Background of the research
The significance of autonomy in second language learning has gained considerable attention recently, as it is essential for language education Learner autonomy (LA) empowers students to set their own learning goals and take responsibility for planning, managing, and evaluating their learning activities This practice enhances learners' abilities in critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action (Little, 1991) However, while LA has its roots in European education (Benson, 2006), its compatibility with Asian learning styles remains a topic of debate (Pennycook).
The challenge of fostering autonomous practices among Vietnamese university students is a significant concern for both Western and Asian educators This issue presents a critical task for the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and educators alike.
In the rapidly evolving landscape of 21st-century English Language Teaching (ELT), fostering learner autonomy has emerged as a pivotal objective in the educational process The Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) has taken significant steps to enhance the quality of higher education, aligning it with international standards Recent initiatives include the integration of learner autonomy (LA) within the credit-based education system, supported by new policies Notably, Article 40 of the Vietnamese Education Law emphasizes the importance of teaching methods that encourage students to become active learners, capable of independent study and research, while also developing practical skills, self-motivation, creativity, and ambition Therefore, it is essential to adapt teaching and learning strategies in higher education to cultivate these competencies effectively.
2 fulfilled with three aims: (1) fostering students to learn autonomously, self -research,
The Vietnamese government emphasizes the need for a complete overhaul of the education system to enhance students' creativity, promote autonomous learning, and foster lifelong learning This initiative aims to boost students' creative thinking and practical skills while encouraging participation in scientific research and its applications.
Additionally, accompanying the Decision No.1400/QĐ-TTg, 30 September
In 2008, the Vietnamese Prime Minister launched the National Foreign Language Project 2020, aiming to innovate foreign language teaching and learning within the national education system to align with the country's industrialization and modernization needs By 2020, the goal is for Vietnamese graduates to possess sufficient foreign language skills for independent use, confident communication, and effective participation in a multicultural and multilingual world Additionally, the Ministry of Education and Training's official document from 2010 emphasizes that university graduates should demonstrate updated knowledge, creativity in the workplace, and a commitment to lifelong learning and professional development As the role of teachers shifts from traditional knowledge transmission to facilitating autonomous learning, educators are encouraged to guide students in developing their language acquisition skills and making independent learning decisions, especially in an era where information is readily accessible online.
Besides, the National Strategy for Human Resource Development, 2011–2020 (Decision No.579/QĐ-TTg, 19 April by Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2011), emphasises skills for Vietnamese human resource such as foreign language
The Vietnamese government, through the developmental education policy for 2011-2020 and various resolutions, emphasizes the need for innovative teaching methods and assessments to enhance students' creativity and learner autonomy Despite Vietnam's membership in ASEAN since 2015, a significant challenge remains: the weak foreign language competence among students, particularly in English Consequently, improving foreign language education and fostering learner autonomy has become a top priority for the government and the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET).
The Mekong Delta has faced significant challenges in education despite the hopes raised by Decision No 1033/QĐ-TTg issued by the Prime Minister in June 2011, aimed at improving education and vocational training from 2011 to 2015 (Vietnamese Prime Minister, 2011) Five years later, the region's educational quality remained inferior to other parts of Vietnam (Đỗ Nam, Tân Thành, & Phùng Dũng, 2017) Comprising 13 provinces primarily reliant on agriculture, including rice, fruit, and aquaculture, the Mekong Delta has achieved notable agricultural successes but continues to struggle in educational outcomes, particularly in English language proficiency A report presented at the Educational Forum 2017 highlighted that only 13.55% of students in the Mekong Delta met the standard level of foreign language competence, underscoring this critical weakness in the region's education system (Lê Văn, 2017).
A recent report highlights that students in Vietnam face significant barriers in higher education and the labor market due to their inadequate English proficiency Despite over a decade of educational reforms, traditional, teacher-centered approaches to English learning persist in the Mekong Delta region In today's technology-driven era, students have access to various tools for enhancing their English skills, necessitating a shift in the teacher's role to better support students' learning autonomy Additionally, the adoption of a credit system in Mekong Delta's higher education requires students to take greater responsibility for their learning, posing challenges for those unaccustomed to independent study from their prior education.
Despite extensive research on learner autonomy (LA) among EFL teachers and students in various countries, including Western nations and Vietnam, significant gaps remain in generalizing findings and drawing definitive conclusions Key studies by Borg (2006), Keuk and Heng (2016), and others have explored teachers' perceptions and practices, while research by Balcikanli (2010) and Chan et al (2002) has focused on students' views However, the current body of work lacks comprehensive synthesis, indicating a need for further investigation into LA in Asian contexts, particularly Vietnam.
LA (Trịnh Quốc Lập, 2005) and an article about this field (Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016) conducted in Cần Thơ University, in Mekong Delta, Vietnam Trịnh Quốc Lập
In 2005, a study implemented a task-based approach to explore Language Awareness (LA) within a Writing course for EFL students at Cần Thơ University Additionally, Nguyễn Văn Lợi (2016) examined the beliefs and practices regarding LA among EFL teachers across six universities, including three located in the central region.
Cần Thơ city stands out as the most developed urban center in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam, with Cần Thơ University being the largest institution of higher education in southern Vietnam To enhance Learning Analytics (LA) research, it is crucial to extend studies into poorer and rural provinces in southern Vietnam Smith and Ushida (2009) emphasize that LA capacity must be tailored to specific social contexts, suggesting that teachers and students from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds may interpret and apply LA in varied ways within their educational practices.
The study was conducted at Dong Thap University (DTU), a multidisciplinary institution in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam, known for its focus on training high-quality teachers Established in 2003, DTU aims to enhance socio-economic development in the region through educational science and pedagogical training The Faculty of Foreign Language Education, where the research took place, comprises twenty-two lecturers dedicated to training both English major teacher students and non-teacher students Utilizing a credit-based training system, EFL students are required to prepare extensively for each class, with a ratio of four hours of preparation for every two hours of classroom instruction Furthermore, in accordance with Decision No.805/QĐ-ĐHĐT, issued on October 28, 2016, DTU mandates that students engage in autonomous learning, emphasizing the university's commitment to fostering independent study skills.
