example that the maintenance crew at a golf course may apply fertilizers to the course on any given day, then it rains before the grass can take up all the nutrients, these used nutrients flow into nearby lakes and streams with the runoff, so the aquatic community receive a number of nutrient which makes the process of eutrophication begins (Jones 2015)

In Vietnam, the first golf course is Dalat Palace Golf Course, which was designed initially by a French Architect and was brought to life by Vietnam’s last Emperor Bao Dai throughout the 1920’s Now, there are 54 golf courses operating in the whole country, with another 144 projects in development Therefore, Vietnam has to suffer many influences from golf courses For instance, since Tam Dao Golf Course was established in 1994 in the northern Vinh Phuc Province, local environment became heavily polluted, especially water source which is the consequence of untreated discharge from golf course Although this golf course was fined 114 million for this problem in 2010, the situation still continues and causes

a lot of consequences to local people

Despite the negative impacts of golf course to the environment, in Vietnam, the studies in water quality impacts by golf courses are very rarely, impacts of Phoenix Golf Course to water quality of Bui River is a surviving example In 2009, Hua Thi Yen, Nguyen Thuy Duong, Tran Van Hung had a study researched on the consequence of a golf course to surface water at Bui River This study concluded that, the concentrations of nitrate and

phosphorous upstream water where had not impact of Phoenix Golf Course were lower than the water in downstream In 2015, Dinh Thi Quynh Oanht also had a study about the impact

of Phoenix Golf Course in water quality of Bui River The results showed the increase trend

of TSS, COD, BOD, total nitrogen and total phosphorous from upstream to downstream in Bui River under the impact of Phoenix Golf Course Nevertheless, there are very few scientific survey and report on chemical effect in golf course in Lam Son Province which use for reference and guidance This study was conducted to solved these problem and provide information for further research

The study has three main objectives:

(1) Evaluating the effect of Phoenix Golf Course to invertebrate composition and diversity of Bui River

(2) Using physical and chemical parameters to evaluate the effect of Phoenix Golf Course to water quality of Bui River

(3) From (1) and (2), providing some solutions to conserve and improve water quality of Bui River in Lam Son

III STUDY SITE AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study site

The study was conducted in Lam Son commune which is located in the Northwest of Luong Son district, Hoa Binh province, it is far from Ha Noi center to the North 46 km Lam Son is situated along the 6th Highway from Km44 + 500 to Km52 + 500 that connects Hanoi to Northwest region The dominant surficial geology consists of limestone alternating with mountains with the absolute elevation is 252m above sea level and relative elevation is 126m The geographical coordinated of this area is: 20045’ – 210 01’ in the North and 105024’ –

105039’ in the East (Source: Lam Son’s report)

Figure 3.1 Location of study site in Lam Son commune

Lam Son, likes many commune in the Northwest of Vietnam, has humid subtropical climate which has extensive rainfall with two main seasons Rainy season begins from April to October and dry season starts from November to March in the next year The detail is as table below:

Table 3.1 Climate - Hydrology indicators at Lam Son commune Luong Son district,

Hoa Binh province

Month Temperature

( 0 C)

Precipitation (mm)

146 rainy days per year Moreover, Lam Son commune has many streams, ponds, lakes, which is the upstream of Bui River, which is the main water source for local people

Figure 3.2 Map of Phoenix Golf Course (Source: Phoenix Golf Course)

Being designed by Mr Ronald Fream of USA, Korean and Japanese international golf course designer, the Phoenix Golf Course was established in 2005 following government permission number 2417/GP with total area is 311.7 ha while 17 ha of golf club and hotel and

250 ha of turf grass systems Due to the geographical position, which is lain in valley surrounded by hills and mountains, this golf course has a beautiful lanscape Not only was it compared with Ha Long Bay on land, it also became “The biggest and the most beautiful Golf resort in Southeast Asia” which was listed in Vietnam Gunness Book of World Records In 311.7 ha of golf course, there are 25 ha of green area and more than 150 ha of fairway area, and the area of facilities are 17 ha

