INTRODUCTION
Rationales
Reading is a fundamental language skill essential for academic success, particularly at the tertiary level It serves as the primary gateway to diverse information sources, laying the groundwork for the development of other language skills.
Synthesis and critical evaluation skills are vital for effective reading, which Anderson (2003) identifies as a crucial ability for English learners to achieve academic success Both internal and external factors play significant roles in enhancing the comprehension process.
Effective reading strategies and diverse learning styles are essential for successful language comprehension These strategies serve as intentional methods to grasp the author's intent (Olshavsky, 1977) and involve problem-solving actions aimed at achieving understanding or communication objectives (Wenden, 1987).
Reading strategies, as defined by 1989, are essential learning techniques and skills that enhance learners' efficiency and effectiveness in processing texts These strategies involve specific techniques chosen by individuals to navigate reading materials In contrast, learning styles are personal traits that vary among individuals, meaning that certain methods and resources may resonate more with some learners than others (Burke & Dunn, 2003).
Sternberg and Grigorenko (2001) emphasize that styles function unconsciously, while strategies require conscious decision-making In the context of language learning, Bailey et al (2000) support this distinction, noting the importance of awareness in choosing learning approaches.
Learning styles differ from learning strategies; learning styles are automatic traits of individuals, while learning strategies are deliberate actions chosen by students to enhance their learning experience.
Understanding learners' individual learning styles is crucial for teachers to create effective learning tasks tailored to their needs When a teacher favors a specific learning approach, some students may struggle to engage and learn effectively Therefore, awareness of diverse learning styles significantly influences teaching methods and enhances educators' understanding of their students' requirements This knowledge encourages teachers to differentiate instructional materials not only based on difficulty but also according to varying learning styles, ultimately fostering a more inclusive learning environment.
Students who understand their own learning preferences can utilize different techniques to improve their educational experience, ultimately boosting overall satisfaction According to Claxton & Murrell (1987), awareness of individual learning styles enables students to recognize themselves as learners, which can enhance performance and lead to better learning outcomes.
In Vietnam, English is a foreign language that students typically study for 6 to 10 years in school and an additional 2 to 3 years at university Despite this extensive education, many students struggle to achieve proficiency in real-world communication This gap in language achievement can be attributed to a misalignment between teaching methods and students' learning styles, as well as ineffective learning strategies.
Numerous studies have assessed the effectiveness of reading strategies on comprehension, yet there is limited research on the relationship between preferred learning styles, reading strategies, and outcomes, particularly in the context of Vietnamese EFL education This gap in literature motivated our study at the International School - Thai Nguyen University, which aims to explore learners' diverse learning styles, the reading strategies they utilize, and their achievements in reading comprehension.
This study explored how learning styles and reading strategies influence reading comprehension achievement, providing insights for teachers to tailor their instructional methods to accommodate diverse language learners.
Statement of the problem
Learning is a multifaceted process that involves acquiring knowledge through various methods such as studying, teaching, practicing, and experiencing It extends beyond traditional classroom settings, emphasizing the importance of how learners process information through activities like reading, researching, and experimenting Understanding students' learning styles and strategies is crucial for teachers, as it enables them to tailor their teaching methods and activities effectively Research indicates that when teachers are aware of their students' preferred learning styles, it can alleviate learning difficulties and reduce frustration Moreover, this understanding influences curriculum design, teacher training, and material development, ultimately enhancing the educational experience Miscommunication between teachers and students can hinder relationships, underscoring the need for teachers to be attuned to their students' educational backgrounds Investigating language learning style preferences can provide valuable insights for developing effective language learning strategies that contribute to students' academic success.
Research indicates that a mismatch between teacher instructional styles and students' language learning styles can negatively affect language acquisition (Yu, 1996; Reid, 1987; Peacock, 2001; Stebbins, 1995; Tuan, 2011) This study explores how learning styles and reading strategies influence reading comprehension achievement, with learning styles and reading strategies as independent variables and academic reading achievement as the dependent variable.
Significance of the study
This study aims to enhance understanding of the relationship between learning styles and language learning strategies, particularly in the context of academic reading achievement It seeks to identify preferred learning styles among language learners preparing for the IELTS reading module The findings may provide teachers with general guidelines to align their teaching practices with the learning styles of their students Teaching style encompasses the behaviors associated with an instructor's beliefs and influences how information is presented, student interactions, and coursework supervision.