Following the issuance of Decision No 2080/QĐ-TTg on December 22, 2017, by the Prime Minister of Vietnam, there has been significant progress in promoting foreign-language autonomous learning within the national educational system for the period of 2017 to 2025.
Many English major students at the Foreign Language Education Faculty of the University have a weaker English foundation compared to their peers in larger cities like Cần Thơ and Hồ Chí Minh City Freshmen, in particular, struggle to adjust to the university's learning environment, which differs significantly from their previous educational experiences The current curriculum lacks a course on "LA skills in learning English at higher education," and there is no handbook for autonomous English major learning Consequently, students find it challenging to adapt to the university's demands, as they must invest considerable effort and time into self-directed learning and develop effective study strategies Thomas and Ben (2008) highlight a widening opportunity gap between urban and rural students, as well as between the wealthy elite and the majority who remain disadvantaged, further exacerbating the challenges faced by students from rural, remote, or island areas in accessing quality English education.
Importance of research on LA in teaching and learning English at DTU
The Mekong Delta's tertiary education, especially at DTU, is striving to compete with major universities across Vietnam This effort is highlighted by Dương Thị Hoàng Oanh, emphasizing the commitment to enhance educational standards and opportunities in the region.
Aims of the research
This study has three primary objectives: to examine how Vietnamese EFL teachers perceive learner autonomy (LA) and implement it in their teaching practices; to explore students' understanding of LA and their approaches to learning English independently; and to investigate the correlation between the perceptions and practices of EFL teachers and students regarding LA.
Research questions
With the aims stated above, the following research questions are addressed in relation to EFL teachers and students in a Vietnamese university in the Mekong Delta:
1 What are EFL teachers’ perceptions and practices of LA?
2 What are EFL students’ perceptions and practices of LA?
3 What are the relationships between EFL teachers’ and EFL students’ perceptions and practices of LA?
Research significance
This study seeks to enhance the understanding of Learning Analytics (LA) in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) among local teachers and students in a rural area of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam By examining their perspectives, the research aims to establish a comprehensive LA profile tailored to the unique educational environment in this region Additionally, the findings will enrich existing knowledge on LA practices in EFL learning contexts.
LA field which is provided in Chapter Two.
Organization of the thesis
The thesis is structured into five main chapters, with Chapter One focusing on the significance of autonomy in language learning within tertiary education and the rationale behind conducting this study Chapter Two delves into the findings related to this topic.
This article presents eight theories of autonomy, providing essential background knowledge for the author to explore various solutions in subsequent chapters Chapter Three outlines the research design and methodology employed in this thesis Following this, data analysis is conducted, with findings presented and discussed in Chapter Four Finally, Chapter Five offers suggestions and avenues for further research.
This chapter provides a concise overview of learner autonomy (LA) in foreign and second language learning, starting with its definition and significance in higher education It summarizes five key definitions and four critical aspects related to LA, followed by an examination of teachers’ and students’ perceptions and practices regarding autonomy The chapter concludes with an assessment of LA from both teachers and students, laying the groundwork for exploring how EFL educators and learners perceive and implement learner autonomy in their teaching and learning processes.
Learner autonomy
Definition of learner autonomy
Learner autonomy, initially defined by Holec (1981) as the "ability to take charge of one's own learning," remains a frequently cited concept in the literature Holec emphasizes that this ability is not innate; rather, learners can develop it through practice in formal education Over time, learner autonomy has evolved into a multifaceted concept, leading Little (1991) to describe it as a "buzz word" in educational discourse.
Roles of learner autonomy
In today's rapidly evolving technological landscape, learner autonomy (LA) has emerged as a vital objective in the teaching and learning process, particularly within the realm of language education While LA is not a new concept, its significance has grown over the past three decades, profoundly influencing language teaching methodologies (Benson, 2006; Blidi, 2017) This emphasis on learner autonomy is especially pronounced in higher education, where it is considered a key goal (Sinclair, 2000) According to Norman (1994), fostering LA should be a central aim of education, as it equips students with the skills to independently acquire knowledge and maintain their enthusiasm for learning.
Furthermore, Learning Analytics (LA) empowers students to enhance their creativity and independence significantly Fostering autonomous learning skills in students is essential and should be a top priority for educators and lecturers.
Improving students' ability to learn autonomously is an essential responsibility for teachers Research by Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012a) indicates that 93.4% of educators believe learner autonomy significantly contributes to language learners' success Bajrami (2015) highlights that learner autonomy fosters positive outcomes at the university level, including flexibility, adaptation, self-initiative, and self-direction Additionally, promoting learner autonomy in higher education is crucial for lifelong learning, benefiting both teachers and students As Blidi (2017) notes, lifelong learning is viewed as an investment in human capital, equipping students with the necessary skills and competencies to thrive in today’s economy and job market Therefore, it is vital for educators, policymakers, and administrators to cultivate essential skills for students, emphasizing the critical role of learner autonomy in university education.
2.1.2.1 Learner autonomy in Asian EFL higher education
Recent studies highlight the significant benefits of learner autonomy (LA) in foreign and second language education within Asian contexts, emphasizing its positive impact in university settings Research indicates that LA, which has its roots in Western educational practices, plays a crucial role in helping students become active and independent learners For instance, Dafei (2007) demonstrates a strong correlation between learners' English competence and their LA abilities, suggesting that enhanced LA leads to improved language learning outcomes Additionally, Balcikanli's study (2010) reveals that when students are given the opportunity to shape their learning processes, they develop a more positive attitude, resulting in more focused and purposeful learning experiences.
Cakici's (2017) findings highlight the significant value participants place on learner autonomy (LA) in language learning, demonstrating their willingness to assume greater responsibilities and make informed decisions regarding their educational journey This appreciation for LA is consistently recognized by both researchers and informants alike.