Table 3.2 Parts of the Phoenix golf course

Parts of the Phoenix Golf

course

Description

1 Tees This is the starting point of each hole and has a small

device for setting the ball up above the ground Average

1180 m2 per holes, normally mowed short and often, fertilized as needed, over seeded and top-dressed to replace divots and maintain smoothness

2 Greens This is the most closely mown and smooth area on the

course where the holes are located Grasses are achieved generally by daily mowing, seasonal coring, light frequent topdressing, regular fertilization, consistent frequent irrigation, and insect and disease control as needed to maintain near perfect turf

3 Fairway They are the closely mown area between the tee and green,

normally annual insecticide sprays, and repeated fungicide treatments during the growing season

4 Roughs Roughs are longer grass, thicker grass or naturally

growing adjacent to fairways, greens and perhaps tees, normally maintained at a low level of intensity Fertilization is minimal, often being limited to overthrow from fairway fertilizer applications

5 Practice greens Practice green is separate from the golf course;

designated for practicing putting only

6 Driving range This is an area, separate from the golf course, designated

for hitting practice balls

7 Water hazard This is a pond, lake, river which is designed to add both

beauty and difficulty to a golf course The area about 15

ha

(Source: Phoenix golf course 2009)

The table 4.1 provides the detail informations about parts of golf course To maintain Greens, Tees and Fairways areas, the manager of golf course have to use the highest quality

of turfgrass which is the special grass used for golf course Moreover, there are a thousand species of turfgrasses In Phoenix Golf Course, they used hybrid grass: Tifeagle grass for Greens and wintergreen Bermuda for fairway However, under the tropical climate of Vietnam, these grasses need to have a high watering demand and application of fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides to grow:

Figure 3.3 Operations of the Phoenix Golf course that affect amount of chemicals and

water applications

From the information of figure 6, we can see the that, water quality of Bui River can

be affected by at least three sources from Phoenix Golf Course In one hand, they used chemical treatment by spraying fertilizers and pesticides to grow and maintain turf grasses

According to Mr.Tuc, who planned to spray fertilizers and pesticides in Phoenix Golf Course,

in this golf course, depend on location, they used the suitable fertilizers and pesticides For instance, for the grass of greens, they used Delta – Coated with 1 kg per 100m2 in 2 – 3 months The area of Phoenix is 311.7 ha, in which the area they grow green grass is 10% of total area (25 ha), so total of Delta – Coated used in green is 25 ha x 1 kg/100m2 = 2500 kg or 2.5 tons per application Fairway grass is easier to take care so they used Delta – Top with 1kg /100m2 (1 month / application) The area of fairway is 150ha, which is about 1.5 tons per application Moreover, they also used NPK fertilizer for grass with 2 tons per application (2 times/month) Therefore, the amount of fertilizers in Phoenix Golf Course is 6 tons per application In one year, total of Delta – Coated are 10 – 15 tons (2.5 x 4 – 6 times/year) , total

of Delta – Top are 18 tons (12 months x 1.5tons/month), total of NPK are 48 tons (12 months

x 4 tons/month) Hence, total of fertilizers were used in Golf Course per year are 76 – 81 tons The component nutient chemicals of Delta – Coated are: N = 16%; P2O5 = 5%, K2O = 12 %; MgO and others = 5% Meanwhile, Delta – Top includes: N = 12%, P2O5 = 8%, MgO = 3%,

S = 12.8 %, K2O = 18% Hence, the main chemical nutrients in 2 kinds of fertilizers and pesticides are N and P, so we can conclude that, fertilizers that golf course applied for turf grass are the source of N and P concentration in water of Bui River