Teaching style plays a crucial role in enhancing students' learning experiences and academic outcomes, as highlighted by research from 2003 By understanding students' learning styles, educators can implement effective teaching strategies that cater to individual needs, making the learning process more intensive Claxton and Murrell (1987) emphasize that knowledge of learning styles allows educators to recognize the diverse backgrounds of students and design learning experiences that align with or challenge these styles Additionally, this study serves as a valuable reference for researchers interested in exploring the effects of learning styles and strategies on language achievement.
Aims of the study
This study aimed to identify the preferred learning styles of English language learners at the International School of Thai Nguyen University, enabling teachers to tailor their teaching methods to diverse learner preferences Additionally, it sought to explore the relationship between students' perceptual learning style preferences and their selection of reading strategies Finally, the research investigated the correlation between students' learning styles, preferred reading strategies, and their language reading achievement in the IELTS reading module.
Research questions
With the aforementioned aims, the study attempts finding answers to the following research questions
1 What are the preferred learning styles of the non-English majored students at Thai Nguyen University?
2 What is the relationship between learning styles and reading strategies uses?
3.What is the relationship between learning styles, reading strategies towards academic reading achievement?
Scope of the study
The study involved 152 second-year students at the International School of Thai Nguyen University, the sole institution within the university that uses English as the medium of instruction across all disciplines The diverse student body hails from various countries, including Laos, Myanmar, the Philippines, East Timor, and Nigeria To prepare for English-taught lectures, first-year students undergo a one-year intensive English course, with a required language proficiency of B2 (CEFR) or a minimum score of 5.5 in the IELTS or FCE examinations for progression to their major The course emphasizes the development of four macro language skills, primarily for exam preparation Employing a correlation research design, the study aimed to explore the relationship between quantifiable variables, utilizing a purely quantitative method to collect data from the participants.
The study is divided into five chapters
Chapter 1 - Introduction relates to the rationale for the research Besides, it shows the significance of the study, the aims and objectives, research questions, the scope, the methods and the design of the study
Chapter 2 - Literature review supplies an overview of theoretical background and previous studies involved in the research topic
Chapter 3 - Research Methodology describes the methods used for this study, data collection instruments, data collection procedures and data analysis procedure
Chapter 4 - Findings and Discussion provides the findings and discussion of the research based on results of the action research methodology
Chapter 5 – Conclusion and Recommendation comes up with the summary, implications and some suggestions for further studies
In Chapter 1, the researcher outlines the study's rationale, research problem, scope, aims, significance, and key research questions The subsequent chapter will delve into the theoretical framework, define key terms, and review related work in the field.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical framework
The concept of learning styles, introduced in the 1960s, emphasizes that individuals learn differently in terms of speed and method, which can significantly impact their confidence and processing of information When teachers recognize these diverse learning styles, they can tailor their teaching practices to meet the unique needs of each student, potentially enhancing classroom engagement (Gappi 2013:70) Conversely, a mismatch between students' and teachers' learning styles may lead to discomfort, boredom, and lack of motivation, ultimately affecting students' academic performance (Felder & Spurlin 2005:103) It is crucial for educators to help students identify their learning styles and provide constructive feedback, while also fostering an environment that encourages exploration of alternative learning methods (Farajolahi & Nimvari 2014:159) By understanding their own learning preferences, students become more prepared and analytical about their educational strategies, which is vital for effective self-directed learning (Farajolahi & Nimvari 2014:159) Thus, learning styles serve as students' comfort zones, defining the optimal conditions for their educational success (Tuan 2011:287).
Learning styles are defined in various ways, reflecting different purposes and approaches According to Curry (1991, p 249), there is significant confusion regarding the definitions of learning styles, leading to considerable variation in the scale and scope of learning, academic achievement, and other behaviors predicted by these concepts.
Many research works have then explored the types and the nature of strategy use, the effectiveness (if any) of language learning styles (LLS) However, as stated by Phakiti
Research indicates a lack of empirical evidence linking language learning strategies (LLS) to their practical application in real contexts (2003, p.7) Rees-Millers (1993, p.11) emphasizes the need for empirical studies to assess the effectiveness of learner training before its implementation in classrooms Consequently, further research on LLS among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, particularly in mountainous regions, is essential to guide learners in selecting appropriate strategies for acquiring the target language.