2.1.2.2 Learner autonomy in Vietnamese EFL higher education
In recent years, Learning Autonomy (LA) has become a key component of Vietnamese educational strategies, as highlighted in the Vietnamese Education Law Trịnh Quốc Lập (2005) emphasizes that the training programs for English Language Teachers in Vietnamese universities prioritize the development of LA, aiming to enhance students' personal and autonomous learning skills for their future careers This focus on autonomy enables graduates to engage in self-directed learning tasks, fostering lifelong learning habits (Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Lệ, 2009).
Learning Analytics (LA) plays a crucial role in enhancing both the processes and outcomes of learning activities, as highlighted by Đặng Tấn Tín (2012) It equips students to tackle technical challenges and is vital for knowledge construction and sustainable learning in our globalized world Lê Xuân Quỳnh (2013) emphasizes LA's significance across ideological, psychological, and economic dimensions Furthermore, Dương Mỹ Thẩm and Seepho (2014) recognize LA's growing importance in academic and teaching practices in the 21st century, noting that students are now trained in both knowledge and LA practices Nguyễn Văn Lợi (2016) also explores the Western perspective on this concept.
The concept of "LA," or learning autonomy, translates to "tự học" in Vietnamese, meaning self-study Research indicates that the top-down education system in Vietnam hinders the growth of learning autonomy, despite its potential to flourish within the local context Ultimately, fostering learning autonomy is essential for improving English language acquisition in Vietnam.
Learner autonomy in foreign language education
Learner autonomy as ability
Holec (1981, p.3), one of the pioneers in this field provides a definition of
Learning autonomy (LA) is widely recognized by language researchers as the capacity to take charge of one's own learning, enabling individuals to learn independently and consciously According to Holec (1985, p.180), this concept emphasizes the importance of self-directed learning in language acquisition.
Learning autonomy (LA) is defined as the acquisition of essential skills needed to implement a self-directed learning program Some researchers, like Benson (2006), prefer the term "capacity" over "ability" when discussing LA For instance, Little emphasizes this distinction in his work.
Autonomy is defined as the ability to detach, critically reflect, make decisions, and act independently (1991, p.4) Little highlights the importance of learners' cognitive skills in detaching from situations, analyzing information, and making independent choices, ultimately leading to self-directed action.
According to Dickinson (1994), language learners enhance their cognitive abilities by recognizing classroom objectives, setting personal learning goals, selecting appropriate learning strategies, and effectively managing and evaluating the implementation of these strategies Additionally, Dam emphasizes the importance of self-directed learning in this process.
Learner autonomy (LA) is defined as the capacity and willingness to act independently and collaboratively as a socially responsible individual (1995, p.1) Littlewood (1996) emphasizes that the two key attributes of LA are ability and willingness He asserts that a learner's ability to engage in autonomous learning stems from their understanding of available choices and the skills necessary to implement the most suitable options (Littlewood, 1996, p.428) Additionally, a learner's willingness is influenced by their motivation and confidence For successful autonomous practice, it is essential for learners to integrate their ability, willingness, knowledge, and skills effectively.
Benson (2001) also supports Holec’s view (1981, p.2) when defining LA as
Learner autonomy (LA) is defined as the capacity of learners to take control over their own learning, emphasizing their voluntary responsibility in the process Benson (2009) elaborates on LA as a combination of abilities, attitudes, and dispositions, highlighting the importance of students developing autonomous learning skills Consequently, teachers play a vital role in fostering these abilities, ensuring that learners are equipped to manage their own educational journeys effectively.
Learner autonomy as responsibility
Language autonomy (LA) emphasizes the importance of learners taking responsibility for their own education According to Holec (1981), being in charge of one’s learning involves making decisions about every aspect of the learning process By embracing this responsibility, autonomous learners can effectively manage their educational journey.
Learner autonomy (LA) involves crucial decisions regarding personal learning, including setting objectives, outlining content and progressions, selecting methods and techniques, monitoring the acquisition process, and assessing outcomes Dickinson (1987) emphasizes that in LA, learners are fully accountable for all decisions related to their learning and its execution (as cited in Hui, 2010) Little (1991) further defines autonomous learners as individuals who visibly and evidently take responsibility for their own educational journey.
Ho and Crookall (1995) propose a model that emphasizes the importance of learner autonomy among Chinese students by encouraging them to take responsibility for their own learning This involves making decisions regarding their study plans, evaluating their progress, and engaging in self-monitoring and assessment They highlight specific strategies to enhance decision-making skills, such as setting goals, holding weekly discussions on relevant topics, and acquiring essential skills like conflict resolution, professional communication, time management, and contingency planning.
Taking responsibility for learning autonomy (LA) involves cultivating specific behaviors and skills, which Benson and Voller (1997, p.2) categorize into five key components Learners are deemed autonomous when they can effectively manage their own learning processes.
Self-directed learning empowers individuals to cultivate essential skills that can be learned and applied independently By tapping into their innate abilities, often stifled by traditional educational systems, learners can take full responsibility for their own educational journeys.
According to Littlewood (1999), learner autonomy encompasses two key characteristics: the responsibility of learners for their own educational journey and the necessity for them to establish their learning objectives, identify their preferred learning styles, and evaluate their progress This highlights the importance of active engagement in the learning process, as students who are attentive to their education are more likely to seek out effective learning strategies that suit their individual needs.
15 way for him, plan his short-term and long-term study, and then self-evaluate what he gains
Researchers emphasize that autonomous learners must take responsibility for their own learning activities To achieve this, they need to develop conscious attitudes towards learning, which will be explored in the following section.
Learner autonomy as cognitive processes
Learner autonomy (LA) is defined by researchers as a cognitive process essential for independent learning Wenden (1991) emphasizes that autonomous learners possess the strategies, knowledge, and attitudes necessary to navigate their learning confidently and flexibly She highlights the importance of understanding learning strategies, metacognition, and learner attitudes in developing LA Dickinson (1995) further describes LA as an attitude towards learning, where students take charge of their educational decisions White (1995) supports this view, suggesting that LA involves learners taking control of their language learning process Dam (1995) defines LA as a readiness to manage one’s own learning to meet personal needs, while Little (2000) underscores individuality and independence as core elements of LA, asserting that individual cognition is intertwined with social interaction Ultimately, learners' cognition and attitudes towards LA play a crucial role in their educational journey.
