Tài liệu Asea Brown Boveri Pocket Book P1 docx

Not only is the technology of switchgear installations and apparatus experien-in the areas of low, medium and high voltage described but related areas such as tal control systems, CAD/CA

Asea Brown Boveri Pocket Book

Switchgear Manual

10th revised edition

Edited by

Hennig Gremmel for

ABB Calor Emag

First edition 1948

Second edition 1951

Second, expanded edition 1951,1955,1956,1957,1958,1960

Third edition 1965

Fourth edition 1973 (in English 1974)

Fifth edition 1975 (also English)

Sixth edition 1977 (in English 1978)

Seventh edition 1979 (in German only)

Eighth edition 1987, 1988 (in English 1988)

Ninth edition 1992,1994 (in English 1993 and 1995)

Tenth edition 1999 (in English 2001)

Cornelsen Verlag, Berlin

Member of STAR Group

However, DIN designation and publication dates of the VDE specifications in section17.1 are updated to the start at the end 2000

All rights reserved

Circuit diagrams and data included in this book are published without reference to theirpatent status

Extracts from standards are published by permission of "DIN - Deutsches Institut fürNormung e.V." (DIN German Institute for Standardization) and of "VDE Verband derElektrotechnik Elektronik Informationstechnik e.V.” (VDE Association for Electrical,Electronic & Information Technologies)

The authoritative standards for the user are the latest editions, which can be obtainedfrom VDE-VERLAG GMBH, Bismarckstrasse 33, D-10625 Berlin and from Beuth Ver-lag GmbH, Burggrafenstrasse 6, D-10787 Berlin

Copyright © 1999/2001 by ABB Calor Emag Schaltanlagen AG, Mannheim Printed by: Central-Druck Trost GmbH & Co., Heusenstamm

Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany

More than 50 years after publication of the first edition of the BBC switchgear manual

by A Hoppner, the 10th revised edition is now available as the ABB Calor Emag switchgear manual As always, it is intended for both experienced switchgear profes-sionals as well as beginners and students

The 10th edition has been prepared under the direction of the two German ABB panies listed as editors The products shown as examples to explain the technical statements conform to the practice in the area of switchgear in Germany, and they areproducts that are manufactured by ABB for the market in this country

com-In their efforts to be as up to date as possible, a team of authors comprising ced engineers from all the relevant areas has described the current and future solutionsand technologies Not only is the technology of switchgear installations and apparatus

experien-in the areas of low, medium and high voltage described but related areas such as tal control systems, CAD/CAE methods, project planning, network calculation, electro-magnetic compatibility (EMC), etc are also considered

digi-In the last few years there has been significant progress in standardization in the mentation of international unified standards DKE, as the organization responsible forstandardization in the area of electrical technology in Germany, has taken account ofthis development with a new system of numbering DIN and VDE standards Under thissystem, since 1993 standards that include safety specifications have their originalpublication number (e.g IEC , EN ) as the DIN designation and also a VDE classi-fication number Section 17 of this book describes this There, the list of standardsshows the complete designations in their current version, however, at the moment notall standards have a DIN designation under the above system The other sections ofthe book sometimes also use the complete designation, which however is somewhatcumbersome in daily usage, and sometimes the DIN numbering only and sometimesalso the VDE classification, which best indicates the connections

imple-We would like to thank all involved in the preparation of this book, including the authors

of earlier editions, for their valuable suggestions and contributions

Mannheim and Ratingen, November 1999 / June 2001

book with their own contributions or by editing sections:

Klaus Arp, Klaus-Dieter Bäsel, Volker Biewendt, Kurt Blüm, Dietmar Borries, ThomasBraun, Andreas Breuer, Reiner Christmann, Joachim Dobberstein, Karl-Heinz Fett-back-Heyden, Franz Fretz, Walter Gentz, Hennig Gremmel, Michael Häussler, KurtHaneke, Karl-Heinz Hartung, Erich Hebach, Ralf Heinemeyer, Erwin Himmer, BernhardHof, Peter Hoyer, Horst Issing, Eckhard Junghahn, Gerald Kopatsch, Ralf Krumm, Mar-tin Lauersdorf, Manfred Mathis, Manfred F Nehring, Gerhard Noller, Wilhelm Oehmig,Peter Peknice, Horst Plettner, Rolf Pöhlmann, Hans-Gerd Post, Helge Postler, VolkerRees, Peter Reinhardt, Ulrich Reininghaus, Heinrich Remde, Peter Röhrig, EberhardRörich, Rolf Rotterdam, Harald Schippel, Gerhard Schmidt, Joachim Schneider, Rein-hard Scholz, Herrmann Seidl, Hans Joachim Straube, Woftgang Tettenbom, AndreasUnderbrink, Hans Unger, Gerhard Voss, Rolf Wittkämper, Thomas Wotschokowsky,Benjamin Weber, Bodo Zahn, Claus-Dieter Ziebell, Werner Zimmerli, Werner Zimmer-mann

Brief Overview

2 General Electro technical Formulae 2

3 Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents in

Three-Phase Systems 3

4 Dimensioning Switchgear Installations 4

5 Protective Measures for Persons and

14 Protection and Control Systems in Substations

and Power Networks 14

Table of contents

1.1 Units of physical quantities 1

1.1.1 The international system of units (SI) 1

1.1.2 Other units still in common use; metric, British and US measures 16

1.1.3 Fundamental physical constants 21

1.2 Physical, chemical and technical values 23

1.2.1 Electrochemical series 23

1.2.2 Faraday's law 23

1.2.3 Thermoelectric series 25

1.2.4 pH value 26

1.2.5 Heat transfer 26

1.2.6 Acoustics, noise measurement, noise abatement 29

1.2.7 Technical values of solids, liquids and gases 32

1.3 Strength of materials 36

1.3.1 Fundamentals and definitions 36

1.3.2 Tensile and compressive strength 37

1.3.3 Bending strength 38

1.3.4 Loading on beams 39

1.3.5 Buckling strength 41

1.3.6 Maximum permissible buckling and tensile stress for tubular rods 42

1.3.7 Shear strength 43

1.3.8 Moments of resistance and moments of inertia 45

1.4 Geometry, calculation of areas and solid bodies 46

1.4.1 Area of polygons 46

1.4.2 Areas and centres of gravity 47

1.4.3 Volumes and surface areas of solid bodies 48

2 General Electrotechnical Formulae 2.1 Electrotechnical symbols as per DIN 1304 Part 1 51

2.2 Alternating-current quantities 52

2.3 Electrical resistances 59

2.3.1 Definitions and specific values 59

2.3.2 Resistances in different circuit configurations 60

2.3.3 The influence of temperature on resistance 62

2.4 Relationships between voltage drop, power loss and conductor cross-section 63

2.5 Current input of electrical machines and transformers 66

2.6 Attenuation constant a of transmission systems 68

3 Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents in Three-Phase Systems 3.1 Terms and definitions 69

3.1.1 Terms as per DIN VDE 0102 / IEC 909 69

3.1.2 Symmetrical components of asymmetrical three-phase systems 70

3.2 Fundamentals of calculation according to DIN VDE 0102 / IEC 909. 71

3.3 Impedances of electrical equipment 83

3.3.1 System infeed 83

3.3.2 Electrical machines 83

3.3.3 Transformers and reactors 86

3.3.4 Three-phase overhead lines 89

3.3.5 Three-phase cables 96

3.3.6 Busbars in switchgear installations 102

3.4 Examples of calculation 103

3.5 Effect of neutral point arrangement on fault behaviour in three-phase high-voltage networks over 1 kV 111

4 Dimensioning Switchgear Installations 4.1 Insulation rating 113

4.2 Dimensioning of power installations for mechanical and thermal short-circuit strength 120

4.2.1 Dimensioning of bar conductors for mechanical short-circuit strength 122

4.2.2 Dimensioning of stranded conductors for mechanical short-circuit strength 133

4.2.3 Horizontal span displacement 142

4.2.4 Mechanical stress on cables and cable fittings in the event of short circuit 145

4.2.5 Rating the thermal short-circuit current capability 146

4.3 Dimensioning of wire and tubular conductors for static loads and electrical surface-field strength 150

4.3.1 Calculation of the sag of wire conductors in outdoor installations 150

4.3.2 Calculation of deflection and stress of tubular busbars 156

4.3.3 Calculation of electrical surface field strength 158

4.4 Dimensioning for continuous current rating 159

4.4.1 Temperature rise in enclosed switchboards 159

4.4.2 Ventilation of switchgear and transformer rooms 161

4.4.3 Forced ventilation and air-conditioning of switchgear installations 164

4.4.4 Temperature rise in enclosed busbars 167

4.4.5 Temperature rise in insulated conductors 168

4.4.6 Longitudinal expansion of busbars 169

4.5 Rating power systems for earthquake safety 170

4.5.1 General principles 170

4.5.2 Experimental verification 172

4.5.3 Verification by calculation 173

4.6 Minimum clearances, protective barrier clearances and widths of gangways 174

4.6.1 Minimum clearances and protective barrier clearances in power systems with rated voltages over 1 kV (DIN VDE 0101) 175

4.6.2 Walkways and gangways in power installations with rated voltages over 1kV (DIN VDE0101) 178

4.6.3 Gangway widths in power installations with rated voltages of up to 1 kV (DIN VDE 0100 Part 729) 182

4.7 Civil construction requirements 183

4.7.1 Indoor installations 184

4.7.2 Outdoor installations 186

4.7.3 Installations subject to special conditions 187

4.7.4 Battery compartments 187

4.7.5 Transformer installation 189

4.7.6 Fire prevention 191

4.7.7 Shipping dimensions 195

5 Protective Measures for Persons and Installations 5.1 Electric shock protection in installations up to 1000V as per DIN VDE 0100 197

5.1.1 Protection against direct contact (basic protection) 197

5.1.2 Protection in case of indirect contact (fault protection) 199

5.1.3 Protection by extra low voltage 202

5.1.4 Protective conductors, PEN conductors and equipotential bonding conductors 203

5.2 Protection against contact in installations above 1000V as per DIN VDE 0101 207

5.2.1 Protection against direct contact 207

5.2.2 Protection in the case of indirect contact 208

5.3 Earthing 210

5.3.1 Fundamentals, definitions and specifications 210

5.3.2 Earthing material 214

5.3.3 Dimensioning of earthing systems 217

5.3.4 Earthing measurements 222

5.4 Lightning protection 222

5.4.1 General 222

5.4.2 Methods of lightning protection 223

5.4.3 Overhead earth wires 225

5.4.4 Lightning rods 227

5.5 Electromagnetic compatibility 230

5.5.1 Origin and propagation of interference quantities 233

5.5.2 Effect of interference quantities on interference sinks 237

5.5.3 EMC measures 238

5.6 Partial-discharge measurement 247

5.6.1 Partial-discharge processes 249

5.6.2 Electrical partial-discharge measurement procedures 251

5.7 Effects of climate and corrosion protection 254

5.7.1 Climates 254

5.7.2 Effects of climate and climatic testing 258

5.7.3 Reduction of insulation capacity by humidity 259

5.7.4 Corrosion protection 261

5.8 Degrees of protection for electrical equipment of up to 72.5 kV (VDE 0470 Part 1, EN 60529) 263

6 Methods and Aids for Planning Installations 6.1 Planning of switchgear installations 265

6.1.1 Concept, boundary conditions, pc calculation aids 265

6.1.2 Planning of high-voltage installations 269

6.1.3 Project planning of medium-voltage installations 272

6.1.4 Planning of low-voltage installations 275

6.1.5 Calculation of short-circuit currents, computer-aided 279

6.1.6 Calculation of cable cross-sections, computer-aided 281

6.1.7 Planning of cable routing, computer-aided 281

6.2 Reference designations and preparation of documents 282

6.2.1 Item designation of electrical equipment as per DIN 40719 Part 2 282

6.2.2 Preparation of documents 293

6.2.3 Classification and designation of documents 296

6.2.4 Structural principles and reference designation as per IEC 61346 299

6.3 CAD/CAE methods applied to switchgear engineering 301

6.3.1 Terminology, standards 301

6.3.2 Outline of hardware and software for CAD systems 304

engineering 307

6.4 Drawings 312

6.4.1 Drawing formats 312

6.4.2 Standards for representation 313

6.4.3 Lettering in drawings, line thicknesses 315

6.4.4 Text panel, identification of drawing 316

6.4.5 Drawings for switchgear installations 317

6.4.6 Drawing production, drafting aids 318

7 Low-Voltage Switchgear 7.1 Switchgear apparatus 319

7.1.1 Low-voltage switchgear as per VDE 0660 Part 100 and following parts, EN 60947 - and IEC 60947 319

7.1.2 Low-voltage fuses as per VDE 0636 Part 10 and following parts, EN 60269- IEC60269- 333

7.1.3 Protective switchgear for household and similar uses 339

7.1.4 Selectivity. 342

7.1.5 Backup protection 345

7.2 Low-voltage switchgear installations and distribution boards 346

7.2.1 Basics 346

7.2.2 Standardized terms 347

7.2.3 Classification of switchgear assemblies 348

7.2.4 Internal subdivision by barriers and partitions 350

7.2.5 Electrical connections in switchgear assemblies 351

7.2.6 Verification of identification data of switchgear assemblies 351

7.2.7 Switchgear assemblies for operation by untrained personnel 353

7.2.8 Retrofitting, changing and maintaining low-voltage switchgear assemblies 353

7.2.9 Modular low-voltage switchgear system (MNS system) 353

7.2.10 Low-voltage distribution boards in cubicle-type assembly 360

7.2.11 Low-voltage distribution boards in multiple box-type assembly 362

7.2.12 Systems for reactive power compensation 364

7.2.13 Control systems for low-voltage switchgear assemblies 365

7.3 Design aids 368

7.3.1 Keeping to the temperature-rise limit .368

7.3.2 Internal arc test 370

7.3.3 Verification of the short-circuit current capability of busbar systems 371

7.3.4 Calculation programs for planning and design of low-voltage substations 371 7.4 Rated voltage 690 V 372

7.5 Selected areas of application 372

7.5.1 Design of low-voltage substations to withstand induced vibrations 372

7.5.2 Low-voltage substations in internal arc-proof design for offshore applications 373

7.5.3 Substations for shelter 374

8 Switchgear and Switchgear Installations for High-Voltage up to and including 52 kV (Medium Voltage) 8.1 Switchgear apparatus ( ≤ 52kV) 375

8.1.1 Disconnectors 375

8.1.2 Switch-disconnectors 375

8.1.3 Earthing switches 376

8.1.4 Position indication 377

8.1.5 HV fuse links (DIN EN 60 282-1 (VDE 0670 Part 4)) 377

8.1.6 Is-limiter®- fastest switching device in the world .380

8.1.7 Circuit-breakers 382

8.2 Switchgear installations ( ≤ 52 kV) 386

8.2.1 Specifications covering HV switchgear installations 386

8.2.2 Switchgear as per DIN VDE 0101 386

8.2.3 Metal-enclosed switchgear as per DIN EN 60298 (VDE 0670 Part 6) 387

8.2.4 Metal-enclosed air-insulated switchgear as per DIN EN 60298 (VDE 0670 Part 6) 392

8.2.5 Metal-enclosed gas-insulated switchgear under DIN EN 60298 (VDE 0670 Part 6) 396

8.2.6 Control systems for medium-voltage substations 404

8.3 Terminal connections for medium-voltage installations 405

8.3.1 Fully-insulated transformer link with cables 405

8.3.2 SF6-insulated busbar connection 406

8.3.3 Solid-insulated busbar connection 406

9 High-Current Switchgear 9.1 Generator circuit-breaker 409

9.1.1 Selection criteria for generator circuit-breakers 411

9.1.2 Generator circuit-breaker type ranges HG and HE

(SF6 gas breaker) 412

9.1.3 Generator circuit-breaker type DR (air-blast breaker 415

9.1.4 Generator circuit-breaker type VD 4 G (vacuum breaker) 416

9.2 High-current bus ducts (generator bus ducts) 418

9.2.1 General requirements 418

9.2.2 Types, features, system selection 419

9.2.3 Design dimensions 422

9.2.4 Structural design 423

9.2.5 Earthing system 424

9.2.6 Air pressure/Cooling system 425

10 High-Voltage Apparatus

10.1 Definitions and electrical parameters for switchgear 427

10.2 Disconnectors and earthing switches 432

10.2.1 Rotary disconnectors 432

10.2.2 Single-column (pantograph) disconnector TFB 434

10.2.3 Two-column vertical break disconnectors 437

10.2.4 Single-column earthing switches 438

10.2.5 Operating mechanisms for disconnectors and earthing switches 439

10.3 Switch-disconnectors 440

10.4 Circuit-breakers 441

10.4.1 Function, selection 441

10.4.2 Design of circuit-breakers for high-voltage (>52kV) 442

10.4.3 Interrupting principle and important switching cases 445

10.4.4 Quenching media and operating principle 452

10.4.5 Operating mechanism and control 455

10.5 Instrument transformers for switchgear installations 460

10.5.1 Definitions and electrical quantities 460

10.5.2 Current transformer 464

10.5.3 Inductive voltage transformers 472

10.5.4 Capacitive voltage transformers 473

10.5.5 Non-conventional transformers 475

10.6 Surge arresters 482

10.6.1 Design, operating principle 482

10.6.2 Application and selection of MO surge arresters 484

11 High-Voltage Switchgear Installations 11.1 Summary and circuit configuration 489

11.1.1 Summary 489

11.1.2 Circuit configurations for high- and medium-voltage switchgear installations 490

11.2 SF6-gas-insulated switchgear (GIS) 497

11.2.1 General 497

11.2.2 SF6 gas as insulating and arc-quenching medium 498

11.2.3 GIS for 72.5 to 800 kV 499

11.2.4 SMART-GIS 502

11.2.5 Station arrangement 503

11.2.6 Station layouts 504

11.2.7 SF6-insulated busbar links 507

11.3 Outdoor switchgear installations 508

11.3.1 Requirements, clearances 508

11.3.2 Arrangement and components 509

11.3.3 Switchyard layouts 517

11.4 Innovative HV switchgear technology 528

11.4.1 Concepts for the future 528

11.4.1.1 Process electronics (sensor technology, PISA) 528

11.4.1.2 Monitoring in switchgear installations 528

11.4.1.3 Status-oriented maintenance 529

11.4.2 Innovative solutions 531

11.4.2.1 Compact outdoor switchgear installations 531

11.4.3.1 Definition of modules 540

11.4.3.2 From the customer requirement to the modular system solution 540

11.5 Installations for high-voltage direct-current (HDVC) transmission 541

11.5.1 General 541

11.5.2 Selection of main data for HDVC transmission 542

11.5.3 Components of a HDVC station 543

11.5.4 Station layout 546

11.6 Static var (reactive power) composition (SVC) 547

11.6.1 Applications 547

11.6.2 Types of compensator 548

11.6.3 Systems in operation 550

12 Transformers and Other Equipment for Switchgear Installations 12.1 Transformers 551

12.1.1 Design, types and dimensions 551

12.1.2 Vector groups and connections 554

12.1.3 Impedance voltage, voltage variation and short-circuit current withstand 556 12.1.4 Losses, cooling and overload capacity 559

12.1.5 Parallel operation 562

12.1.6 Protective devices for transformers 564

12.1.7 Noise levels and means of noise abatement 565

12.2 Current-limiting reactors EN 60289 (VDE 0532 Part 20) 566

12.2.1 Dimensioning 566

12.2.2 Reactor connection 568

12.2.3 Installation of reactors 569

12.3 Capacitors 570

12.3.1 Power capacitors. 570

12.3.2 Compensation of reactive power 571

12.4 Resistor devices 579

12.5 Rectifiers 581

13 Conductor Materials and Accessories for Switchgear

Installations

13.1 Busbars, stranded-wire conductors and insulators 587

13.1.1 Properties of conductor materials 587

13.1.2 Busbars for switchgear installations 588

13.1.3 Drilled holes and bolted joints for busbar conductors 609

13.1.4 Technical values for stranded-wire conductors 617

13.1.5 Post-type insulators and overhead-line insulators 627

13.2 Cables, wires and flexible cords 645

13.2.1 Specifications, general 645

13.2.2 Current-carrying capacity 647

13.2.3 Selection and protection 672

13.2.4 Installation of cables and wires 680

13.2.5 Cables for control, instrument transformers and auxiliary supply in high-voltage switchgear installations 684

13.2.6 Telecommunications cables 687

13.2.7 Data of standard VDE, British and US cables 689

13.2.8 Power cable accessories for low- and medium- voltage 696

13.3 Safe working equipment in switchgear installations 706

14 Protection and Control Systems in Substations and Power Networks 14.1 Introduction 711

14.2 Protection 713

14.2.1 Protection relays and protection systems 713

14.2.2 Advantages of numeric relays 716

14.2.3 Protection of substations, lines and transformers 717

14.2.4 Generator unit protection 717

14.3 Control, measurement and regulation (secondary systems) 720

14.3.1 D.C voltage supply 721

14.3.2 Interlocking 721

14.3.3 Control 722

14.3.4 Indication 724

14.3.5 Measurement 725

14.3.6 Synchronizing 731

14.3.7 Metering 732

14.3.8 Recording and logging 738

14.3.9 Automatic switching control 739

14.3.10 Transformer control and voltage regulation 742

14.3.11 Station control rooms 745

14.4 Station control with microprocessors 746

14.4.1 Outline 746

compared 746

14.4.3 Structure of computerized control systems 747

14.4.4 Fibre-optic cables 751

14.5 Network control and telecontrol 753

14.5.1 Functions of network control systems 753

14.5.2 Control centres with process computers for central network management 755

14.5.3 Control centres, design and equipment 760

14.5.4 Telecontrol and telecontrol systems 763

14.5.5 Transmission techniques 766

14.5.6 Technical conditions for telecontrol systems and interfaces with substations 767

14.6 Load management , ripple control 771

14.6.1 Purpose of ripple control and load management 771

14.6.2 Principle and components for ripple-control systems 772

14.6.3 Ripple-control command centre 774

14.6.4 Equipment for ripple control 775

14.6.5 Ripple control recievers 777

15 Secondary Installations 15.1 Stand-by power systems 779

15.1.1 Overview 779

15.1.2 Stand-by power with generator systems 780

15.1.3 Uninterruptible power supply with stand-by generating sets (rotating UPS installations) 783

15.1.4 Uninterruptible power supply with static rectifiers (static UPS installations) 785

15.2 High-speed transfer devices 792

15.2.1 Applications, usage, tasks 792

15.2.2 Integration into the installation 794

15.2.3 Design of high-speed transfer devices. 794

15.2.4 Functionality 795

15.2.5 Types of transfer 795

15.3 Stationary batteries and battery installations, DIN VDE 0510, Part 2 798 15.3.1 Types and specific properties of batteries 798

15.3.2 Charging and discharging batteries 802

15.3.3 Operating modes for batteries 804

15.3.4 Dimensioning batteries 805

15.3.5 Installing batteries, types of installation 805

15.4 Installations and lighting in switchgear installations 806

15.4.1 Determining internal requirements for electrical power for equipment 806

15.4.2 Layout and installation systems 807

15.4.3 Lighting installations 813

15.4.4 Fire-alarm systems 819

15.5 Compressed-air systems in switchgear installations 821

15.5.1 Application, requirements, regulations 821

15.5.2 Physical basics 821

15.5.3 Design of compressed-air systems 824

15.5.4 Rated pressures and pressure ranges 825

15.5.5 Calculating compressed-air generating and storage systems 826

15.5.6 Compressed-air distribution systems 828

16 Materials and Semi-Finished Products for Switchgear Installations 16.1 Iron and steel 829

16.1.1 Structural steel, general 829

16.1.2 Dimensions and weights of steel bars, sections and tubes 830

16.1.3 Stresses in steel components 837

16.2 Non-ferrous metals 837

16.2.1 Copper for electrical engineering 837

16.2.2 Aluminium for electrical engineering 837

16.2.3 Brass 838

16.3 Insulating materials 839

16.3.1 Solid insulating materials 839

16.3.2 Liquid insulating materials 844

16.3.3 Gaseous insulating materials 845

16.4 Semi-finished products 845

16.4.1 Dimensions and weights of metal sheets, DIN EN 10130 845

16.4.2 Slotted steel strip 846

16.4.3 Screws and accessories 847

16.4.4 Threads for bolts and screws 849

16.4.5 Threads for electrical engineering 850

17 Miscellaneous 17.1 DIN VDE specifications and IEC publications for substation design 851 17.2 Application of European directives to high-voltage switchgear installations CE mark 887

17.3 Quality in switchgear 887

17.4 Notable events and achievements in the history of ABB switchgear technology 889

1.1 Units of physical quantities

1.1.1 The International System of Units (Sl)

The statutory units of measurement are1)

1 the basic units of the International System of Units (Sl units) for the basic quantitieslength, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature and luminous in-tensity,

2 the units defined for the atomic quantities of quantity of substance, atomic mass andenergy,

3 the derived units obtained as products of powers of the basic units and atomic unitsthrough multiplication with a defined numerical factor,

4 the decimal multiples and sub-multiples of the units stated under 1-3

Table 1-2

Decimals

Multiples and sub-multiples of units

Atomic units

1)DIN 1301

Table 1-3

List of units

1 Length, area, volume

only for refractive index ofoptical systems