In addition, to keep the green color for grass, people in Phoenix Golf Course also used some kind of pesticides In Tees and Greens, they used Agrodream “D” with the ratio: 1/50 (1l pesticides dissolve with 50 l water) and they used 20l/ha/time (14 days/time) In fairways location, they use Agrodream “M” to spray with the same ratio of Tees and Greens So, total amount of pesticides for 1 time are 1300l/time Moreover, they also use Anvil 5SC to release fungi in grasses with the concentration is 600l/2500 m2, with total area are 175 ha, Golf Course used 420 l per application Therefore, the amount of pesticides were used in golf course in one time equal to 1720 liter and one year, they used 41280 liter

Furthermore, to maintain the quality of turf grass, not only did golf couse have to use fertilizers and pesticides, they also irrigated water regularly Turf grass is one of the most grass that require high amount of water, fertilizers and either pesticides So Golf course applied the irrigation system at leat twice time per week ith the amount is 15000 m3 water per time (Phoenix Golf Course report) However, this irrigation system can make the fertilizers and pesticides leaching faster to the ground and surface water of Bui River

Sample location 1: upstream area belongs to Rong stream which is located in Ao Ha

hamlet with the elevation is 60m This is a small and shallow stream with 3m width, 60 cm depth The discharge of stream is from 8.3m3/s to 10.56 m3/s Due to shallow water, local people passed through this stream in a small road to go the fields in the mountain and there is not much aquatic animals Before coming to Phoenix Golf Course, the stream was not affected by human activities so water clarity is high, two banks are covered mainly by shrubs and grass

Sample location 2 the stream passing through Phoenix Golf Course, this location is

belonged to the stream that passed through the Phoenix Golf Course It’s also a small stream with 5 - 7m width, 90 cm depth However, two banks are eroded and some parts are covered

by small grasses There are some small fishes and aquatic animals in the stream

Sample location 3 downstream area, this part is located in Rong Dai hamlet which is

near 6th Highway The stream is quite large with 10 – 15m width (2 small streams with a small island in the middle, the deepest part is 1.5 m, the shallow part is 40 – 50 cm This stream has many small pools in the right bank due to human activities (digging gold) The left bank contains crop, bamboo, shrubs and grasses This stream looks clean but dirty, seldom can you find fishes and large aquatic animals Moreover, there are a lot of algae and aquatic

plants (Eichhornia crassipes) present in the surface water

a Physical and chemical water samples

 Sampling period: With the aim of evaluating the impact of Phoenix Golf Course to water quality of Bui River, I determined 3 points at: upstream, in the golf course and in downstream to take three samples of water in four periods:

Day 1: No apply fertilize and pesticide on golf course: 16h – 18h, 25 July 2016

Day 2: After applying fertilizer and pesticide on golf course: 16h – 18h, 30 July, 2016

Day 3: After raining and applying fertilizer, pesticide on golf course: 16h – 18h, 15 August, 2016

Day 4: Sunny day and using fertilizer and pesticide on golf course: 16h – 18h, 31 August, 2016

Figure 3.3 Water samples location in study site

 Number of water samples: The figure 3.3 shows the map of water samples in Bui River, the blue line indicates Bui River, the red arrows display the location that I took water samples as in upstream, in the golf course and in downstream Total of water samples are 12

 Taking samples water in the field: Water samples were collected following taking water samples method which was based on standard of Vietnam TCVN 5996 – 1995: Water quality – Sampling – Guidance on sampling on rivers and streams

 Preparation: 12 plastic bottles (volume > 500ml), 1 black box, layout map of Phoenix Golf Course, GPS device, pen and notebook, adhesive tape, and so on