Metacognition plays a crucial role in shaping the learning attitudes of autonomous students As defined by Hennessey (1999, p.3), it encompasses the awareness of one's own thinking and conceptions, the active monitoring of cognitive processes, and the regulation of these processes to enhance further learning Additionally, metacognition involves applying a set of heuristics to effectively organize learning methods.
Metacognition, defined by Rolheiser, Bower, and Stevahn (2000) as "thinking about thinking," refers to learners' awareness of their cognitive processes, enabling them to develop essential skills to achieve goals According to Rolheiser et al (2000), students with metacognitive skills can effectively compensate for limitations in ability and information Harris (2003) further emphasizes that metacognition involves strategies for planning, monitoring, and evaluating language use and learning, which are crucial for fostering learner autonomy.
In short, learners’ consciousness in autonomous learning plays an important role How to help students control this cognitive process is very vital to develop their learning effects.
Learner autonomy in lifelong learning
Language learning is recognized as a lifelong endeavor, as emphasized by Thomson (1996), who states that it lays the foundation for continuous education Jacobs and Farrell (2001) highlight that learners must view education as an ongoing process, while Kose (2006) refers to it as a lifelong learning project Borg and Al-Busaidi (2012) assert that language acquisition prepares individuals for lifelong learning, and Azizi (2014) notes that it is a continuous journey rather than a requirement for a specific situation Furthermore, Blidi (2017) argues that the advancement of lifelong learning significantly influences educational policies and teaching trends globally, serving as a vital link between educational outcomes and socio-economic needs He metaphorically describes lifelong learning as a bridge that connects education systems with societal demands Ultimately, lifelong learning is a crucial aspect of language acquisition in education.
Learner autonomy as cultural challenge
Recently, the concept of Language Awareness (LA) has gained attention in language teaching and learning across various settings, highlighting the significant role of culture in determining its effectiveness Blidi (2017) emphasizes the need for researchers to explore how cultural factors influence LA, noting that culture serves both as a motivation for LA and as a challenge in its promotion This perspective invites further research into the cultural characteristics of LA, particularly in contrasting Western and Asian contexts.
Asian students, particularly Vietnamese learners, face cultural challenges in Los Angeles classrooms, as highlighted by Ho and Crookall (1995), who emphasize the importance of respecting teachers' opinions and maintaining social hierarchies Littlewood (1999) distinguishes between East Asian students' reactive autonomy and Western students' proactive autonomy, indicating a fundamental difference in learning approaches Additionally, Đặng Tấn Tín (2010) notes that Vietnamese education is heavily influenced by cultural norms that prioritize memorization over creativity, leading to a lack of encouragement for students to take responsibility for their learning This cultural context results in a diminished focus on innovative thinking and experimentation in the educational experience.
(2012) indicates that East Asian students are used to teacher-centered method
Nguyễn Thanh Nga (2014) highlights three key differences between Western and Asian cultures in the academic environment Firstly, the relationship between teachers and students varies significantly; in Western cultures, there is a sense of equality and informality, allowing students to freely question and challenge their teachers and peers, fostering independence in learning In contrast, Asian cultures emphasize respect for teachers, who maintain control over students' education, leading to a more passive learning approach where students are often hesitant to ask questions Additionally, the learning styles and approaches to education further distinguish these two cultural perspectives.
Western education emphasizes a student-centered approach, encouraging deep learning and the development of critical thinking skills, whereas Asian students typically rely on teachers for knowledge, leading to a focus on surface learning and rote memorization Additionally, Western students value individual ideas and uphold academic integrity, rejecting dishonesty and plagiarism, while Asian students often view knowledge as communal and may not consistently cite sources in their work.
In Vietnam, English has been a fundamental subject in education from primary to university levels, yet it faces significant challenges that impact future development According to Kennett and Knight (1999), the traditional classroom setup promotes a one-way interaction where students primarily listen to the teacher, leading to limited engagement such as interruptions or clarifications Lê Văn Canh (2000) describes the English learning environment as a "cultural island," where teachers are seen as the sole providers of knowledge, emphasizing grammar over practical language use Teachers are expected to possess a strong grasp of English grammar and to provide immediate feedback on students' mistakes; failure to do so can be perceived as a lack of competence Consequently, the evaluation of students' learning outcomes is heavily reliant on their grammatical accuracy.
In a product-oriented educational framework, teachers take on the dual role of evaluators and guarantors of high pass rates, determining students' grades primarily based on examination performance This examination-driven approach often dictates the teaching methods, sidelining the individual learning needs of students and fostering an environment where they are expected to be passive listeners and imitators Consequently, rote learning becomes the norm, with students merely expected to regurgitate information in tests This dynamic highlights the pivotal role teachers play in knowledge transmission and learning quality assurance, but it also limits students' opportunities to engage actively in their own learning As noted by Đặng Tấn Tín, the teacher-centered nature of education in Vietnam reflects a broader cultural context that prioritizes traditional teaching methods over student engagement.
For students in the Mekong Delta, learning achievement (LA) poses significant challenges, primarily due to low educational attainment and cultural attitudes According to Hồ Sỹ Anh (2018), only 12% of individuals from the Mekong Delta graduated from high school to university in 2014, marking the lowest rate in Vietnam Additionally, there is a lack of emphasis on education among families in this region, which complicates the efforts of both teachers and students to improve learning outcomes.
Implementing learner autonomy (LA) in the Asian context is challenging due to the influence of cultural backgrounds (Palfreyman & Smith, 2003) Curtis (2004) found that shifting students' beliefs from rote memorization to understanding is essential for fostering autonomous learning at RMIT University in Vietnam Blidi (2017) notes that students' varying perceptions of LA stem from their diverse cultural experiences Despite the complexities posed by cultural backgrounds, integrating culture with LA can enhance the learning process.
20 are thought and redefined in the learning setting, culture can become a mainly advanced factor to develop students’ LA ability
Scholars give all above definitions of LA in Western and Asian context of language education Research has been carried out to establish the appropriacy of
Little (1999) emphasizes that learner autonomy (LA) is a widely embraced approach to language learning that transcends cultural boundaries Consequently, it is essential to reevaluate and redefine the concept of LA within the context of foreign language education in the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam.
Learner autonomy in this study
Examining the key elements of language acquisition (LA) presents a challenge, as identifying the most significant components in language learning is complex (Benson, 2006) Therefore, this analysis of various definitions of LA aims to clarify its essential characteristics.
In the context of the Mekong Delta in southern Vietnam, learner autonomy (LA) is redefined as the cognitive ability of language learners to take charge of their own education by setting goals, planning, practicing, monitoring, and assessing their learning processes with guidance from teachers Understanding students' cultural backgrounds enables teachers to better support and orient them in their autonomous learning journey It is crucial for educators to design engaging LA activities and motivate students to actively participate in their learning For students to thrive as autonomous learners, they must be proactive and fully comprehend their roles in the learning process With proper support from teachers, students can develop the skills necessary for lifelong autonomous learning, which will benefit them even after university graduation.
Understanding the definitions of Learning Analytics (LA) is crucial for both teachers and students, but it is especially important for educators to grasp additional aspects of LA to enhance its implementation for their students.
There are 21 definitions of Learning Analytics (LA) that are not universally agreed upon by researchers globally Nevertheless, there is a consensus on the importance of the learner's perception, intentions, and actions regarding their own learning, which can manifest in various detailed aspects.
Aspects of learner autonomy
Technical aspect of learner autonomy
According to Benson (1997, p.19), technical aspect of LA is clearly shown as
Learning a language independently, without the structure of a formal educational institution or the guidance of a teacher, empowers individuals to take control of their own learning journey This autonomy fosters a sense of responsibility and allows learners to tailor their experiences to their personal needs and preferences.
Positivism underpins the concept of learner autonomy (LA), as it posits that "knowledge is a more or less accurate reflection of objective reality" (Benson, 1997, p.20) The technical aspect of LA is associated with positivistic learning strategies and technical skills essential for students to take control of their own learning This approach emphasizes the importance of time, location, and methods of learning, along with effective planning, organization, and assessment To facilitate language acquisition and independent learning, it is crucial to equip learners with vital skills and techniques that allow them to navigate their studies without direct teacher support Previous research (Gardner & Miller, 1999, 2011; Morrison, 2008) has focused on enhancing learner autonomy in self-access learning centers Additionally, Benson (2006) explores various modes of LA that extend beyond traditional classroom settings.
22 self-access centre, computer-assisted language learning, distance learning, out-of- class learning, etc However, the technical perspective on autonomy would be hard to be moved without the psychology.
Psychological aspect of learner autonomy
The psychological aspect of learner autonomy (LA) encompasses learners’ attitudes and awareness in taking responsibility for their own studies, as defined by Benson (1997) This construct includes cognitive features such as motivation and learning styles, which influence how learners engage with knowledge (Benson, 2001) In line with constructivism, learners are encouraged to discover and internalize knowledge, transforming complex information into personal understanding (Slavin, 2003) Oxford (2003) highlights that this aspect involves mental and emotional characteristics essential for developing LA Little (2003) further clarifies that autonomous learners possess a clear understanding of their course goals, actively plan their studies, and assess their learning outcomes Thus, enhancing mental factors like positive perceptions, along with skills such as reflection and proactive self-management, is crucial for fostering learner autonomy (Little, 2003).
Political aspect of learner autonomy
Political aspect of LA is based on critical theory, and focuses on learners’
Learner autonomy (LA) encompasses the ability of students to take charge of their learning processes and content, allowing them to navigate both personal and institutional educational environments (Benson, 1997) This approach highlights the rights of learners to actively engage in their education Additionally, critical theory underscores the significance of social contexts in shaping LA, framing it as a means of access to knowledge and learning opportunities.
Control, power, and ideology are sought in specific locations, circumstances, groups, institutions, and socioeconomic positions (Pennycook, 1997) Similarly, Oxford (2003) supports this notion by stating that the political-critical perspective fundamentally addresses issues of power, access, and ideology This implies that autonomous students have the right to manage their own learning environments, choose their learning activities, and pursue education free from obligation.
Sociocultural aspect of learner autonomy
Building on Benson's three aspects of language acquisition (LA) from 1997, Oxford (2003) introduces a sociocultural perspective that highlights the role of social interaction in learners' cognitive and language development This perspective is rooted in Vygotsky's sociocultural theory (1978), which posits that cognitive growth occurs through environmental stimulation and social interactions Vygotsky (1978) defines the Zone of Proximal Development as the gap between a learner's independent problem-solving abilities and their potential development, which can be achieved through guidance from adults or collaboration with more skilled peers Essentially, this suggests that learners benefit from instructional support and peer cooperation rather than working in isolation.
Promoting autonomy in language learning requires consideration of the cultural contexts of learners, allowing them to engage with the world uniquely and become authors of their own narratives (1997, p.45) Sociocultural approaches are essential for understanding how individual behaviors, attitudes, and motivations interact with cultural meanings and social interests in specific learning environments (Palfreyman, 2003, p.13) Moreover, learner autonomy is inherently collaborative, as highlighted by Little (2004, p.19) through Leni Dam’s example (1995), and is further explained by Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, which illustrates the relationship between collaboration and autonomy (Little, 2004, pp 21-22).
24 relates to the interactions of the students and their environment, namely a variety of problems, community, and relationships
It can be seen that three above aspects of LA advocated by Benson (1997,
2006) are necessary conditions The “social” perspective that Oxford (2003) suggests is the sufficient condition – the environment for educators to implement
The four-aspect model of learner autonomy (LA) is widely recognized in academic research, with numerous Asian scholars utilizing it to investigate the perceptions and practices of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers and students Key studies by Lê Xuân Quỳnh (2013), Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Lệ (2009), Nguyễn Thanh Nga (2014), Nguyễn Văn Lợi (2016), and Wang & Wang (2016) highlight its significance in this field.
Perceptions and practices
Perceptions
Perception is a complex process involving awareness, organization, and analysis of sensory information, as defined by various researchers Angell (1906) describes it as the consciousness of material things presented to our senses, while Kanwisher (2001) emphasizes the extraction of perceptual information from stimuli, regardless of conscious experience Chambers Dictionary highlights perception as recognizing one's environment through physical sensations, reflecting an individual's understanding Bodenhausen and Hugenberg (2009) view perception as the interface between external and internal worlds, and McShane and Von Glinow (2010) define it as making sense of the surrounding world Ultimately, perception shapes our understanding of reality, influencing our actions based on how we interpret our position in the world.
25 forms and determines their behavior Thus, in order to understand one’s behavior, it needs to understand their perceptions
In the field of Language Assessment (LA), the concept of "perception" is critical for understanding the viewpoints of both EFL teachers and students, as evidenced by various studies (Al Asmari, 2013; Azizi, 2014; Đặng Tấn Tín, 2012; Dogan & Mirici, 2017; Dương Mỹ Thẩm & Seepho, 2014; Gardner, 2007; Haji-Othman & Wood, 2016; Harati, 2017; Joshi, 2011; Wang & Wang, 2016) This research aims to delve into the perceptions of teachers and students regarding the concept of LA, highlighting their understanding and cognition of this important educational aspect.
Language teachers' perception, as defined by Borg (2006), encompasses their cognition, familiarity, and beliefs Xhaferri et al (2015) utilized Borg and Al-Busaidi's questionnaire (2012b) alongside the views of Benson (2011) and Little (1991, 1999) to identify ten key concepts that serve as a framework for exploring beliefs about learner autonomy (LA) These concepts include technical, psychological, social, and political views on LA, the teacher's role, LA's relevance to diverse cultural contexts, age and language proficiency considerations, implications for teaching methodology, and the relationship between LA and effective language learning Xhaferri et al (2015) emphasize that these concepts represent different theoretical aspects of learner autonomy that cannot be viewed on the same level Various researchers (Haji-Othman & Wood, 2016; Keuk & Heng, 2016; Nguyễn Thanh Nga, 2014; Nguyễn Văn Lợi, 2016; Wang & Wang, 2016) have employed these concepts to investigate EFL teachers' perceptions or beliefs regarding LA.
Learners’ perceptions of LA are an important issue for both educators and learners themselves investigated by a number of language researchers Van Lier
According to Jacobs and Farrel (2001), acting on learners' perceptions of their own learning enables them to enhance their strengths and address their weaknesses (1996) White (1995) emphasizes that learners can only progress when they cultivate an understanding of the nature of language learning (p 209).
Learners can develop the ability to practice language acquisition (LA) by understanding their role in the learning process However, if they hold incorrect beliefs, it may lead to the adoption of ineffective language learning strategies, ultimately hindering their success in mastering the language.
Understanding Language Awareness (LA) is essential for both teachers and students, particularly in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL), to adapt to new educational standards Teachers' insights into the significance of LA, derived from their academic expertise, contribute to their growth as professional language educators Similarly, students' understanding of LA and its relevance plays a crucial role in their academic success Thus, exploring how teachers' and learners' perceptions of LA influence their practices is vital for educators aiming to enhance language teaching and learning outcomes.
Practices
Before discussing the practices of both teachers and learners towards Learning Analytics (LA), it is essential to define the concept of practice While numerous studies have examined how educators and students engage with LA, the definition of practice itself has often been overlooked Typically, these studies focus on the actions taken by teachers and students to enhance LA implementation This research aims to clarify the concept of practice, as highlighted by Dewey (1904), who asserts that defining practice is contingent upon one's purpose Dewey emphasizes that understanding practice is crucial for effective engagement in educational contexts.
“an instrument in making real and vital theoretical instruction; the knowledge of subject-matter and of principles of education” Additionally, practice is define d as
The practical application of ideas, beliefs, or methods, as defined by the Oxford Living Dictionaries, highlights the importance of hands-on experience in education Engaging in practice allows students to enhance their understanding and effectively acquire knowledge, proving that real-world application is crucial for learning.
Teachers’ practices of LA relate to the ways they instruct their students doing
One of Vygotsky's key concepts is the Zone of Proximal Development, which refers to the range where learners can work independently while still requiring assistance This framework emphasizes the importance of guided support in the learning process, allowing individuals to progress effectively.
(1994, p 124) claims that instructing students how to study is an important duty for teachers According to Dam (1995), teachers have a vital role to play in enhancing
Learner autonomy (LA) is essential for fostering independent learning, as highlighted by Sheerin (1997), who notes that most learners require preparation and support from teachers to achieve greater autonomy (Benson & Huang, 2008) Gardner and Miller (1999) identify three key motivations for teachers to promote LA in language education: it enhances student characteristics, can be implemented both in and out of the classroom, and is a vital component of effective educational practices Furthermore, Đặng Tấn Tín (2012) asserts that the development of LA should be approached systematically and deliberately (Holec).
Since 1981, educators and researchers have implemented diverse practices tailored to specific contexts, empowering learners to take greater control of their education Teachers play a crucial role in enhancing students' learning autonomy by encouraging them to cultivate the readiness and willingness to become self-directed learners (Blidi).
2017, p.14) Thus, language teachers’ roles in promoting students’ LA ability have been researched
In autonomous learning contexts, teachers adopt various roles that differ from traditional models, including facilitator, counsellor, and resource (Riley, 1997; Benson & Huang, 2008) Benson and Voller (1997) highlight these roles in fostering learner autonomy As facilitators, teachers manage classroom activities and assist students in creating personalized learning plans (Lowes & Target, 1999) In the counsellor role, teachers listen to students' learning challenges and provide tailored advice (Nunan, 2003) Additionally, as resources, teachers guide learners in selecting materials that align with their individual learning styles.
Teachers play a crucial role as facilitators and counselors by empowering students to take responsibility for their learning They assist students in setting personal goals, planning practice opportunities, and evaluating their progress, ultimately guiding them to embrace accountability in their educational journey.
28 their own learning, guide them to be reflectively engaged in planning, monitoring and evaluating their learning”
Teachers play a crucial role in helping students identify and correct their misconceptions about language use, which is essential for their development as effective language learners (Boakye, 2007) Building on this concept, Little (2009) emphasizes the necessity for educators to assist students in recognizing their individual learning desires In a similar vein, Yan (2012) supports the notion that awareness of personal learning goals is vital for student success.
Autonomy in education necessitates a shift in the roles of both teachers and learners To effectively promote autonomy, teachers must adapt their approaches to align with this new paradigm The success of fostering autonomy is significantly influenced by teachers' awareness and acceptance of their evolving roles in the learning process.
According to Yan (2012), educators should transition from teacher-centered approaches to learner-centered methods, placing students at the core of the teaching process Additionally, Benson (2016) highlights the importance of teachers in fostering students' learning autonomy.
Teachers aiming to promote autonomous learning must prioritize the personal relevance of the language being taught While learners are typically best equipped to identify their own interests and goals, teachers can support this process by scaffolding self-determined objectives and decision-making Additionally, educators can guide students toward resources and activities that align with their individual learning aspirations.
To enhance learning autonomy (LA) among students, teachers should follow five key steps: first, actively engage students in their learning process; second, provide a variety of choices and learning materials; third, offer opportunities for students to make their own decisions; fourth, assist students when they encounter challenges; and finally, encourage reflection on their practical experiences with LA Furthermore, the study identifies ten strategies to support teachers in developing their students' learning autonomy.
29 profession through fostering LA for their students They are encouraging student preparation, drawing on out-of-class experience, using “authentic” materials and
“real” language, independent inquiry, involving students in task design, encouraging student-student interaction, peer teaching, encouraging divergent student outcomes, self- and peer-assessment, encouraging reflection (Benson, 2016, p xxxix)
Regarding students’ practices of LA, based on Holec’s definition (1981) of
In the realm of language acquisition (LA), students can enhance their learning responsibility through five essential actions: determining objectives, defining content and progressions, selecting appropriate methods and techniques, monitoring the acquisition process, and evaluating outcomes (Holec, 1981) Building on this foundation, Dam (1995) emphasizes that autonomous learners must take charge of their education by setting aims and purposes, choosing materials and methods, and establishing evaluation criteria To effectively engage in these activities, learners need to be proactive, form their own opinions, and create opportunities for study.
From a different angle, many researchers have tried to rank LA into its continuum of linked representation For example, Macaro (1997, pp.170-172) suggests a three-phase model including “autonomy of language competence”,
Littlewood (1999) builds on Macaro’s perspective by presenting a model of learner autonomy that encompasses language acquisition, learning approach, and personal development He distinguishes between two levels of autonomy: proactive and reactive Proactive autonomy allows learners to independently establish their own learning paths, while reactive autonomy, often seen in East Asian students, involves following a pre-established direction without creating one This highlights a significant difference in autonomy between Eastern and Western learners.
Learners should strive to organize their resources autonomously to achieve their goals, transitioning from reactive to proactive autonomy (Littlewood, 1999) Scharle and Szabó (2000) propose a three-stage model for developing autonomy, which includes raising awareness, changing attitudes, and transferring roles Similarly, Benson (2001) outlines a model of levels of learner autonomy that encompasses learning control and organization, cognitive processes, and learning content Benson (2006) emphasizes that these models illustrate a positive progression of learner autonomy from lower to higher stages.
Relationship between perception and practice of learner autonomy
Bodenhausen and Hugenberg (2009) highlight the clear relationship between perception and action, stating that "perception is linked to action in some fairly obvious ways." They visually represent the interplay between input, perception, cognition, and action through a diagram, emphasizing the significance of understanding this connection in various contexts.
Figure 2.1: The interaction of perception, cognition, and action
Figure 2.1 illustrates how an individual's perception, shaped by cognition, influences their actions, which in turn affect their perception This study explores the interplay between perception and practice within this cyclical relationship.
Teachers' perceptions play a vital role in shaping their teaching practices, as they directly influence the selection of educational objectives and activities According to Buchmann (1986), the objectives of education can significantly impact teachers' beliefs about what is appropriate to teach and their understanding of their professional roles These conceptions ultimately shape their teaching methods and approaches.
31 to understand how their beliefs affect their teaching are critical to teachers’ development and change in teaching practices Similarly, Florio-Ruane and Lensmire
Positive change in education is heavily influenced by teachers' beliefs, attitudes, and prior experiences, as noted by 1990 Meaningful instructional change requires a fundamental shift in teachers' knowledge and beliefs Additionally, Blake and Pope (2008) emphasize that when learners are effectively taught learning strategies, they can achieve significant academic success Therefore, when teachers comprehend and apply these strategies, they enhance their effectiveness in the classroom.
Learners' beliefs play a crucial role in their language acquisition efforts, significantly influencing their motivation, attitudes, and learning strategies (Horwitz, 1987; Riley, 1996) Research indicates that these beliefs can have a more profound impact on the learning process than external stimuli from teachers (Riley, 1996) Additionally, scholars like Wenden (1986) and Erlenawati (2002) emphasize that learners' beliefs shape their learning practices, evaluation methods, and overall motivation, highlighting the importance of addressing these beliefs in language education.
Teachers' and students' perceptions significantly influence their practices of Learning Analytics (LA), whether explicitly or implicitly Conversely, their practices can also shape their understanding and perceptions of LA Researchers worldwide have noted inconsistencies between teachers' and students' perceptions and practices of LA, highlighting the impact of various contextual factors within the broader sociocultural environment Further details will be provided in section 2.6.
Assessment as learning in learner autonomy
Assessment as learning as an indispensable segment of LA
Boud (1995, p.36) asserts that "assessment always leads to learning," highlighting that each assessment communicates essential messages to students regarding their learning objectives and methods He underscores the importance of learners' understanding of assessment and its integral connection to their learning process.
Assessment is a crucial aspect of the teaching and learning process, aimed at enhancing student learning (Berry, 2008, p.17) It enables students to utilize assessment data to set learning goals, make informed decisions about their educational journey, and deepen their understanding of quality work Furthermore, students are encouraged to evaluate both their own learning and that of their peers, fostering discussions about their current academic status and receiving feedback not only from teachers but also from fellow students In essence, Berry (2008, p 17) defines assessment as an integral tool for supporting and improving learning outcomes.
Learning assessment (LA) involves conscious and systematic activities by teachers and students to gather, analyze, and interpret information, ultimately leading to informed decisions and actions that enhance teaching and learning Integrating LA into autonomous learning is crucial, as it empowers learners to become "authors of their own worlds" (Pennycook, 1997, p 45) According to Boud (2002, p.2), assessment serves as a vital "prompt for learning," guiding students on what to learn and how to approach it Consequently, assessment significantly influences learners' study decisions, making it essential for students to gain a clearer understanding of their learning progress.
Assessment as Learning (AaL) is one of the three key assessment approaches utilized in Learning Analytics (LA) According to Earl and Katz (2006), AaL is defined as an active cognitive restructuring process that takes place when individuals engage with new ideas, positioning students as vital links between assessment and learning Berry (2008) supports this notion, highlighting that AaL empowers students with learning responsibility, encourages deep learning, and emphasizes metacognition Furthermore, Berry identifies three essential functions of AaL: it helps learners comprehend the standards expected of them, enhances their abilities in self-monitoring, self-assessing, self-evaluating, and self-correcting, and ultimately fosters a more engaged and reflective learning process.
Developing personalized study plans is essential for enhancing learners' understanding of their learning processes and the strategies they utilize to improve their academic performance Therefore, the application of Active Learning (AaL) in Learning Analytics (LA) is crucial for fostering Learning Analytics in higher education.
Assessment as Learning (AaL) plays a vital role in Los Angeles education, focusing on equipping students with metacognitive skills for autonomous learning The primary goal of AaL is to empower students to become effective assessors of their own learning To achieve this, teachers must actively introduce and instruct students while providing opportunities for self-assessment (Earl & Katz, 2006).
Teachers’ role
In assessment as learning (AaL), teachers are essential in crafting instruction and assessment that empower students to reflect on and track their own learning progress (Earl & Katz, 2006) Additionally, they are responsible for promoting the development of autonomous learners by implementing AaL strategies effectively.
• model and teach the skills of self-assessment;
• guide students in setting goals, and monitor their progress toward them;
• provide exemplars and models of good practice and quality work that reflect curriculum outcomes;
• work with students to develop clear criteria of good practice;
Students should be guided to create internal feedback and self-monitoring systems that enable them to validate and critically assess their own thinking This process will help them become more comfortable with the ambiguity and uncertainty that often accompany the learning of new concepts.
• provide regular and challenging opportunities to practise, so that students can become confident, competent self-assessors;
• monitor students’ metacognitive processes as well as their learning, and provide descriptive feedback;
• create an environment where it is safe for students to take chances and where support is readily available
According to Berry (2008), the role of teachers in Assessment as Learning (AaL) is crucial, as they strategically plan their instruction to create opportunities for students to engage in self-assessment and peer-assessment of their learning.
Teachers play a crucial role in observing and assessing learners' practices of learning autonomy (LA) to identify students' strengths and weaknesses By doing so, they can develop targeted teaching plans that foster student independence According to Gardner (1999), teachers have three essential responsibilities in this process: first, to enhance learners' awareness of the benefits of self-assessment; second, to guide students in completing self-assessment forms; and finally, to ensure that students understand the advantages of self-assessment in promoting their autonomous learning.
Teachers must engage in self-assessment of their language arts (LA) instruction for several important reasons According to Airasian and Gullickson (1994), self-assessment involves reflective practices such as personal theorizing and analysis of teaching effectiveness This reflective process allows teachers to critically evaluate their instructional methods to identify areas of improvement Boud (1995) emphasizes the importance of providing self-assessment tools, including checklists, to enhance both teacher and learner outcomes Madsen (2005) notes that self-assessment encourages teachers to reflect on their practices and determine the effectiveness of their teaching strategies, leading to better planning for future lessons Additionally, Nova (2017) highlights key benefits of self-assessment, including the recognition of necessary teaching activities, improved teaching performance, and enhanced accountability for future instructional efforts.
Learners’ role
Students play a crucial role as active participants in assessment as learning by personally analyzing and evaluating their educational experiences This critical engagement allows them to adjust their study goals and set new learning objectives Consequently, students serve as vital links between teaching and learning (Berry, 2008).
Autonomous language learners are responsible for their own learning and progress, highlighting the importance of self-assessment in higher education This approach equips students to tackle not only known challenges but also unforeseen problems, as emphasized by Brew (1995).
Self-assessment is a crucial component in evaluating learners' knowledge and skills (1999) Little et al (2007) highlight its importance in fostering learner autonomy (LA) among language teachers, emphasizing that self-assessment enhances learner reflection on their language learning and goals According to Little (2010), LA involves learners taking control of their education through planning, monitoring, and evaluation Self-assessment serves as a key mechanism for promoting LA, allowing learners to establish personal standards for measuring their strengths and weaknesses Little (2004) identifies learner reflection, facilitated by self-assessment, as one of the core principles of LA, underscoring the necessity for students to evaluate their learning outcomes to recognize areas for improvement.
36 will set up suitable learning goals and study plan in the next time This also shows students’ ability in assessing their development in learning.