INTRODUCTION
Rationales
Reading is a vital language skill essential for developing other language competencies, particularly for academic success at the tertiary level It serves as the primary gateway to diverse sources of information, laying the groundwork for effective learning and knowledge acquisition.
According to Celce-Murcia (2001), synthesis and critical evaluation skills are vital for effective reading, which Anderson (2003) deems essential for English learners to achieve success in their studies Comprehension is influenced by both internal and external factors that play a crucial role in the learning process.
Effective reading strategies and learning styles are crucial for successful language acquisition These strategies serve as intentional methods for understanding an author's message (Olshavsky, 1977) and involve problem-solving actions aimed at achieving comprehension or production objectives (Wenden, 1987) According to Oxford and Crookall, these approaches significantly enhance reading proficiency.
Reading strategies are defined as techniques and skills that enhance learners' ability to read effectively and efficiently (1989) These strategies enable individuals to tackle reading materials in a way that suits their unique learning styles, which can vary significantly from person to person (Burke & Dunn, 2003) Consequently, the effectiveness of specific methods and resources will differ among learners, highlighting the importance of personalized approaches to reading.
Sternberg and Grigorenko (2001) emphasize that styles function unconsciously, while strategies require conscious decision-making This distinction is particularly relevant in language learning, as noted by Bailey et al (2000, p 118).
Learning styles differ from learning strategies; while learning styles are innate and automatic traits of individuals, learning strategies are deliberate actions taken by students to enhance their learning experience.
Understanding learners' individual learning styles is crucial for teachers to create effective learning tasks tailored to their needs When educators promote a specific learning approach, some students may struggle to engage and learn effectively Therefore, being aware of diverse learning styles is essential for enhancing teaching methods This awareness should influence pedagogy, enabling teachers to better comprehend their students' needs and the importance of differentiating materials not just by difficulty, but also by learning style.
Students who understand their learning preferences can utilize different techniques to improve their educational experience, ultimately boosting their satisfaction According to Claxton & Murrell (1987), recognizing individual learning style preferences allows students to identify as learners, which can enhance their performance and lead to better learning outcomes.
In Vietnam, English is classified as a foreign language, with students dedicating 6 to 10 years in school and an additional 2 to 3 years at university to its study Despite this extensive education, many students struggle to achieve proficiency in real communication This gap in language achievement can be attributed to a disconnect between the teaching methods employed by educators and the learning preferences of students, as well as the ineffective application of learning strategies.
Numerous studies have explored the effectiveness of reading strategies on comprehension, yet limited research exists on the relationship between preferred learning styles, reading strategies, and outcomes, particularly in the Vietnamese EFL context This gap in literature motivates our study at the International School - Thai Nguyen University, aiming to investigate various learner learning styles, the reading strategies they utilize, and their corresponding achievements in reading comprehension.
This study examined how learning styles and reading strategies affect reading comprehension achievement, providing insights for teachers to adapt their instructional methods to accommodate diverse language learners.
Statement of the problem
Learning is a multifaceted process that involves acquiring knowledge through studying, teaching, practicing, and experiencing various activities It extends beyond passive listening in classrooms to include active engagement with information, such as reading and experimenting, which enhances comprehension Understanding students' learning styles is crucial for teachers, as it allows them to tailor their teaching methods and activities effectively, thereby addressing students' learning difficulties and reducing frustration Research indicates that awareness of preferred learning styles can significantly influence curriculum design, teacher training, and student orientation Misunderstandings about students' educational backgrounds can lead to polarized communication, damaging the teacher-student relationship By investigating students' language learning style preferences, educators can develop effective language learning strategies that directly contribute to improved language achievement.
Research indicates that a mismatch between teachers' instructional styles and students' language learning styles can adversely affect language acquisition (Yu, 1996; Reid, 1987; Peacock, 2001; Stebbins, 1995; Tuan, 2011) This study explores the relationship between reading comprehension achievement and the influence of learning styles and reading strategies In this context, learning styles and reading strategies serve as independent variables, while academic reading achievement is considered the dependent variable.
Significance of the study
This study aims to enhance understanding of the connection between learning styles and language learning strategies in relation to academic reading achievement It may identify preferred learning styles among language learners preparing for the IELTS reading module The findings could provide teachers with general guidelines to align their teaching practices with the learning styles of their students Teaching style encompasses the classroom behaviors linked to an instructor's beliefs and influences how information is presented, student interactions, and coursework supervision.
Teaching style plays a crucial role in enhancing students' learning experiences and academic outcomes (2003) To create a more effective learning process, it is essential to identify students' learning styles, allowing teachers to implement the most suitable teaching strategies Claxton and Murrell (1987) emphasize that understanding learning styles helps educators appreciate the diverse backgrounds of their students and can inform the design of tailored learning experiences Additionally, this study serves as a valuable resource for researchers interested in exploring the effects of learning styles and strategies on language achievement.
Aims of the study
This study aimed to identify the preferred learning styles of English language learners at the International School of Thai Nguyen University, enabling teachers to adapt their instructional methods to accommodate diverse learning preferences Additionally, it sought to examine the relationship between students' perceptual learning style preferences and their selection of reading strategies Finally, the research investigated the correlation between students' learning styles, preferred reading strategies, and their performance in the IELTS reading module.
Research questions
With the aforementioned aims, the study attempts finding answers to the following research questions
1 What are the preferred learning styles of the non-English majored students at Thai Nguyen University?
2 What is the relationship between learning styles and reading strategies uses?
3.What is the relationship between learning styles, reading strategies towards academic reading achievement?
Scope of the study
A study involving 152 second-year students at the International School of Thai Nguyen University, the sole institution within the university where English is the medium of instruction, was conducted to explore the correlation between quantifiable variables The diverse student body includes individuals from countries such as Laos, Myanmar, the Philippines, East Timor, and Nigeria First-year students undergo an intensive one-year English course to prepare for lectures in English, with a required language proficiency of B2 (CEFR), equivalent to a score of 5.5 in IELTS or FCE exams, to progress to their major The course emphasizes practicing four macro language skills, specifically geared towards exam preparation, while the research employed a purely quantitative method for data collection.
The study is divided into five chapters
Chapter 1 - Introduction relates to the rationale for the research Besides, it shows the significance of the study, the aims and objectives, research questions, the scope, the methods and the design of the study
Chapter 2 - Literature review supplies an overview of theoretical background and previous studies involved in the research topic
Chapter 3 - Research Methodology describes the methods used for this study, data collection instruments, data collection procedures and data analysis procedure
Chapter 4 - Findings and Discussion provides the findings and discussion of the research based on results of the action research methodology
Chapter 5 – Conclusion and Recommendation comes up with the summary, implications and some suggestions for further studies
In Chapter 1, the researcher outlines the study's foundational elements, including the rationale, research problem statement, scope, aims, significance, and the research questions to be addressed The subsequent chapter will delve into the theoretical framework, clarify key terms, and review related work in the field.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical framework
The concept of learning styles, introduced in the 1960s, highlights that individuals learn at different speeds and in various ways, affecting their confidence in processing information Recognizing these differences allows teachers to tailor their practices to meet students' needs, ultimately enhancing the learning experience However, mismatches between students' and teachers' learning styles can lead to discomfort, boredom, and decreased motivation It is crucial for teachers to help students identify their learning styles, provide constructive feedback, and encourage exploration of diverse learning methods Awareness of one's learning style fosters a proactive approach to learning, enabling students to take control of their educational journey and maximize their potential Thus, learning styles represent the optimal conditions under which students learn best.
Learning styles are characterized by diverse definitions that differ based on various objectives and methodologies According to Curry (1991), the multitude of definitions surrounding learning styles leads to significant confusion, with considerable variation in how these concepts predict learning outcomes, academic performance, and other behaviors.
Many research works have then explored the types and the nature of strategy use, the effectiveness (if any) of language learning styles (LLS) However, as stated by Phakiti
Despite existing discussions on language learning strategies (LLS), there remains a lack of empirical evidence linking these strategies to their practical application in real-world contexts (2003, p.7) Rees-Millers (1993, p.11) emphasizes the need for empirical studies to evaluate the effectiveness of learner training before it is implemented in classrooms Consequently, further research is essential to explore LLS among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, particularly in mountainous regions, to assist them in selecting appropriate strategies for language acquisition.
In the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), this study utilizes Reid's (1995) concept of learning styles as its theoretical framework, defining them as an individual's natural and preferred methods for absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills This concept serves as a profile of an individual's learning approach, illustrating how they perceive, interact with, and respond to their learning environment (Dürnyei, 2015).
Definitions and nature of learning styles
As stated in the previous part, learning style is defined variously Below are some definitions of learning styles:
“The term learning style refers to the general approach preferred by the student when learning a subject, acquiring a language, or dealing with a difficult problem.”
“Learning styles are internally based characteristics, often not perceived or consciously used by learners, for the intake and comprehension of new information.”
Learning style encompasses a blend of environmental and perceptual preferences that affect our physical and sensory needs, cognitive variables that shape our understanding and organization of the world, and social preferences influenced by cognitive, personality, and emotional factors that guide our behavior in learning contexts.
An individual's learning style refers to their preferred methods of thinking, processing information, and demonstrating knowledge acquisition It encompasses the habits, strategies, and mental behaviors that characterize their approach to deliberate educational learning (Prichard, 2009).
Learning styles are unique to each individual, highlighting that students do not all learn in the same way Each person adopts a comfortable approach to learning while often disregarding less preferred methods For instance, some students thrive in quiet environments, while others benefit from physical movement or vocalizing their study materials Understanding these diverse learning styles is essential for effective education.
Learning styles are defined differently by various researchers, highlighting the complexity of this concept Keefe (1982) suggests that learning styles remain relatively stable as learners engage with their environment, while Ehrman and Oxford (1990) argue that these styles are inherent traits that persist regardless of teaching methods or classroom settings According to Reid (1998), learners often utilize their learning styles unconsciously to process and comprehend new information However, Ehrman and Oxford also note that learners can develop new styles over time and adapt existing ones as they become more aware of their preferences.
Learning styles are not fixed at birth and can evolve throughout different life stages and situations, influenced by environmental factors and reinforcement For instance, rewarding learners for using specific styles can enhance their preference for those methods Additionally, tasks designed for optimal performance with certain styles may lead to a stronger inclination towards those styles Kinsella and Sherak (1998) emphasize that learning styles are shaped by socialization and classroom dynamics, with learners gravitating towards methods they frequently encounter, particularly when these methods lead to academic success Consequently, learning styles represent habitual approaches to acquiring knowledge.
A brief discussion of learning style models
Numerous classifications of learning styles have emerged from theoretical and practical studies, with Coffield et al (as cited in Matheoudakis & Alexiou, 2010) identifying 71 distinct models These classifications vary based on the diverse characteristics of students in the learning process De Bello (as cited in Hein & Budny, 1999) highlights that some models are multidimensional, encompassing cognitive, affective, and psychological traits, while others focus on a single dimension Each new approach to learning styles builds upon its predecessors (Güven, 2004) Notable learning style approaches and their corresponding models include several well-established frameworks.
Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model
Honey and Mumford‟s Learning Styles Model
Reid‟s Perceptual Learning Style Preferences
2.3.1 Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model
The Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model is a prominent framework in understanding how individuals learn This model emphasizes that a person's biological and developmental traits influence their learning processes Dunn and Dunn identify five key learning style stimuli, each accompanied by specific elements that shape how individuals acquire new information and skills.
Environmental stimuli encompass factors such as sound, light, temperature, and room design, while emotional stimuli include motivation, persistence, responsibility, and structure Sociological stimuli are characterized by learning contexts, such as studying alone, in pairs, or with peers and teachers Physiological stimuli involve perceptual intake during learning, daily energy patterns, and mobility needs Lastly, psychological processing stimuli are defined by global or analytic thinking styles, hemisphericity, and impulsive or reflective tendencies.
Kolb‟s learning style model which is based on Kolb Experiential Learning Theory was developed by Kolb Based on this experiential model, learning is defined by Kolb as
The process of knowledge creation occurs through transforming experience, as described by Baker, Jensen, and Kolb (2002) This model presents individual learning styles as a cyclical framework consisting of four key stages: concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC), and active experimentation (AE), according to Kaya, ệzabacı, and Tezel (2009) Kolb's learning cycle visually represents these stages, emphasizing the dynamic nature of learning.
Figure 2.1 The Kolb’s learning cycle (Güven, 2004, p.27)
Kolb's learning theory, as outlined by Kolb and Goldman (1973), emphasizes two key dimensions: the transition from abstract conceptualization to concrete experience, and from active experimentation to reflective observation This model illustrates how individuals perceive knowledge through concrete experiences and abstract thinking, while integrating it through reflective observation and active experimentation Learning occurs via four modes: feeling (concrete experience), watching (reflective observation), thinking (abstract conceptualization), and doing (active experimentation) According to Kolb (as cited in Kaya, ệzabacı & Tezel, 2009), effective learning requires a cycle of these four modes, although individuals may favor one mode over the others (Groat, 1998) Kolb identifies four distinct learning styles within this cycle: converger, diverger, assimilator, and accommodator.
2.3.3 Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles Preferences
Honey and Mumford's learning styles model, derived from Kolb's experiential learning framework, categorizes learners into four distinct styles: activists, reflectors, theorists, and pragmatists This model outlines a learning cycle consisting of four stages that illustrate a learner's preferred approach to acquiring knowledge The relationship between Honey and Mumford's learning styles and the learning cycle is visually represented in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Honey and Mumford’s learning styles associated with learning cycle
Activists thrive on experiential learning, engaging in diverse activities and collaborating in groups to share and test ideas They prefer dynamic environments over repetitive tasks, seeking opportunities to immerse themselves in new experiences.
Reflectors prioritize gathering extensive information before making decisions, embodying the principle of "look before you leap." They focus on the broader context, taking into account past experiences and the viewpoints of others to inform their choices.
Theorists aim to integrate their observations into cohesive frameworks, allowing them to understand the relationships between different insights They actively seek to incorporate new knowledge into their established frameworks by critically questioning and evaluating how this new information aligns with their current understanding.
Pragmatists actively pursue and implement new ideas, focusing on their practical implications before assessing their value They believe that if an idea proves effective, it is worthwhile, but if it fails, analyzing the reasons for its failure is often seen as unproductive.
2.3.4 Reid’s Perceptual Learning Style Preferences
Reid's perceptual learning style preferences, developed in 1987, specifically cater to foreign language learners at universities by identifying their preferred learning styles According to Reid (1995), perceptual learning styles highlight differences among learners based on their sensory experiences in understanding and organizing information He categorizes learning styles into three main types: sensory or perceptual, cognitive, and affective/temperament styles Sensory learning styles focus on the physical learning environment and the use of senses to absorb information Research by Dunn (1990) indicates that visual learners may struggle in auditory learning environments, such as lectures, while auditory learners may thrive Reid suggests that learning styles exist along a continuum, allowing learners to adapt their styles based on context Cognitive styles pertain to thinking and problem-solving abilities, with field-independent students favoring structured learning, while field-dependent students prefer collaborative and experiential settings Affective learning styles consider students' emotions and motivation, emphasizing their engagement and response to learning opportunities.
Mulalic, Shad, and Ahmad (2009) classify learning styles into visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile categories based on learners' perceptions, alongside social preferences for group or individual learning Reid (1995) identifies six primary learning style preferences: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, group, and individual Utilizing these learning styles can enhance individual performance and optimize the learning experience.
Visual learners excel in their studies by engaging with materials such as books, chalkboards, and workbooks, which enhance their ability to retain and understand information According to Reid (1995), these students benefit significantly from reading as a primary method for grasping instructions and concepts.
Auditory learners excel in acquiring knowledge through listening, as highlighted by Mulalic, Shad, and Ahmad (2009) According to Reid (1987), these students enhance their retention by reading aloud Engaging with audio tapes, attending lectures, and participating in class discussions are particularly advantageous for those with an auditory learning preference.
Kinesthetic learners thrive on active involvement, engaging in activities like drama and role-play to enhance their learning experience (Mulalic, Shad & Ahmad, 2009) They benefit from hands-on experiences and physical participation in classroom practices, which helps them retain information effectively To optimize their learning, kinesthetic learners should participate in activities such as field trips and role-playing exercises (Reid, 1995).
There is one more learning style: Tactile major learning style preference Reid
(1995) indicates that tactile learners can learn well if they the chance to deal with hands-on experiences with materials such as experiments in a laboratory, handling and building models
In addition, the other learning styles which create the social aspects of the Reid‟s learning style preferences is group major learning style preference According to Reid
Factors affecting learning styles preference
Learning style preferences are influenced by various factors, with some having a greater impact on specific learners or stages Research by Ramayah et al (2011) highlighted that peers influenced all four learning styles, technology primarily affected reading and writing, and cultural background impacted visual, aural, and kinesthetic styles Additional studies (Charlesworth, 2008; De Vita, 2010; Lee, 2011; Song & Oh, 2011) further confirmed the cultural influence on learning styles Notably, Joy and Kolb (2009) found that cultural differences had a marginally significant effect on the preference for active experimentation versus reflective observation, which was more influenced by age and specialization, while culture significantly affected the choice between abstract and reflective learning styles.
A study by Reid (1987) revealed that Korean students preferred visual learning, while Arabic and Chinese learners favored auditory styles Japanese learners, according to Hyland (1993), showed a preference for auditory and tactile styles Rossi-Le's (1995) research indicated that Spanish speakers leaned towards auditory learning, whereas Vietnamese learners preferred visual methods (Griffiths, 2008) Reid's investigation of 152 ESL students using the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire found significant gender differences, with male students scoring higher in visual and tactile preferences than females Graduate students also demonstrated a stronger preference for visual, tactile, and auditory learning styles compared to undergraduates Additionally, Lim's (1995) study of 173 secondary school students using the Kolb Learning Style Inventory identified most participants as assimilators and divergers.
Research on learning styles and gender has produced inconsistent findings A study by Logan and Thomas (2002) examined the learning styles of university distance education students using Honey and Mumford’s questionnaire and the Grasha and Reichmann Learning Style Scale The results indicated significant gender differences in learning styles, with female students showing a preference for pragmatic, theorist, and reflector styles compared to their male counterparts However, the Grasha and Reichmann findings presented a different perspective.
Reichmann Learning Style Scale showed no significant difference between students‟ learning styles and their gender
In a study by Kumar, Kumar, and Smart (2004) involving 65 students from two medium-sized midwestern universities, the researchers utilized the Grasha and Reichmann Learning Style Scale to assess learning style preferences The findings revealed that the predominant learning styles among the students were identified as participant, dependent, and collaborative.
In a study conducted by Uzuntiryaki (2007), the learning styles of 265 tenth-grade high school students were examined using the Grasha and Reichmann Learning Style Scale The findings revealed that the students exhibited participant, dependent, and collaborative learning styles.
According to Dunn (1978), as referenced by De Porter and Hernacki (1999:110), various factors significantly impact learning styles, including physical, emotional, sociological, and environmental elements For example, some students may perform optimally in well-lit environments, while others thrive in more crowded settings.
Learning styles play a crucial role in the educational process, as they are shaped by the transformation of personal experiences into knowledge (1984) According to Gardner (1993), learning styles encompass a blend of cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that consistently influence how learners engage with their environment Additionally, Stewart and Felicetti (1992) highlight that learning styles represent the optimal educational conditions for student success (p.15) Therefore, understanding individual learning styles is essential for enhancing learning outcomes.
Learning styles encompass visual, auditory, reading, and kinaesthetic preferences, focusing on how individuals prefer to learn rather than what they learn In foreign language education, teachers employ various strategies tailored to these learning styles, enhancing students' language performance and facilitating more effective study outcomes.
Learning styles and academic achievement
Academic achievement, as defined by Ahmad et al (2011), is a measure of a student's success, reflecting the knowledge and skills acquired across various courses This achievement is assessed through tests, assignments, and final examinations, contingent upon the standards established by educational institutions (Garner-O’Neale & Harrison, 2013) High-performing students typically demonstrate specific characteristics, including effective learning strategies and preferred learning styles.
Numerous studies have explored the connection between learning styles and students' academic achievement, revealing significant relationships (Kopsovich, 2001; Gokalp, 2013; Jilardi et al., 2011) Research indicates that aligning teaching styles with students' learning preferences can notably enhance academic performance at primary and secondary levels (Smith & Renzulli, 1984) Dedicated educators strive to improve student outcomes by identifying individual learning styles to leverage their strengths (Abidin, 2011) A study by Castro and Peck (2005) highlighted that a student's preferred learning style can either facilitate or impede success in foreign language learning Abidin et al (2011) noted that students often exhibit multiple or combined learning styles, enabling effective learning, and emphasized that these styles significantly influence overall achievement Furthermore, Dunn et al (1995) found that students taught in ways that matched their learning styles performed better than those whose learning styles were misaligned with instructional methods.
Accommodating a student's learning style can lead to enhanced attitudes towards learning, improved thinking skills, and increased academic achievement and creativity (Irvine & York, 1995) Research into learning styles, such as Kolb's (1984) classification of four learning styles—accommodation, assimilation, converging, and diverging—and four learning modes—concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation—has yielded significant insights into learner capabilities.
In 1978, a comprehensive model was developed that addressed various elements of learning styles, including environmental, emotional, sociological, physical, and psychological factors, indicating their relevance to teaching strategies and academic success A study conducted by Rajshree in 2013 with 200 students from 9th to 11th grades in Maharashtra revealed that kinesthetic learning styles were more prevalent than visual and auditory styles among secondary school students The study found a strong positive correlation between kinesthetic learning and academic achievement, highlighting the significant impact of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic variables on students' academic performance.
Research indicates that reflecting on personal learning styles enhances meta-cognition, which is a key benefit of applying learning style theory in education This development of meta-cognition leads to effective learners who can tackle challenges and excel in exams Therefore, incorporating learning style considerations is a meta-learning strategy that focuses on goal setting, selecting appropriate strategies, and monitoring progress, ultimately resulting in improved learning outcomes compared to traditional methods that merely present information (Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996).
Reading strategies and reading comprehension
Reading strategies have been defined differently by different researchers Anderson
Reading strategies are defined as deliberate actions that learners select and control to achieve specific goals (1999) They are influenced by the reading context and the reader's awareness, control, and intention (Paris et al., 1983) A strategic reader possesses three types of knowledge: declarative (what the strategies are), procedural (how to use them), and conditional (when and why to apply them) According to Block (1986), these strategies reflect how readers approach tasks, what textual cues they focus on, and their methods for making sense of the material Barnett (1988) described reading strategies as mental operations employed by readers to comprehend texts intentionally Oxford and Crookall (1989) further characterized them as learning techniques and problem-solving skills that enhance effective and efficient learning.
Numerous studies have explored the connection between reading strategies and language proficiency, yielding varied results due to differing subjects and academic contexts A notable study by Kate Tzu-Ching Chen and Sabina Chia Li Chen (2015) focused on high school students in Taiwan, revealing a preference for global reading strategies, followed by problem-solving and support strategies Additionally, research conducted by Ngan Mai Hoang further contributes to this discourse.
A study conducted in 2015 at Northumbria University examined the correlation between reading strategy use and reading proficiency among Vietnamese students in the UK, revealing that these students were medium strategy users with no significant link between overall strategy use and reading comprehension Similarly, Poole (2005) investigated the reading strategies of 248 ESL university students in the US, finding that problem-solving strategies were frequently employed, while global and support strategies were used moderately Gorsuch and Taguchi (2008) reported that Vietnamese college EFL students primarily utilized bottom-up, top-down, and cognitive strategies during repeated reading sessions Additionally, Karbalaei (2010) compared reading strategy use between Iranian EFL and Indian ESL college students, discovering that Indian students favored global, support, and metacognitive strategies, whereas Iranian students predominantly relied on problem-solving strategies.
Reading strategies and academic achievement
Effective reading strategies are essential for enhancing students' comprehension of texts, particularly for those who struggle academically According to researchers O'Malley and Chamot (1990), the proper use of these strategies can promote autonomous learning among students Additionally, Caverly, Nicholson, and Radcliffe (2004) found that developmental students demonstrated significant improvements on both teacher-made and standardized reading comprehension tests, highlighting the positive impact of cognitive, metacognitive, and affective strategies in their research.
Reading strategies, as defined by Rubin (1987), are essential operations and routines that learners utilize to enhance the acquisition, storage, retrieval, and application of information By intentionally employing these strategies, students can make their learning experience easier, quicker, and more enjoyable, while also fostering greater autonomy and effectiveness in their educational pursuits Moreover, these strategies play a crucial role in helping learners improve their second language skills and adapt to new learning situations.
Formal instruction on learning strategies significantly enhances students' strategic use and accelerates their learning, as noted by Long & Crookes (1992) However, it's crucial that these strategies are taught within a contextual framework, as isolated and brief instruction lacks long-term effectiveness and fails to cultivate strategic reading skills The development of strategy use is a gradual process that can take several years To support this growth, Janzen (2002) identifies key factors essential for effectively teaching strategies in a formal setting, aimed at transforming learners into proficient strategic readers.
Inserting strategies in the content area of students' regular course
Teaching strategies through direct explanation, teacher modeling, and feedback
Recycling the strategies over new texts and tasks
Effective teaching strategies enhance reading tasks by aligning with students' learning preferences and facilitating connections between strategies When students employ these strategies systematically, learning becomes easier, faster, and more enjoyable, while also promoting self-directed and transferable skills The ability to utilize strategies effectively distinguishes proficient readers from less skilled ones; good readers apply strategies in a structured manner and adapt them as needed for efficient progress Incorporating strategy training into academic courses provides students with opportunities to practice, evaluate, and transfer strategies to new contexts Additionally, creating supportive environments for strategy instruction encourages teachers to model reading skills, ultimately improving student performance It is crucial that strategies are taught in an organized manner, as the thoughtful application of these strategies enhances comprehension, allows for active text processing, and connects new information to existing knowledge.
Reading serves as a vital source of information, providing learners with independent access to a wealth of knowledge, enjoyment, and fulfillment (Gunning, 2007) It is a crucial factor for academic success, as research indicates a strong link between inadequate reading skills and school failure (Schmidt, Rozendal & Green, 2002) Mastering reading is essential for learners to unlock their full potential and achieve success in their educational journeys (Bohlman & Pretorius, 2002; Martin & Carvalho, 2008).
The effectiveness of reading hinges significantly on the strategies employed by readers, as they must engage in various tasks to fully understand a written text According to Johnston (1983), these strategies are crucial for achieving comprehension.
Reading comprehension is a complex behavior that involves both conscious and unconscious strategies, including problem-solving techniques, to interpret the writer's intended meaning This understanding is constructed through schematic knowledge and various cues provided by the writer, such as words, syntax, and social context, which help generate and test hypotheses Much of this interpretation relies on inference, as texts are rarely fully explicit, and the meanings of words often depend on their context.
Gunderson (2014) identifies three levels of comprehension: literal-level comprehension, which involves basic memory and detail recall; inferential-level comprehension, where readers think critically about the text and draw conclusions beyond the provided information; and critical and evaluative-level comprehension, where readers assess the validity of the text, distinguish between opinion and fact, and apply the acquired knowledge in different contexts (p.28).
Reading strategies and learning styles
The reading process is a complex and dynamic activity that involves the interaction between a reader and a text, beginning with the initial recognition of printed features and culminating in textual comprehension Successful comprehension requires readers to extract and integrate information from the text while drawing on their background knowledge (Koda, 2005) This interaction can be viewed as a holistic event that encompasses cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social dimensions (Rosenblatt, 1994) Various factors, including background knowledge, personal attributes, strategic processes, task demands, and reading context, significantly influence comprehension (Anderson, 1999; Grabe, 2009) In second language education, research has highlighted the importance of reading strategies—deliberate procedures that enhance comprehension (Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001) Studies indicate that successful readers employ different strategies than their less successful counterparts, using them more effectively (Anderson, 1991; Bouvet, 2002) or more frequently (Thampradit, 2006).
Research indicates that the distinction between skilled and unskilled readers lies in their awareness and application of strategic reading processes (2001) Grabe (2009) emphasizes that effective readers employ a variety of strategies tailored to their objectives and reading tasks, showcasing their strategic processing abilities Furthermore, the importance of reading strategy awareness has led to studies examining language learners' perceived use of these strategies and their reading proficiency Findings suggest a correlation between learners' perceived strategy use and their self-assessed reading ability, as well as their performance on reading comprehension tests (Alhaqbani & Riazi, 2012; Mónos, 2005; Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001; Barnett, 1988; Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012; Saeedeh, 2013).
Effective comprehension relies on various factors, with students' learning styles playing a crucial role (Balci, 2017) According to Ellis (1985), language learners exhibit differences in personality, learning styles, motivation, aptitude, and age, all of which significantly influence their success or failure in acquiring the English language.
One of these differences is learning style Learning style refers to an individual‟s habitual and preferred way of absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills (Wang, 2007)
Each learning style has distinct strengths and weaknesses, meaning that no individual can be considered an ideal learner based solely on one style (Moradkhan & Mirtaheri, 2011) According to Richard & Platt (1992), a learning style represents the unique approach a learner uses to acquire knowledge, focusing on how they enjoy and feel comfortable absorbing information It emphasizes the process of learning rather than the content itself, as every individual has their preferred method for receiving and processing information For instance, some learners may thrive on visual aids (visual), enjoy listening to music while studying (auditory), or excel in hands-on activities (kinesthetic) (Barbe & Milone Jr, 1981).
Understanding students' diverse learning style preferences is crucial for educators, as it influences how they perceive, engage with, and respond to their learning environment By recognizing these variations, teachers can tailor their approaches to accommodate individual differences, ultimately enhancing the educational experience for all students (Wang, 2007).
A number of researchers have argued that learning styles are an influencing factor in strategyuse (Cohen, 2003; Ehrman, Leaver, & Oxford, 2003; Ehrman & Oxford, 1990; Li
Research indicates a connection between learning styles and reading strategy use, as highlighted in studies by Qin (2006), Cesur & Fer (2011), Jafari & Mahboudi (2012), and Williams (2010) Despite this, there is a scarcity of empirical studies exploring the relationship between these two factors, with notable contributions from Corbitt (2013), Díaz & Diez (2009), Shen (2010), and Tsai (2012).
Research has shown that various learning styles significantly impact English learners' reading strategies at the university level For instance, a study by 2009 highlighted the influence of pragmatist and reflexive styles on reading strategy frequency Shen (2010) further demonstrated that perceptual learning style preferences play a crucial role in second language lexical inferencing among higher education students Additionally, Tsai (2012) established a strong correlation between the use of reading strategies and the learning styles of English learners in university settings.
In 2013, a study found a connection between perceived global strategy and learning styles among Spanish learners with learning disabilities Conversely, the research indicated no significant relationship between learning styles and the perceived use of strategies in non-at-risk students.
Learning style has a major role in academic achievement (Purnomo, 2009, Saadi,
Research by Rizky (2013) indicated a significant difference in English achievement among students based on their learning styles—visual, auditory, and kinesthetic Additionally, Gilakjani (2012) found that Iranian EFL university students favored visual learning, which correlated with higher academic success in their field of study.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research design
Research design is the framework for planning and conducting a study, utilizing specific procedures to address research questions (McMillan & Schumacher, 1984) This study employed a descriptive research design, which involves structured data collection to characterize a selected phenomenon without manipulating variables (Kumar, 2011) Additionally, the study incorporated a correlational approach, as defined by Gay (1996), to assess the existence and strength of relationships between multiple quantifiable variables.
A research design serves as a blueprint for conducting a study, ensuring maximum control over factors that could affect the validity of findings (Burns & Grove, 2003) It outlines a systematic plan detailing how, when, and where data will be collected and analyzed (Parahoo, 1997) The design is influenced by the research's purposes, which dictate the appropriate methodology Therefore, it is crucial for researchers to clearly define their research purposes and questions prior to establishing a research design, as these elements directly inform the methodology and overall structure of the study (Cohen et al., 2002).
This study utilized a purely quantitative method to collect data from students, focusing on the development and application of mathematical models, theories, and hypotheses as outlined by Hunter, Laura, and Leahey (2008) Data was gathered through self-administered semi-structured questionnaires, with preferred learning styles as the primary independent variable and reading strategies as the secondary independent variable The dependent variable for the study was academic reading achievement.
Participants
The study analyzed data from 152 second-year students at the International School, Thai Nguyen University (IS-TNU), the sole institution within Thai Nguyen University that conducts all courses in English To graduate, students must achieve a B2-CEFR level in international exams like IELTS or FCE Cambridge All participants had completed a year-long intensive English course, comprising 73 males (48%) and 79 females (52%) Gender distribution is illustrated in Table 1.1 and Figure 1.3.
Table 3.1 Number and percentage of participants by genders
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Figure 3.1 Number and percentage of participants by genders
Data collection instruments
3.3.1 Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire
The study utilized the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ), created by Reid (1987), which is a self-report tool tailored for non-native speakers This validated questionnaire assesses six learning style preferences: visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, tactile, group learning, and individual learning, using five statements for each category Participants rated their agreement on a five-point Likert scale, from strongly agree to strongly disagree, while being encouraged to respond quickly and not alter their answers Reid (1987) validated the PLSPQ through the split-half method, refining the original 60 statements to identify the most effective five for each learning style To enhance accuracy, the PLSPQ is available in both English and Vietnamese, catering to the majority of Vietnamese participants.
3.3.2 Survey of reading strategies (SORS)
The Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS), developed by Sheorey and Mokhtari (2002), is a 30-item self-assessment tool designed to measure the metacognitive awareness and perceived use of reading strategies among adolescent and adult ESL students This instrument evaluates the frequency of reading strategies employed by students, utilizing a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 ("I never or almost never do this") to 5 ("I always or almost always do this") Respondents indicate their reading strategy choices by circling the number that best reflects their habits The SORS is structured into three categories: global reading strategies (13 items) that assess general reading abilities, problem-solving strategies (8 items) that address comprehension issues, and support strategies (9 items) that provide additional tools for understanding texts, such as note-taking and dictionary use The SORS was selected for this study due to its comprehensive approach to understanding reading strategies (Mokhtari & Sheorey, 2002).
The SORS categorizes strategies into three types: global, problem-solving, and support strategies To analyze the frequency of use for each category, the researcher utilized mean, median, and standard deviation calculations The mean for each strategy was determined by summing the responses from participants, who rated statements on a scale of 1 to 4.
The researcher calculated the subscale scores by dividing them by the number of statements in each category Following the methodology of Sheorey and Mokhtari (2002), she categorized the frequency of metacognitive reading strategy use into three levels: high (3.5 or higher), medium (2.5 to 3.4), and low (2.4 or lower) This approach allowed for an interpretation of the score averages obtained by students Ultimately, the overall average for each category in the SORS questionnaire indicates which metacognitive strategies are utilized the most and least by the participants.
To enhance data analysis, a student demographic background questionnaire was incorporated alongside SORS and PLSPQ This questionnaire gathered essential information regarding participants' gender, age, nationality, native language, self-assessed reading proficiency in English, duration of English study, and daily reading habits in both English and their native language outside the classroom Participants were assured of the confidentiality of their data, and they were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time if they felt uncomfortable.
Data collection procedures
The researcher obtained permission from the administration of International School-Thai Nguyen University to conduct a study on second-year students With the assistance of instructors, the researcher administered the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire during class time Students were instructed to complete the survey questionnaires, and participants filled out a background questionnaire in class Volunteers received the PLSPQ at the end of the session.
15 minutes of the class Participants were shown the formula to figure out their own perceptual learning styles which were Major Learning Style Preference, Minor Learning Style Preference or Negligible
In the subsequent week, participants completed a second survey consisting of the 30-item SORS, where they identified the metacognitive reading strategies they believed they utilized while reading in English The researcher emphasized that there were no correct or incorrect responses, encouraging honest feedback from the participants All completed forms were collected by the researcher.
Data analysis instruments
This study investigates the relationship between students' learning styles and reading strategies and their academic achievement Data was collected using the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire and the Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 20, with 160 surveys distributed, resulting in 152 valid responses after excluding unintelligible forms and those with a single option selected.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Results of the research question 1
What are the preferred learning styles of the non-English majored students at Thai Nguyen University?
Table 4.1 Number and percentage of participants by learning styles
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Figure 4.1 Number and percentage of participants by learning styles
The analysis of Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1 reveals that participants predominantly favor visual and group learning styles, with preferences at 42.8% and 31.6%, respectively In contrast, tactile, auditory, kinesthetic, and individual learning styles are less favored, showing significantly lower percentages of 9.9%, 7.9%, 5.3%, and 2.6%.
Results of the research question 2
What is the relationship between learning styles and reading strategies uses?
The descriptive statistics (Table 4.2) show that the participants use reading strategies at medium level (M = 3.1684)
Table 4.2 The mean score of the reading strategies uses
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
*OVRSORS: Overall uses of SORS
Table 4.3 Mean score of major, minor, and negligible learning styles
Std Error 95% Confidence Interval for
Minimum Maxi mum Lower Bound Upper
Table 4.4 Test of Homogeneity Variances for visual learners
Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig
Sig of Levene test = 0.209 > 0.05 so we can use the results in the ANOVA
Table 4.5 Sig F of the ANOVA for Visual learning styles
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig
There is a significant difference between major learning styles, minor learning styles, negligible styles, and the use of reading strategies at the p < 0.05 level (F (2,149) =1.007, p
= 0.0368) Figure 2.1 shows that visual learners as major learning styles use reading strategies more often (M=3.18)
Figure 4.2 Visual learning styles and the use of reading strategies
Table 4.6 Test of Homogeneity Variances for tactile learners
Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig
Sig F = 0.0368