 Taking samples in the field: Firstly, the bottles need to be clean and rinse out by water in the location that I take water samples to avoid impurities After that, samples are taken by dipping bottles into the surface water at a depth of 30 – 50 cm, the bottle’s mouth is put toward the direction of water flow Then the sampling bottles need to be cap immediately under water surface to prevent oxygen from entering the samples After hand – writing or pre – print labels and sticks them on the water samples, I keep them in black box to prevent sunlight which can affect to the organism activities and make wrong results Afterwards, I transported water samples to laboratory in order to analysis water quality indicators

b Samples of invertebrate animals

In the past, water quality was assessed using only physicochemical parameters, but these variables only reflect punctual pollution The use of biological indicators is more adequate to detect long – term changes in water quality, since aquatic organisms are adapted

to specific environmental conditions If these conditions change, some organisms can disappear (intolerant) and be replaced by others (tolerant) Therefore, variations in the composition and structure of aquatic organism assemblages in running waters can indicate possible pollution (Alba – Tercedor, 1996)

Biomonitoring is the use of biological variables to survey the environment (Gerhardt, 2000) The first step in this type of monitoring is to find the ideal bioindicator whose presence, abundance and behavior reflects the effect of a stressor on biota (Bonada et al., 2006b)

Benthic macroinvertebrates are considered as good indicators of local scale conditions (Metcalfe, 1989) These invertebrates live on the bottom of aquatic ecosystems at least part of their life cycle and can be collected using pond net or ISO 7828 (EN 27828, 1994) They

include: mollusk, crustaceans, leeches, worms, flatworms and insects (especially larval stage

of some orders) Aquatic invertebrates are used to bio-assess aquatic ecosystem quality due to their great diversity of form and habits (Rosenberg and Resh, 1993)

Invertebrate samples were collected in the same location with water samples at three locations: upstream, in the stream passing through Phoenix Golf Course, downstream by the method of Nguyen Xuan Quynh et al (2004) by pond net then all of the specimens were preserved in 70% alcohol:

Picture 2.1 Pond net

This pond net includes: a metal rectangular frame with 20 – 30 cm length, 20 – 22 cm width, it is designed to keep a net with the depth of 50 cm and 1mm mesh Net frame is fixed with a wood stake has 20 cm length

Insects and larva were collected by pond net When collecting samples, pond net was passed through grasses, shrubs along the stream blank or floating leaves on the surface of water Insects living on the water surface were collected by put the net quickly on the surface

of water After that, all the collected samples were preserved in 70% alcohol

Picture 2.2 (a): collecting samples; (b) putting samples in metal dish;

(c) conserving samples in 70% alcohol; (d) laboratory analysis

When collecting samples in the shallow area, pond net was put in the bottom of the stream and using kick sampling method where the net is placed downstream from the sampler and the river bed is agitated with foot for a given period of time (the standard is 3 minutes) In the deeper area, pond net was plunged deep into the bottom to fish invertebrates out of the stream Moreover, in the rocky area, samples were caught by hand (crab and snail) After that, all the specimens were put into a tray to identify After being studied, they were conserved in 70% alcohol in laboratory and identified to the species level under the instruction of teacher in the laboratory of Faculty of Biology in University of Science

Sample location: samples were taken 3 times at three locations: upstream, in the golf course and downstream:

Figure 3.4 Map of biological sample

3.2.2 Laboratory sample processing

a Physical and chemical parameters

The physical and chemical characterization of each location was accomplished from water and sediment samples collected at the stream before invertebrates were sampled The following parameters were measured: water temperature; pH, dissolves oxygen (DO); chemical oxygen demand (COD); total suspended solids (TSS); biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5); total nitrogen (N – NO3); total phosphorous ( P – PO4 ) and total Coliforms

pH Hana pH measurement directly in the field Total Suspended solid (TSS) Filter and weight in lab (Chapman et al 1996)

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Modified Winkler, treated with MnSO4,H2SO4 in lab Biological oxygen demand (BOD-5) Pipetted into a BOD bottle containing aerated dilution

water Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Redox titration, oxygen is used to oxidize the organics to

carbon dioxide and water

Total Coliform Fecal coliform confirming test

3.2.3 Data analysis

a America Water quality index (WQI) method (Srivastava and Kumar 2013)

The WQI is based on the results of nine chemical/physical tests:

1 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

9 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

After completing the nine tests, the results are recorded and transferred to a weighting curve chart where a numerical value is obtained For each test, the numerical value of Q – value is multiplied by a “weighting factor” The nine resulting values are then added to arrive

at an overall water quality index (WQI)

Weighting factor was taken from the table 3.2:

Table 3.2 Weighting factors of water quality parameters

Q – value is the indication of water quality relative to 100 of one parameter The Q – value is an indication of how good or bad the water quality is relative to one parameter The Q – values were obtained from the table (Appendix 1)

The standard formula to calculate water quality index is:

Although the standard formula to calculate water quality index gives the best result, sometimes it is difficult to get the concentration of all nine quality parameters because of lack

of time or testing failure To overcome this problem, we can get an equation by using which

we can calculate water quality index without having the concentration of all parameters

In this case when concentrations of some parameters are not available, first we can calculate the q- values of those parameters, the concentration of which is available and then those q- values are multiplied with their respective weighting factors Now the summation of these values are taken and then divided by the summation of weighting factors of available parameters

Table 3.3 Water quality range

I 91 – 100 Excellent water quality

IV 26 – 50 Very poor water quality

V 0 - 25 Unsuitable for drinking purpose

b Shannon Werner Diversity Index

After collecting samples and transporting to the laboratory, insects were preserved and identified to species following Dang Ngoc Thanh et al (2002); Nguyen Xuan Quynh et al (2001), De Grave S et al (2008); Elen M Barber – James (2008) under the instruction of teacher in the laboratory of Faculty of Biology in University of Science

Diversity values were calculated by Shannon Wiener Diversity Index formula:

Formula:

H = -SUM[(pi) * ln(pi)] E=H/Hmax

Where: SUM = Summation

Pi = Number of individuals of species I / total number of samples

S = Number of species richness

Hmax = Maximum diversity possible

c Biological Monitoring Working Party method (Nguyen Xuan Quynh, 2004)

Water quality was measured by BMWP (Biological Monitoring Working Party) method, which is a procedure for measuring water quality using families of macroinvertebrates as biological indicators The method is based on the principle that different aquatic invertebrates have different tolerances to pollutants In the case of BMWP, this is based on the sensitivity/ tolerance to organic pollution It is important to recognize that the ranking of sensitivity/ tolerance will vary for different kinds of pollution

In this study, BMWP scores were measured depend on BMWPVIET scoring system The BMWP score equals the sum of the tolerance scores of all macroinvertebrate families in the sample A higher BMWP score is considered to reflect a better water quality Alternatively, also the Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT) score is calculated The ASPT equals the average of the tolerance scores of all macroinvertebrate families found, and ranges from 0 to 10, the lower score reflects the lower water quality After using BMWPVIET and ASPT, the results were compared with values in the following table, which is the basic source

to evaluate water quality in each location:

Table 3.4 The relationship between bio – index ASPT and population level

0 point Extremely pollution (No living organism) 1- 2.9 points Very high pollution (Polysaprobe)

3 – 4.9 points High pollution (α – Meosaprobe )

5 – 5.9 points Moderate pollution ( β – Meosaprobe )

Source: (Environment Agency, UK, 1997; Nguyen Xuan Quynh, 2004)

IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Impact of Phoenix Golf Course on invertebrate composition and diversity

Antimelania costula Rafinesque, 1833

7

Viviparidae

Angulyara duchieri Gray, 1828

12 Lymnaeidae Lymnaea swinhoei H Adams, 1866

13

BIVALVIA

Stylaria fossularis Leidy, 1852

From the results of table 4.1, we can see that: a total of 40 species belonging to 26 families were collected from 3 locations of Bui River, in which the phylum of Athropoda occupied the highest quantity with 16 families, 22 species; followed by Mollusca with 14 species, 7 families; the phylum has smallest number is Annelida with 4 species, 3 families The ratio of species composition was described in the figure below: