Assessment of status of exploitation and use of tam dao salamander paramesotriton deloustali bourret 1934 in tay thien tam dao national park

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT VIETNAM FORESTRY UNIVERSITY STUDENT THESIS Title ASSESSMENT OF STATUS OF EXPLOITATION AND TRADE OF TAM DAO SALAMANDER Paramesotriton del

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

VIETNAM FORESTRY UNIVERSITY

STUDENT THESIS

Title

ASSESSMENT OF STATUS OF EXPLOITATION AND TRADE OF TAM DAO

SALAMANDER (Paramesotriton deloustali Bourret, 1934 ) IN TAY THIEN, TAM DAO

NATIONAL PARK

Major: Natural Resources Management

Code: D850101

Faculty: Forest Resources and Environmental Management

Student: Nguyen Thi Ha Student ID:115 309 1138

Class: K56 Natural Resources Management Course: 2011 - 2015

Advanced Education Program

Developed in collaboration with Colorado State University, USA

Supervisor: Dr Dong Thanh Hai

Ha Noi, 10/2015

Abstract

Tam Dao salamander (Paramesotriton deloustali), also known as Tam Dao newt, an endemic

amphibian to the mountains of Vietnam It is listed as vulnerable (IUCN, 2015), in group IIB

of species that is restricted to exploitation and trade under commercial purposes in Decree

No 32/2006/ND-CP of Vietnam government The status of exploitation and trade on this species is increasing as a profound matter due to the fast growth of eco-tourism in Tay Thien area in recent years Besides that high profit from illegal trade, lack of knowledge, ineffective policy implementation and enforcement are additional drivers of this trend The aims of this

study are 1) investigate the status of P.deloustali population and its main threats, 2)

investigate how this species are being exploitation and trade, and 3) determine factors that drive the participation of locals in trade and harvest this animal in recent years Results show that the status of Tam Dao newt population declined significantly in the period of 10 years up

to now The top ranked threats that led to this trends were waste from tourism activities, construction, and illegal harvest and trade The status of harvest and trade of this endemic

species had taken place in this area for a long time ago with very sophisticated trading flow

and form of hiding to avoid the discoverable of authorities The period after establishment of Tam Dao national park (1996-2010) was reported as the hottest time of exploiting and trading The primary motivation for hunt this species was for sale instead of for subsistence use as mentioned in some literatures 10 sale points with totally 31 individual of Tam Dao

salamander was observed during the study, even in a short period of time and in low tourism season Thus, the study concludes that the status of exploitation and trade of P.deloustali is

popular in Tay Thien area In addition, there are four factors are proven to influence in the participation of people in hunting and trading of this species are: sex, educational level, markets, and livelihoods Among these factors sex and markets provide strongest effect in process of making decision

Acknowledgements

This report is submitted for the Advanced Education Program Developed in collaboration with Colorado State University, USA, faculty of Forest Resources and Environmental Management, Vietnam Forestry University This study would not have been possible without the kindness help of many individuals and institutions Most importantly, I am very grateful

to my supervisor Dr Dong Thanh Hai for his guidance, instruction, and encouragement at every step of my study and for sharing his knowledge and ideas with me I specially thank to Professor Lee MacDonald for his taking time in advising in writing and correcting my thesis proposal I would also like to acknowledge Mr Tran Van Dung for his kindly assisting me in mapping

I would like to thank the Tam Dao National Park (NP), Dai Dinh Committee, and Dai Dinh Ranger Station for their permission and support to undertake this study In particularly, for Head of Science, Technology and International Cooperation Department Mr Le Thanh Cuong, Mr Vu Van Quyet, Mr Nguyen Duc Toan for their provided documents and human resources support I would like to show my gratitude to the villagers who were patient and kindly answered my questions during the field survey

I express deep gratitude to my parents, my brothers, and my sisters who encouraged and inspired throughout the study, without their support this report would have not been possible

Table of contents

Abstract

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

List of Photos

List of Figures

List of Tables

CHAPTER 1 9

INTRODUCTION 9

CHAPTER 2 11

LISTERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK 11

2.1 Listerature review 11

2.1.1 Trade patterns 11

2.1.2 Conservation Status 12

2.2 Theoretical Framework 13

2.2.1 Key definitions and terminology used in this report 13

2.2.2 What are the socio-economic drivers the exploitation and trade of wildlife? 14

CHAPTER 3 19

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES 19

3.1 Goals 19

3.2 Specific objectives 19

3.3 Research questions 19

3.4 Research hypothesis 20

CHAPTER 4 METHODS 22

3.1 Selection of study site 22

3.2 Overview of study site 23

3.3 Methods 24

3.3.1 Secondary data 24

3.3.2 Line transects 25

3.3.3 Interview 26

3.3.4 Map the hot spots of exploiting and trading of P deloustali in Tay Thien 27

3.3.5 Data analysis 28

CHAPTER 5 RESULTS 30

5.1 Population status of P.deloustali in Tay Thien 30

5.2 Status of exploitation and use of P.deloustali Tay Thien 32

5.2.1 Evidences and traces of P.deloustali being harvested, and traded in Tay Thien area 32 5.2.2 Seasonal presence and selling seasons 35

5.2.3 Hunting techniques 36

5.2.4 Responsible person for hunt 36

5.2.5 Purposes of exploiting P.deloustali 37

5.2.6 Form of hidding, and evading P.deloustali from paltrol and control of authorities 38

5.3 The trade of Tam Dao salamander in Tay Thien 38

5.3.1 Market, price, and form of selling over each periods: 38

5.3.2 Market and trading flow of P.deloustali 40

5.3 Map hotspots of P.deloustali being sold in Tay Thien area 45

5.4 Drivers of the exploitation and trade of P.deloustali in Tay Thien 46

5.4.1 Factors that had determined the harvesting and selling of P.deloustali in Tay Thien area in the past 46

5.4.2 Drivers of the participation of exploitation and trade of P.deloustali in present time? 50 5.5 Key threats to P.deloustali populations in Tay Thien 51

CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION 55

6.1 Livelihoods 55

6.2 Markets and prices 56

6.3 Legislation and regulations 57

6.4 Conservation awareness 58

6.5 Resource management practices 58

6.6 Sex 58

6.7 Age 59

6.8 Educational level 59

6.9 Occupation 60

6.10 Average monthly income per capital 60

CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 62

REFERENCES 66

APPENDICES 72

Abbreviations

CITES The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of

Wild Fauna and Flora IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

NTFPs Non-timber Forest Products

P.deloustali Paramesotriton deloustali

List of figures

Figure 2.1 Assumptions of factors that drive the participation in P.deloustali exploitation and

trade (TRAFFIC 2008, modified) 18 Figure 4.1: Map of study site Dai Dinh commune, Tam Dao district, Vinh Phuc province 23 Figure 5.1 shows the comparision of assessment of the interviewees on the status of Tam Dao salamander population in 2005 and 2010 with the current time of the study (2015) 32

Figure 5.2 Distribution of P.deloustali in Tay Thien area 31

Table 5.1.Represent the results of 10 sale points where P.deloustali were sold in Tay Thien 33 Figure 5.3.Compare the percentage of participation of local people in harvesting and exploiting P.deloustali in past and current time 35 Figure 5.4 Compare the differences between seasonal appearance and trading season of P.deloustali in Tay Thien area 36

Figure 5.5 Show the motivation of hunting for P.deloustali through responses 37 Figure5.6 Show the trading flow diagram of P.deloustali in Tay Thien area from 2000-2010

Figure5.7.Show the sale points of P.deloustali observed during study in Tay Thien area 45

List of Table

Table 4.1 Species composition of Tam Dao NP 24 Table 4.2 Summary table of transects line at Tay Thien area, Tam Dao National Park 25 Table 4.3.Distribution of interview object 26 Table 4.6 Basis to define poor and near-poor household in rural areas in Vietnam in period 2011-2015 26 Table 4.7 Basis to define moderate and rich households in Dai Dinh commune 27

Table 4.8 Basis criteria to assess the degree of illegal exploitation and trade of wildlife 27 Table 4.9 Description of assumption variables which influence the participation in exploiting

and using of P deloustali 28

Table 4.10 Criteria to assess the level of conservation awareness of respondents 29 Table 5.2 Show the results of binary logistic regression model test on independents factors that were assumed to have influence on the participation in exploitation and trade of local people in study area 48

Table 5.3.Summary results of assessment of threats to P.deloustali populations in Tay Thien

51

List of photos

Photo 5.1 Shows the P.deloustali was sold in plastic bottles in Tay Thien area 34

Photo 5.2 Waste from tourism activities in Tay Thien 52 Photo 5.3 Local people collected NTFPs near Co temple 53

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Wildlife trade is becoming a big business, in Vietnam and other Asian countries Illegal trafficking in wildlife in Asia is almost beyond control Wild animals are hunted, killed and captivity on a large scale, in order to satisfy the huge demand for bush meat, fur, traditional

medicines derived from wildlife, livestock and pet needs (Nguyen Van Sang et al., 2003)

Some animals are at risk of near extinction, others are becoming increasingly rare Therefore, it

is raising the need for research to sustainable conservation management

Tam Dao salamander (Paramesotriton deloustali), also known as Tam Dao newt, is an

endemic amphibian to the mountains of Vietnam According to IUCN Red List of Threatened species, Tam Dao salamander is listed as VU It is also listed in group IIB of Decree No 32/2006/ND-CP of Vietnam government of species that is restricted to exploitation and trade under commercial purposes Since 1992, Tam Dao newt has listed in Vietnam Red data book

(Ministry of Science and Technology 1992) that only can be found in Vietnam, and it is in

level B (near extinction)

Tay Thien is a famous historical, scenic tourist attraction of Tam Dao NP, because it meets all three factors: culture, religion, and beautiful natural landscape Therefore, it not only attracts tourists in high season, but all year around In recent years, the tourism boom has brought many benefits to the local economy, but partly destroyed the natural beauty, caused environmental pollution and lost biodiversity of Tam Dao NP, and the surrounding area

According to the herpetological survey report (Nguyen Quang Truong et al., 2004) the

population of Tam Dao salamander are mostly detected in Dai Dinh commune in Tay Thien

area Therefore, tourism activities might lead to various impacts on Paramesotriton deloustali

(P deloustali) population in either its habitat or population size and richness

The Global Amphibian Assessment (IUCN, 2015) reported that P deloustali was used at

subsistence level for food (human), at subsistence level and nationally for medicine (human and veterinary) and nationally and internationally for pets/display animals They estimated that 0-25% of specimens in commercial trade were wild-sourced The trend in the level of wild offtake/harvest in relation to total wild population numbers over the last five years was

reported to be increasing (IUCN, 2015) Nguyen Van Sang et al., (2003) reported that in northern Viet Nam, P deloustali was sold at local markets and in villages for pets; that the dry-

form was used as a traditional medicine to cure diseases such as asthma and rickets; and that

the species was rarely eaten by local people, apparently because of its bad smell and strange body form The local pet trade was thought to be the main reason for the decreasing population

at Tam Dao National Park (Nguyen Van Sang et al., 2003)

Therefore “Assessment of status of exploitation and trade of Tam Dao salamander

(Paramesotriton deloustali Bourret, 1934) in Tay Thien; Tam Dao National Park‟‟ is vital

important The aims of this research are to: 1) investigate the status of P.deloustali population

and its main threats, 2) investigate how this species are being exploitation and trade, and 3) determine factors that drive the participation of locals in trade and harvest this animal in recent years Thus, this study will play a role as a basic for proposing better management measures,

and effective biodiversity conservation of P deloustali in Tam Dao NP, as well as its buffer

zone

CHAPTER 2 LISTERATURE REVIEW AND THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter is going to review all relevant documents, papers, publications, etc that mentioned about the conservation, exploitation and trade status of P.deloustali throughout the countries, as well as international Also, it provides basis theory about what factors drive the participation in wildlife trade, and some key policies which are implemented aiming to conserve and prevent illegal wildlife trade

2.1 Listerature review

2.1.1 Trade patterns

P.deloustali was sold at local market and villages for pets, and dry-form was used for

medicinal purposes to cure diseases such as asthma and rickets, and local people hardly ate them because of its bad smell, strange appearance But it just caused a minor effect on the population of this species (Nguyen Van Sang, et al., 2003) In other word, this kind of use and trade of Tam Dao salamander was in insignificant level that was not harmful for species‟ status and population size in general Author stressed that, the main reason for the decreasing

population of P.deloustali was from local pet trade (as cited in UNEP-WCMC, 2006)

The Global Amphibian Assessment reported that P.deloustali was used at subsistence level

for food, at subsistence level and nationally for medicine, and nationally and internationally for pets/display animals They estimated that 0-25% of specimens that was founded in commercial trade were wild-sourced (as cited in UNEP-WCMC, 2006) The trend in the level

of wild offtake/harvest in relation to total wild population numbers over the last five years was reported to be increasing (IUCN, 2006) Whereas, According to the Report of non-cities amphibian (UNEP-WCMC, 2006) reported that no national trade statistics were identified for this species Thus, the data about the trade status of this species was unclear, it requires more study need carrying out

The presence of specimen of this species in markets for sale in both dry and alive forms was reported in many studies with variability of time range Although occurrence of this species

in trade was thought to be rare (Nguyen Xuan Dang et al, 2003; Miller, 2004, Tran Van Cu, 2007; Trinh Khac Cuong, 2007; Nguyen Thuy Ngan, 2010; Vu Van Quyet, 2011)

In comparison with report of Nguyen Van Sang, there is the existence of number of people who used this species as one sources of food The level of trade for medicinal purpose was not only at locally but also nationally, even at higher level and bigger scale So it can be

assumed that the status of use and trade of P.deloustali was increasing in both scale and level

in the years between 2003 and 2006 and still existed in the following years

5.2.1 2.1.2 Conservation Status

Conservation status: P deloustali is listed as Vulnerable, distribute in less than 2,000 km2,

with all individuals in fewer than ten locations and a continuing decline in the extent and

quality of its habitat, and in the number of mature individuals (IUCN, 2015)

Distribution: P deloustali was originally known only from the Tam Dao mountain ridge in

northern Viet Nam However, it has since been recorded in more than ten localities in Bac Kan, Ha Giang, Yen Bai, Tuyen Quang, Tay Nguyen, and Lao Cai Provinces, all in Viet Nam They reported that its population was apparently relatively stable and that is was not particularly rare locally (IUCN 2015) Whilst, population of this species reported to decline

significantly (Tran Van Cu, 2007) Especially, it was reported that “In 1997, P deloustali

were considered extinct in the wild (Miller, 2004)

Major threats:

Major threats to P deloustali was habitat loss, due to agriculture and human settlement,

pollution, and harvesting for food, medicine and the pet trade, are threats to this species (Tordoff, 2002, Nguyen Van Sang, 2003; Tran Van Cu, 2007, IUCN, 2015) As a results of political and economic changes, with logging, construction, industrialization, and development for tourism (Miller, 2004) Besides that, natural reproductive coefficient of

P.deloustali is not high

“Presently, there is no particular program for salamander conservation in Vietnam.” (Nguyen Van Sang et al., 2003) It was recommended that managed ex-situ assurance colonies among

zoos and competent hobbyists should be set up to aid conservation of this species (IUCN

2015)

In summary, there were a few studies referred to P.deloustali, but it just focused on detecting

the distribution area, and behavior of the species Data about exploitation, trade, and use of this species are too general Or only report about the presence of specimens being sold without understanding deeply the causes and motivations of the harvest and trade Also, no documents described in detail of seasonality, techniques of hunting, markets and the prices Tam Dao NP is the first place recorded the presence of Tam Dao salamander Tay Thien is believed to have big population of this species In contrast, no research has been carried out

in there despite the status of exploitation and trade of this species has existed long time ago Because the existence and fast growing of tourist activities in Tay Thien with more than 10

million visitors visited there each year (Tam Dao NP, 2008) will create enormous pressure on the management and conservation of the species Therefore, this study was conducted aiming

to collect information on illegal exploitation and trade, the causes and motives of hunters in a comprehensive and more specific way It will provide an overview for the authorities, managers, organizations, and conservationists about the current status of trade and use of

P.deloustali in order to take better management measures

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.2.1 Key definitions and terminology used in this report

Economic and

social drivers

Drivers are understood as the forces, conditions or factors that lead people

to behave in a particular way In this report, economic and social drivers are considered in the context of the economic and social conditions that lead people to harvest, trade or consume wildlife in an illegal and/or

unsustainable manner (TRAFFIC, 2008)

Market-based

instruments

Market-based instruments are designed to affect the demand and supply conditions facing individuals and enterprises Instruments that alter market conditions directly include imposition or removal of taxes or subsidies that change cost or demand conditions, or product designations (such as labelling or certification) that change demand conditions Market-mimicking instruments include tradable permit systems, or other methods that establish tradable property rights or remove barriers for trading (Farber and Tietenberg, 2006)

Wildlife trade

Wildlife trade is any sale or exchange by people of wild animal and plant resources This can involve live animals and plants for the pet and horticultural trades, or the trade in a diverse range of wild animal and plant products needed or prized by humans – including skins, medicinal ingredients, tourist curios, timber, fish and other food products (TRAFFIC, 2007)

Conservation Conservation awareness encompasses landowner/local people knowledge

awareness of, familiarity with, and experience with forest conservation options and

sources of information that support informed forest management decisions (Van Fleet et al 2012.)

Resource

management

Resource management is the efficient and effective development of an organization's resources when they are needed It is also processes, techniques and philosophies as to the best approach for allocating

resources have been developed (en.wikipedia.org, 2015)

Law

enforcement

Law enforcement broadly refers to any system by which some members of

society act in an organized manner to enforce the law by discovering,

deterring, rehabilitating, or punishing people who violate the rules and

norms governing that society (en.wikipedia.org, 2015)

2.2.2 What are the socio-economic drivers the exploitation and trade of wildlife?

Economic and social factors drive both demand and supply sides of the wildlife trade equation, to improve either biodiversity conservation or development returns as these relate

to the use and trade of wild resources needs to be considered of theses drivers and to design actions in a way that take them into account (TRAFFIC, 2008)

According to the report on „‟what‟s driving wildlife trade?‟‟ (TRAFFIC, 2008) there are a

variety of social-economic factors that drives the illegal trade on wildlife, but there are 5 main drivers as listed below:

 Livelihoods as drivers: reducing poverty, increasing income and/or diversifying livelihoods among rural communities would reduce participation in harvesting wildlife to supply the illegal and unsustainable wildlife trade Data from northern Lao PDR, for example show that poorer households are much more dependent upon income generated from forest plants and animal than less poor households (Emerton, 2005) There is some evidence that poorer people are more likely to be seasonal harvesters, using the wildlife trade as a safety net at critical time during the year (TRAFFIC, 2008) However, the link between wealth, poverty and engagement in the wildlife trade are complex: people involved in the trade are not necessarily poor, and the poor who are involved usually do not drive the trade Indeed, the trade in wildlife

in the region involves some extremely wealthy individuals and groups (Compton et

al., 1999; Nooren and Claridge, 2001 as cited in TRAFFIC, 2008)

 Markets and prices as drivers: the supply of wildlife products to and through the market is responsive to changes in producer price and profitability, and that consumer demand for wildlife products is responsive to changes in retail price Rises in price act

as deterrent to wildlife consumption, or that decreases in profitability have caused people to stop harvesting wildlife Also, the market for many wildlife products is driven by a high and rising demand coupled with declining availability of a growing number of wild resources, has contributed to a steep increase in the price of many high-value products Harvesters and suppliers are highly responsive to the market opportunities presented by the wildlife trade, displaying mobility between products, locations and markets in order to meet demand At the same time, it was noted that a variety of factors associated with economic growth, trade expansion and the development of infrastructure had facilitated an increased supply of wildlife to markets in the region Improved communications and connectivity, road development, and the opening up of wild animal and plant habitat via illegal logging and other new activities, thereby facilitating extraction and trade of wildlife products, were believed

to be the primary factors influencing the market availability of wildlife

 Laws and regulations as drivers: enforcement and broader governance were the critical factors determining the effectiveness of legislation and regulations, rather than

the presence of laws and regulations per se (TRAFFIC, 2008) Restrictions, especially

for harvester/ traders by incentives are highly effective way of controlling wildlife trade (Dickson, 2003; Hutton and Webb, 2003 as cited in TRAFFIC, 2008) Enforcement capacity and incentives to enforce are emphasized in the literature as critical elements in the success of regulations and laws (Eves and Ruggiero, 2000) Levels of enforcement are determined to some extent by ability and willingness to act

on the part of those agencies mandated to control wildlife harvesting and trade, including the resources and higher-level support provided to them (TRAFFIC, 2008)

 Awareness: it states that increasing awareness among harvesters, traders, and consumers have had negligible impacts on reduced illegal and unsuitable wildlife trade It also suggested that the effort putting on raising awareness were considered to

be mainly successful in their primary goal, but it was thought to have minor impacts

on the amount of wildlife harvested, traded and consumed illegally or unsustainably

A relatively small proportion of experts believed that improved awareness, where achieved, was led to some reduction in participation in the wildlife exploitation and

trade To date, there is very little documented evidence-positive or negative- about the long term impacts of awareness on rates of wildlife harvesting, trading and consumption (World Bank, 2008)

 Resource management practices: external support to improved resource management reduces over-exploitation of wildlife for trade In the majority of cases where they had been applied, resource management interventions (such as species management plans, closed seasons, technology limits and limits on harvesting size and age) had been at least somewhat successful in controlling illegal an unsustainable wildlife exploitation Multiple factors influence the sustainability of any harvesting regime, including whether entire species or component parts are harvested, the biological and physical characteristics of the species harvested, habitat intactness and resource management systems in place (Milner-Gulland and Mace, 1998)

(Note that, in fact the report of TRAFFIC, 2008 stated 6 main elements that driver the

wildlife exploitation and trade However, in this study customary norms, practices and tenure

as drivers are excluded Because the targeted species of this study was P.deloustali, an

endemic species of Vietnam, listed in Red data book, and the study area was on protected area of Tam Dao national park plus with no evidence for any customary norms about this species)

As mentioned above, to investigate about the use and exploitation of P.deloustali, the

questioner is designed to five main parts as five main drivers including: livelihoods, markets and prices, laws and regulation, resource management, and awareness to collect necessary information

Figure 2.0.1 Assumptions of factors that drive the participation in P.deloustali exploitation and trade (TRAFFIC 2008, modified)

CHAPTER 3 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

3.1 Goals

This study aims to determine and assess the status of exploitation and use of P deloustali;

map hot spot of trading, and determine which factors drive the participation of people in

exploitation and trade of P deloustali in Tay Thien (Dai Dinh commune), Tam Dao National

Park It targets to provide information as basis to propose better management solutions in order to effective conservation of the endangered species, and biodiversity of Tam Dao NP

3.2 Specific objectives

The main objectives of this study are:

(i) To assess the population status of P deloustali in Tay Thien

(ii) To collect data about how P deloustali are exploitation, and trade in Tay

Thien (iii) To map hot spots of hunting and trading of P deloustali in the study area

(iv) To determine which factors drive the decision of participation in exploiting

and trading activities of P.deloustali

(v) Determine main threats of P deloustali in Tay Thien, Tam Dao NP by

interview and field observation (vi) To provide a basis for effective management measure and better conservation

of P deloustali

3.3 Research questions

This study addressed four main questions that are:

1 What is the population status and are main threats to population of P deloustali and

its habitat?

2 How P.deloustali is exploited, used and traded in Tay Thien area?

3 What factors drive the participation in exploitation and trade of P.deloustali in Tay

Thien area?

3.4.Research hypothesis

Based on the question 2 and assumptions up on which exploitation and trade of P.deloustali

interventions are based, research hypotheses is proposed in this study:

Research hypothesis: Driver assumptions upon exploitation and trade of wildlife

intervention including: resource management, markets and prices, laws and regulations,

awareness, and livelihoods drive the participation of P.deloustali exploitation and trade in

Tay Thien area

Livelihood intervention

This category of intervention primarily targets the harvesters and traders of P.deloustali It

assumes that participation in exploitation and trade of this species is determined by the amount of income earns Therefore, if it is true, the solution need to put in action is to diversify or find alternative manners that can bring higher income for locals than exploiting and selling Tam Dao salamander

Markets and prices intervention

This category of intervention targets the harvesters, and traders of P.deloustali It assumes

that the markets and prices of selling this species are responsive to the participation in exploitation and trade of local people Thus, if this hypothesis is true, the authorities and law makers should implement a kinds of policies that reduce the existence or limit the approach

of harvesters to the markets

Laws and regulations intervention

This category of intervention targets the harvesters, and traders of P.deloustali It assumes

that enforcing the laws and strengthening restrictions/ penalties of community access rights

over P.deloustali is determined the participation in the exploitation and trade of this animal, and these therefore need to be changed if the exploitation and trade of this amphibian is to be

reduced

Conservation awareness intervention

This category of intervention targets the harvesters, and traders of P.deloustali It assumes

that increasing awareness of harvesters and traders is determined the participation in the

exploitation and trade of Tam Dao newt, and these therefore need to be changed it the

exploitation and trade of this species is to be reduced

Resources management intervention

This category of intervention targets the harvesters, and traders of P.deloustali It assumes

that strengthening resources management practices is determined illegal trade and

exploitation of Tam Dao salamander and these therefore need to be changed it the

exploitation and trade of this species is to be reduced

CHAPTER 4 METHODS

This chapter describes the study site, how the study was carried out, doccuments methods

used to collect and analyse data

3.1.Selection of study site

Dai Dinh commune and Tay Thien area were selected as study area for the following reasons First, the development of tourism activities in recent years in Tay Thien area has negative effects on the biodiversity conservation of fauna and flora in there (Hoan, 2011) Second, this area was recorded as highest possibility of detecting Tam Dao salamander in

Tam Dao national park (Nguyen Quang Truong et al., 2004) Third, according to Dai

Dinh ranger station, Dai Dinh commune has two main ethnic were Kinh and San Diu (an ethnic minority), particular San Diu accounted for 50.5% (Dai Dinh ranger station, 2014) whom their livelihoods primarily depended on collecting forest resources Thereby population of salamander there would suffer with many threats from tourism activities, and local people Derive from context I choose Tay Thien which located in Dai Dinh commune in the Southwest of Tam Dao NP as the study area

Figure 4.1: Map of study site Dai Dinh commune, Tam Dao district, Vinh Phuc province

3.2 Overview of study site

According to the annual report of Dai Dinh ranger station, there are some general information about Tay Thien area (Dai Dinh ranger station, 2015)

Tay Thien area has about 3.400 ha of natural land, where area of special use forest is about

2000ha, and the rest is plantation forest, forest land, agricultural land, and other lands

Population and ethnic composition

Dai Dinh commune has 15 villages, particular 5 inter-forest villages including: Son Dinh, Dong Linh, Long Sau, Dong Thong, and Dong Hoi Total number of household is 2807 which accounts for 9.700 people There are two main ethics which are Kinh and San Diu, particular San Diu occupie for 50.5%

Natural conditions

Dai Dinh commune located in the western side of the Tam Dao mountain range with an annual rainfall of 1.600mm it locates in the west slope leads to the higher intensity of sunling, and lower precipitation The possibility of forest fire is quite high, because the flammable material is easy to dry

Hydrological:

Main stream channel in Tay Thien area are called Tay Thien stream It is created by many small brooks flow down to the main branches called Phu Nghi and Khe Che which meets at the foot of Bac waterfall make up beautiful scenary Tay Thien stream located in western slope of Tam Dao originated over 800 meters high with a length about 12km with slope ranged from 10-42%

Flora

Tay Thien area has five main types of forest listed below:

 Evergreen closed tropical rain forest

 Evergreen closed sub-tropical rainy forest on low mountain

 Bamboo forest

 Natural rehabilitated young forest after deforestation or burned or due to shifting cultivation

 Plantation forest

Fauna

Tam Dao NP is very rich in fauna species which was described 1141 animal species belong to

150 families of 39 orders in 5 classes The detail information is listed in the following table:

Table 4.1 Species composition of Tam Dao NP

species

Number of genus

Number of family

Number of orders

Some key documents that was collected and used in this study:

 Special report: “Assessment of livelihoods, socio-economy of people living in Tam Dao NP and its buffer zone‟‟ (Tam Dao NP, 2009)

 Report:” Results of performance development tasks of socio-economic first 6 months, propose course of action and goals for the last 6 months.‟‟ (Dai Dinh commune, 2015)

 Report: „‟Introduction about Dai Dinh Ranger Station‟‟ (Dai Dinh Ranger Station, 2014)

 Report: ‟Survey results of Tam Dao salamander in some locations of Tam Dao NP‟‟ (Tran Van Cu, 2007)

 „‟Review of non-cites Amphibia species that are known or likely to be international trade‟‟ (UNEP-WCMC, 2006)

 “What‟s driving the Wildlife Trade? A Review of Expert Opinion on Economic and Social Drivers of the Wildlife Trade and Trade Control Efforts in Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR and Vietnam” (TRAFFIC, 2008)

 „‟Evaluation of the wildlife trade in Ba Be and Cho Don Districts‟‟ (Nguyen Xuan Dang et al 2003)

3.3.2 Line transects

The main purposes of this method were:

- To observe shop owners in Tay Thien to identify where P deloustali was traded at

which price, quantity, form (fresh or dry), and for whom?

- To collect data on the threats to the species and its habitat along the line transects

3 lines transects were walked in the study area

 Transect 1st: From Thong to Cau temple

 Transect 2nd: From Cau temple to Co

 Transect 3rd: From Co to Thuong temple

Table 4.2 Summary table of transects line at Tay Thien area, Tam Dao National Park

2373905

48Q 0561354/

2374352

2000

- Bushes & Shrubs

- Natural rehabilitated young forest after deforestation or burned or due to shifting cultivation

2nd

48Q 0561 354/ 237

4352

48Q 0562 922/ 237

- Evergreen closed tropical rain forest

3rd

48Q 0562 922/ 237

4940

48Q 0563 527/ 237

5469

1500 - Evergreen closed tropical rain

forest

3.3.3 Interview

This method was used for asking information about population status that P deloustali are

suffering, as well as status of exploitation and uses of the species In addition, it assesses the

important of awareness to conservation of P deloustali in the study area The survey

questionnaires was targeted to 3 main groups, and totally 76 samples was collected which were:

 Staff of Tam Dao National Park (6 respondents)

 Local community (35 respondents)

 Shop owners along the trail in Tay Thien (35 respondents)

In 76 peope being interviewed (including staffs of Tam Dao NP), 28 out of them is femanl account for 37%, and male has 48 people about 63% of total respondents

Table 4.3.Distribution of interview object

Sex * Zone- Crosstabulation

Count

Zone

Total

Den Thong

Long Sau

Dong Hoi

1sttransect

2ndtransect

3rdtransect

Sex

Define household type based on average monthly income per capital

Table 4.6 Basis to define poor and near-poor household in rural areas in Vietnam in period 2011-2015

Income per capital per month Areas

Sources: Decision No.9 / 2011 / QD-TTg of the Prime Minister of Vietnam

According to People Committee of Dai Dinh commune, the criteria to define poor and near poor household are based on Decision No.9 / 2011 / QD-TTg of the Prime Minister of Vietnam as mentioned above, while moderate household with 4-5 members often has annual average income from 8-9 million VND a month, and rich household with average income of

10 to 15 million VND a month For easier to collect data and analyze it is assumed that a

family has 5 members So we have a following table to define household type by income in Dai Dinh

Table 4.7 Basis to define moderate and rich households in Dai Dinh commune

Income per capital per month Economic situation

Poor <400.000 VND/month Assets owned by household

Moderate 1.6-1.8 million VND/month Assets owned by household

Rich 2-3 million VND/month Assets owned by household

(Source: People Committee of Dai Dinh commune, 2015)

In 2009, Dai Dinh commune had 450 poor households accounting for 19.4% of all households, 75 rich households accounting for 3.2%, and the rest was moderate with 1796

household, accounted for 77.4% (Hoan, 2010)

3.3.4 Map the hot spots of exploiting and trading of P deloustali in Tay Thien

Criteria for assessing the degree of illegal exploitation and trade of wildlife

The criteria for assessing the degree of illegal exploitation and trade of wildlife estimated in the number of individuals and locations recorded (Nguyen Xuan Dang et al., 2003)

 Commonly traded: recorded in at least two locations including village, restaurant, medicine shop or middlemen house, where the number of individuals at each sighting was more than ten animals for small mammals, birds, and snakes; or where the number of individuals was more than five animals for large mammals, monitor lizards, and pythons

 Rarely traded: record in only one location that could be a village, restaurant, medicine shop, or middleman house; or where the number of individuals was less than ten animals for small mammals, birds, and snakes, or where the number of individuals was less than five animals for large mammals, monitor lizards, and pythons

Table 4.8 Basis criteria to assess the degree of illegal exploitation and trade of wildlife

 Step 1: Input all marked point where P deloustali was sold or was reported to sell into ArcGIS

 Step 2: Input data with multiple layers including: topographical layer, road, river and stream, forest type, ranger station, buildings and temples

 Step 3: Mapping hot spots of trading P deloustali in Tay Thien

Spatial relationships

- Distance from ranger station to sale points

- Map the sale points

3.3.5 Data analysis

a Descriptive statistics

To summary information about data, for example, the number of respondents who are male or female, or the number of poor households, average age of respondents, etc

b Binary logistic regression model

This method conducted to find the relationship of one with another, or one with many other variables

Table 4.9 Description of assumption variables which influence the participation in exploiting and using of P

deloustali

Dependent variable: Participation in exploitation and trade of P deloustali

Age of respondents Ordinal Age of respondents are assigned for each

level (1= <18, 2=18-25, 3=25-35, 4=35-50, 5= >50

respondents

Nominal Respondents working mainly on each fields

assigned (1= agriculture, 2= forestry, 3= fishery, 4= Worker/ officer, 5=tourism & services)

Educational level of

respondents

Ordinal Educational level assigned for each level (0=

Illiteracy,1= Primary school, 2= Secondary school, 3= High school, 4= College and university)

Household wealth

ranking index

Ordinal Household wealth ranking (poor household

=1,moderate household =2, Rich household

=3) Difficulties in catching/

hunting (resources

management)

Nominal 1=nothing difficult, 2=go depth into forest,

3=rare, hard to find, 4=strictly prohibited by rangers

Market & prices Binary 1=Yes, 0=No

c Conservation awareness:

Conservation awareness encompasses landowner knowledge of, familiarity with, and experience with forest conservation options and sources of information that support informed forest management decisions (Van Fleet et al 2012.)

In this type of question, there are 14 statements were written to test the knowledge,

familiarity and experience of local people about conservation of P deloustali Each correct

answer equal with 5 points in 70 scale points Criteria to assess the level of awareness are listed below:

Table 4.10 Criteria to assess the level of conservation awareness of respondents

Low conservation

awareness

Moderate conservation awareness

Good conservation awareness

CHAPTER 5 RESULTS

5.1 Population status of P.deloustali in Tay Thien

This section aims to answer the research question 1:‘‘ What is the population status of P.deloustali?’’

The concept of P.deloustali population had occurred and used in many literatures in different

scales of provinces, districts, zones, area, and management units In the scope of this report, the „‟population‟‟ term was referred to a group of Tam Dao newt in specific geographical area, particularly in Tay Thien

As mentioned in the review sections, there was no data about the population size of Tam Dao salamander neither its entirely range distribution nor selected study area Because of time constraint, interview was chose as alternative choices for evaluating the population status of this species The interviewing objects focused on rangers, local people, and shop owners in Tay Thien Because they had strong basis of indigenous knowledge of where they were born and grown up Of courses, it also led to some limitations about the accuracy of data collected due to the variability of respondents

The presence of P.deloustali was highly recognized in study area with more than 94% of

respondents confirmed that they had seen this amphibian in Tay Thien Among them, 27% considered they often saw, 35% was sometimes, nearly 33% said that previously they had seen a lot, but now rare Only 5.5 % reported that they has never seen or just heart from others The average number of Tam Dao newts observed each time by respondents was considered small from 1 to 5 individuals with more than a half of answers, one fourth was from 6 to 15, and the rest was from 16 to 30 individuals or higher Both of the results suggest

the widely existence but low abundance of P.deloustali population in Tay Thien

In the past, the probability of encountering an individual or a group of Tam Dao newts was much higher than the present time as reported Nowadays, only locals who often entered the forest for collecting forest resources could saw them more frequently Up to 80% of respondents reported that they often encountered this animal in or near brooks and streams, only 7 % in forest, similar to cave, and the lowest proportion was 6% of other answers or did not know well

Figure 5.2 Show the habitat of P.deloustali in Tay Thien through responses

P.deloustali was reported to distribute at altitudes from 300m upward They preferred to live

in or near brook, small stream, cold seeps where water flows slowly, clean, not too steep and

contained litter When it rained this animal often hid in the dead trees, leaves, and other tree

items There are list of some places that local people often encounter or hunt for this species including: upward from Bac Falls, Tay Thien stream, Phu Nghi stream, Che brook, Dua brook, near Tinh That, Da Mai brook, near Mung observation, Cau Con brook, Trang Sinh brook, behind Thuong temple Only a handful of respondents reported they have seen Tam Dao salamander near Thong temple at the foot of Thach Ban Mountain because after heavy rain it was washed downstream

The population status was investigated by asking respondents to compare the present state of

P.deloustali with two periods of five years to evaluate the changes throughout the recent

Distribution of P.deloustali through responses

Brooks and streams In cave In forest Other

Figure 5.1 shows the comparision of evaluation of the respondents on the status of Tam Dao salamander

population in 2005 and 2010 with the present study time (2015)

As can be seen from the bar chart, the most remarkable trends of P.deloustali population is

decline significantly In which, more than half of the respondents either 2005 or 2010 believed that population of this species were severely reduced in both years compared with the current time A small proportion of respondents reported that the population of Tam Dao newts in the year of 2010 increased slightly to significantly was higher than in 2005 Only few people in both years believed it remained stable The number of people did not know or give other answers was also low However, it is important to note that there were some ideas

of rangers and respondents that the population the study animal remained stable or slighly increased due to better law enforcement, lost of market, and improvement in livelihoods of local people

5.2 Status of exploitation and use of P.deloustali Tay Thien

This section aims to answer the research question 2:‘‘ How P.deloustali is exploited, and

traded in Tay Thien area?’’

5.2.2 Evidences and traces of P.deloustali being harvested, and traded in Tay Thien area

a Field observation

There were 10 sale points of P deloustali being observed with total number of 31 individuals

(see table 5.1) Most of the sale points concentrated in 2nd (20 individuals) and 3rd transects

Slightly increase

Increase significantly

Others

Population status of P.deloustali in 2005 and 2010 in

compared with present time in Tay Thien

2005 2010

(11 individuals) It was no record in the 1st transect or in 3 villages of Dai Dinh commune It

is clear that most of the case being discovered was in the weekend and holiday time, in particular both 8th -9th of August were on Saturday and Sunday, and September 02 was Vietnam Independence Day In those days, the number of tourists visited there was much

higher than weekday The number of P deloustali being observed at each sale point was

quite small (from 1 to 4 individuals)

Table 5.1.Represent the results of 10 sale points where P.deloustali were sold in Tay Thien area

The salesperson often put from 1 to 2 individuals of P deloustali in the plastic bottle and sold

together with other kind of souvenirs, NTFPs, or food and drink In fact, sellers had quite

sophisticated way to evade detection of rangers They often just brought to sale 1-2 bottles firstly, and hid the rest in the forest or inside their shops Whenever they had sold all of the salamanders, they would go to take some other bottles continuing to sale

Photo 5.1 Shows the P.deloustali was sold in plastic bottles in Tay Thien area

b.The participation in P.deloustali harvested and traded of respondents from interview

The study investigated two group of people in term of exploiting and trading of P.deloustali

which were: 1/ people had participated in the harvest and trade, and 2/ people were participating in the exploitation and trade Note that people who keeps doing this kind of bussiness from the past until present time were counted for both cases

The bar chart below shows that in the past, up to 32 people out of 70 respondents accounted for 46% had been involved or participated directly in the process of exploitation and trade, and 38 people accounted for about 54% no participation or involvement

Presently, the proportion of people involved or participated in exploitation and trade of P

deloustali drop sharply to 23% accounted for 16 people, and leads to increment in the number

of people not involvement or participation to 77% accounted for 54 people

Figure 5.3.Compare the percentage of participation of local people in harvesting and exploiting P.deloustali in

past and current time

5.2.3 Seasonal presence and selling seasons

Based on the interview, P deloustali was reported to present all year around Among them,

spring and summer were the time with higher chance of encountering this species in the will Because the warm weather, and humid the salamander often went out to find food and bathed under the sun These seasons are also high tourism season (from beginning of January to the end of April), and break time of agricultural activities of locals

Comparison between the seasonal presence

and trading season of P.deloustali

Seasonal presence Seasonal trade

Figure 5.4 Compare the differences between seasonal appearance and trading season of P.deloustali in Tay

Thien area

As can be seen from the bar chart, there are a clear interrelated relationship between the

seasonal presence and selling season of P.deloustali Spring and summer were season with

high probability of encounter, but those were also high seasons of performing illegal exploitation and trade Especially in spring, the percentage of trading activities (about 47%) was much higher than the presence of this species In the summer, the degree of appearance (30%), and sale (28%) were almost the same During autumn and winter this ration was much lower In addition, there was 21.5% of this amphibian being hunted and sold by ordered without following seasonally during the year Therefore, the results about timing suggests that there was the influence of the season to the status of exploitation and trade status of Tam Dao salamander in the study area

5.2.4 Hunting techniques

Hunting tools

Most of the respondents reported that they often used 2 to 3 simple ways of catching and rarely used only one technique In which, the most popular technique for hunting is by hand, and the second was by fishing rode with bait as worms or small insects This is a simple and highly effective hunting tools Trapping, or net was less popular since this species was thought to be gentle and easy to catch In addition, those caught by rangers would be punished less heavily than people using traps and nets

Hunting time

Morning time was the most common time for hunting (42%) not because of the higher chance

of encountering P.deloustali with some of the following reasons reported: 1) Harvesters

could bring to sell for visitors timely, or to delivery immediately after hunt to avoid hunted animal be dead, 2) Avoid the patrol of rangers, 3) It was hard to reach to the distributed area

of this species, so they needed going earlier It mean they could arrive there in noon time which was the favorable time of Tam Dao salamander to go out Then came back in the afternoon

Second was noon time with 27%, 17% choose afternoon time, and went on evening on occasion with more than 14%

5.2.5 Responsible person for hunt

Man was primarily responsible for the exploitation and trade of P deloustali (up to 82%) A

small proportion of woman (11%) involved, as well as children (7%) in the trade activities,

but rarely in harvesting The reasons for this trend was reported as it was challenging to access their living places and dangerous to catch due toxic body Two third of respondents reported that harvesters planned to hunt for Tam Dao newt, one third was opportunistic when they collected NTFPs, and only 4% for the case of catching accidently by tourists

5.2.6 Purposes of exploiting P.deloustali

Figure 5.5 Show the motivation of hunting for P.deloustali of respondents

It is clear that most of the Tam Dao salamander being hunted for sale (82%) Among them, nearly two third of trapped amphibian was sold directly to tourists, less than one third to middleman to ship to aquarium stores, and medicine stores in Hai Phong, Thai Nguyen, Hanoi, Yen Bai, Tuyen Quang, China, etc The rest was sold to shop owners along Tay Thien

to sell to tourists Havesters reported that they often sold to tourist with small number, but with high price Whereas, sold to middlemen or shopowners was at larger quantities (generally more than 50 individuals for each time, sometimes even 200-300 individuals) depended on order with lower prices

On the other hand, it was just minor proportion for subsistence use of local people such as for medicine (10%), for pet (3%), for food (2.5%), similar with other purposes Most of the

respondents reported that they rarely used products from P.deloustali for food because of its

bad small, and poisonous body Only some ethnic minority people believed that this species was edible, but it needed a special way to process to remove the toxic Besides that, many of

82%

10%

3% 2.50% 2.50%

Harvesting purposes of P.deloustali of locals in Tay Thien

For sell For medicine For pet For food Others

them believed that this animal could cure some diseases of children such as asthma, or rickets But the number of people used it as medicine remained small (10%) since they had not known how to use it, except for some herbalists in the region This animal was hardly risen as pet in Tay Thien due to people there did not have the habit of raising pet

5.2.7 Form of hidding, and evading P.deloustali from paltrol and control of authorities

P deloustali was often sold in two main forms: 1/ Alive in plastic bottle to sold directly to

tourist for pet or in the fish tank, in nilong bag that was easy to delivery to aquarum shops with 70% of respondents reported; 2/ Dry form which mainly sold as medicine, and shipped

to China with 27% answered, and other forms with only 3% Detail information is listed below:

Shopowners: Because P.deloustali has small size, gentle, it was typically put into the plastic

bottle from 1-2 individuals Each time seller just laid several bottles for sale, and the rest hid

in the forest nearby When they saw rangers they quickly brought these bottles into the forest

It is very difficult for rangers to detect them

For havesters, they often went in early morning and came back at mid-noon or at night

when they were detected by rangers, they often left P.deloustali and run into the forest

Because most of them was local people with much experienced of hiding in the forest, they were easily escaped from rangers

For middleman:

 Mean of transportation: often motobike

 Delivery time: often in early mornig, mid-noon, or at night time

 Volume of trasport: they usually delivered with small number, or subdivided for hiding easily

5.3 The trade of Tam Dao salamander in Tay Thien

5.3.1 Market, price, and form of selling over each periods:

Since exploiting and trading activities of P deloustali in Tay Thien was existed for a long

time ago, so the collected data about quantity, market, price, and trading network was various throughout the time Based on information collected from interviews, it can be divided into three main periods:

 The period before the establishment of Tam Dao NP (before 1996)

P deloustali was often purchased when they were alive, or dry with prices ranging from

500VND-2000VND/individual At that time, no ranger patrol and control of authorities, so local people were free to exploit forest resources The livelihoods of locals was principally

agriculture and exploitation of forest resources Tam Dao newt had harvested in large numbers, and trader bought unlimited quantities The main purpose was to sell to China, and some herbalists used as medicine At that time, tourism activities had not developed People did not have stable jobs, in order to support for their daily lives nearly all locals came into

forest to exploit wild and valuable fauna and flora, especially P.deloustali Income from selling P deloustali was supposedly 5-10 times higher than normal work

 The period after the establishment of Tam Dao NP (from 1996 to 2010)

Tam Dao NP was established in May, 1996 From that time to 2010, despite the existence of laws prohibited on exploitation of forest resources including Tam Dao salamander The illegal exploitation and trade of this species still happened strongly against the laws with the diversified in market, motivations, and trading network This species being hunted not only exported to China, but also sold to domestic market in some provinces such as: Hanoi, Thai Nguyen, Hai Phong, Tuyen Quang, Yen Bai Moreover, the shop along Tay Thien also started to purchase in bulk to sell to tourist For example, Mr Long‟s shop sometimes bought

up to 1000 individuals to sell as pet In period from 2005-2010, the trading of P deloustali

reached its peak The prices fluctuated depending on the markets and buyers If buyers was traders who exported to China in dried form, the price of one individual often from 3.000-5.000VND/individual If sold to traders in other provinces to sell as pet, the price was bit higher from 5.000-10.000VND/individual; and sold directly to tourists the prices were ranged from 20.000-50.000 VND/individual

 The period from 2011-2015:

Through interviews, most of respondents believed that the status of exploitation and trade of Tam Sao salamander has dropped significantly Nowadays, only a very small number of

people sneaking into the forest looking for P deloustali with small quantities for sale to

tourist in the high season, or ordered The main causes of this trends were explained by the

following reasons: 1/ Because Chinese traders did not purchase P deloustali anymore without clear reasons; 2/ Pet trade market of P deloustali was no longer favored, since P

deloustali often ate other fish when they were put together; 3/Some herbalist who often

bought P deloustali in bulk had died; 4/ Rangers patrolled more frequently, and used strict penalties

5.3.2 Market and trading flow of P.deloustali

Illegal trade and transportation network of P deloustali can be summarized in the trading flow (see figure 5.6 next page)

Explain the trading network:

Source area: the area where harvesters and local people often went to catch P deloustali

People often entered in restricted areas of the park where this animal highly distributed to hunt as Silver waterfall, Thuong temple, Che brook, Dua brook, behind Co temple, atc

Opportunistic collectors/ hunters: are those people who entered the forest to collect NTFPs

and accidentally caught P deloustali when they encountered Then they brought to sell to

visitors along with their other collected forest products, or sold to the shops, local middleman

Professional hunter: Based on the survey, there were only a few experienced hunters often

went to hunt for P.deloustali, including: Den Thong village (4 people), Long Sau (3 people),

Dong Hoi (2 people) Most of them belonged to ethnic minority and semi-professional The average quantity of salamander trapped and sold often from100 to 200 individuals each time Especially, in case of a hunter in Den Thong village, he confirmed that he had caught and

sold a huge number of P deloustali up to 2000-3000 individuals in total They often called the middlemen to their home to take P deloustali directly Depending on conditions, they

could also deliver to local middleman, or regional middlem