In the EFL context, this study utilizes Reid's (1995) theoretical framework, which defines learning styles as the natural and preferred methods individuals use to absorb, process, and retain new information and skills This concept outlines a profile of an individual's learning approach, serving as a blueprint for how they perceive, interact with, and respond to their learning environment (Dürnyei, 2015).
Definitions and nature of learning styles
As stated in the previous part, learning style is defined variously Below are some definitions of learning styles:
“The term learning style refers to the general approach preferred by the student when learning a subject, acquiring a language, or dealing with a difficult problem.”
“Learning styles are internally based characteristics, often not perceived or consciously used by learners, for the intake and comprehension of new information.”
Learning style encompasses a blend of environmental and perceptual preferences that affect our sensory and physical needs, as well as cognitive factors that influence how we understand and organize our experiences Additionally, social preferences, shaped by cognitive, personality, and emotional factors, play a crucial role in determining our behavior in learning contexts.
An individual's learning style refers to their preferred method of processing information, acquiring knowledge, and demonstrating learning It encompasses the unique habits and strategies they employ, particularly in deliberate educational settings, reflecting their optimal way of thinking and engaging with new concepts (Prichard, 2009: p 41).
Learning styles are unique to each individual, indicating that students do not all learn in the same way Each person adopts a learning approach that suits them best, often leaving behind less comfortable methods For instance, some students thrive in quiet environments, while others benefit from physical movement, such as walking or vocalizing their study material.
Researchers have varying opinions on the nature of learning styles Keefe (1982) suggests that learning styles are stable traits that influence how learners engage with their environment, while Ehrman and Oxford (1990) argue that these styles are inherent characteristics that persist regardless of teaching methods or classroom settings According to Reid (1998), learners often use their learning styles unconsciously to absorb and comprehend new information However, Ehrman and Oxford also note that learners can develop new styles over time and adapt existing ones as they become more aware of them, as highlighted by Sternberg (1994).
Learning styles are not fixed at birth and can evolve throughout different life stages and situations, influenced by environmental factors and reinforcement Rewarding specific learning approaches can lead to a preference for those styles, while tasks designed for particular styles can further shape learner preferences Kinsella and Sherak (1998) emphasize that learning styles are not entirely innate; rather, they can be reinforced by classroom dynamics and values Consequently, learners often gravitate towards methods they frequently encounter, particularly when these methods lead to academic success, reflecting habitual patterns in knowledge acquisition.
A brief discussion of learning style models
Numerous classifications of learning styles have emerged from both theoretical and practical studies, with Coffield et al (as cited in Matheoudakis & Alexiou, 2010) identifying 71 distinct models These classifications vary based on different student characteristics during the learning process De Bello (as cited in Hein & Budny, 1999) highlights that some models are multidimensional, incorporating cognitive, affective, and psychological traits, while others focus on a single dimension Each new approach builds upon the previous ones, contributing to the evolving understanding of learning styles (Güven, 2004) Notable learning style approaches and their corresponding models are widely recognized in educational research.
Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model
Honey and Mumford‟s Learning Styles Model
Reid‟s Perceptual Learning Style Preferences
2.3.1 Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model
The Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model is a prominent framework in the study of learning styles This model emphasizes that an individual's unique biological and developmental traits significantly influence their learning processes and the acquisition of new information and skills Dunn and Dunn identify five key learning style stimuli, each accompanied by specific elements that cater to different learning preferences.
Environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological, and psychological stimuli play crucial roles in learning Environmental stimuli include factors such as sound, light, temperature, and room design Emotional stimuli encompass motivation, persistence, responsibility, and structure Sociological stimuli refer to learning contexts, whether alone, in pairs, with peers, or with a teacher Physiological stimuli involve perceptual intake, daily energy patterns, and mobility needs Lastly, psychological processing stimuli are categorized as global or analytic, hemisphericity, and impulsive or reflective thinking styles.
Kolb‟s learning style model which is based on Kolb Experiential Learning Theory was developed by Kolb Based on this experiential model, learning is defined by Kolb as
The process of knowledge creation involves transforming experiences, as described by Baker, Jensen, and Kolb (2002) This model features individual learning styles represented in a circular format, encompassing four key stages: concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC), and active experimentation (AE) (Kaya, ệzabacı & Tezel, 2009) The Kolb's learning cycle visually illustrates these stages.
Figure 2.1 The Kolb’s learning cycle (Güven, 2004, p.27)
Kolb's learning model, as cited in Kolb & Goldman (1973), outlines two key dimensions of learning: the transition from abstract conceptualization to concrete experience, and from active experimentation to reflective observation This framework illustrates how individuals perceive knowledge through concrete experiences and abstract thinking, while integrating it through reflective observation and active experimentation Learning occurs through four modes: feeling (concrete experience), watching (reflective observation), thinking (abstract conceptualization), and doing (active experimentation) Kolb further emphasizes that all learning involves a cycle of these four modes, with individuals typically favoring one mode over the others (Groat, 1998) The four distinct learning styles identified by Kolb—converger, diverger, assimilator, and accommodator—are based on this learning cycle (Kolb & Goldman, 1973).
2.3.3 Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles Preferences
Honey and Mumford's learning styles model, which builds on Kolb's experiential learning framework, categorizes learners into four distinct styles: activists, reflectors, theorists, and pragmatists This model outlines a learning cycle that highlights the preferred learning style of individuals, as illustrated in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Honey and Mumford’s learning styles associated with learning cycle
Activists thrive on experiential learning, engaging in diverse activities and collaborative environments that foster idea sharing and experimentation They prefer hands-on experiences over repetitive tasks, as this approach enhances their learning and creativity.
Reflectors prioritize gathering extensive information before making decisions, embodying the principle of "look before you leap." They focus on understanding the broader context by considering past experiences and valuing the viewpoints of others.
Theorists strive to organize and connect their observations within established frameworks, allowing them to understand the relationships between different insights By continually questioning and evaluating how new information can be incorporated, they enhance their existing knowledge structures.
Pragmatists actively pursue and utilize new ideas, focusing on their practical implications before assessing their value They believe that if an idea is effective, it is worthwhile, but if it fails, further analysis is often seen as unnecessary (Prichard, 2009, p.43).
2.3.4 Reid’s Perceptual Learning Style Preferences
Reid's perceptual learning style preferences model, developed in 1987, aims to identify the preferred learning styles of foreign language learners in universities According to Reid (1995), perceptual learning styles reflect the sensory differences among learners in their understanding and organizing of experiences He categorizes learning styles into three main types: sensory or perceptual, cognitive, and affective/temperament Sensory learning styles focus on the physical learning environment and the use of senses to gather information Research by Dunn (1990) indicates that visual learners may struggle in auditory teaching settings, highlighting the variability in learning preferences Reid also notes that learners often exhibit multiple learning styles and can adapt based on their environment or tasks Cognitive styles pertain to problem-solving and information organization, with field-independent learners favoring structured contexts, while field-dependent learners thrive in collaborative settings Affective learning styles consider the emotional aspects of learning, emphasizing the importance of motivation, engagement, and feedback in the learning process.
According to Mulalic, Shad, and Ahmad (2009), learners' styles, including visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile, are categorized based on their perceptions, alongside social aspects such as group and individual preferences that highlight optimal learning methods Reid (1995) identifies six primary learning style preferences: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, group, and individual By leveraging these learning style preferences, individuals can enhance their performance and achieve better learning outcomes.
Visual learners excel in absorbing information through visual aids such as books, chalkboards, and workbooks, allowing them to effectively retain and understand instructions According to Reid (1995), this learning style enhances their comprehension and information retention through reading.
Auditory learning style preference allows individuals to effectively absorb information through listening, as highlighted by Mulalic, Shad, and Ahmad (2009) Reid (1987) further emphasizes that students who favor this style often enhance their retention by reading aloud For auditory learners, resources such as audio tapes, lectures, and class discussions prove to be particularly advantageous for their learning process.
Kinesthetic learners prefer active involvement in their learning process, engaging in activities such as drama, role-play, and physical movement (Mulalic, Shad & Ahmad, 2009) They thrive on hands-on experiences and benefit from participating in classroom practices that allow them to physically engage with the material To enhance retention of information, kinesthetic learners require opportunities for activities like field trips and role-playing (Reid, 1995).
There is one more learning style: Tactile major learning style preference Reid
(1995) indicates that tactile learners can learn well if they the chance to deal with hands-on experiences with materials such as experiments in a laboratory, handling and building models
In addition, the other learning styles which create the social aspects of the Reid‟s learning style preferences is group major learning style preference According to Reid
Factors affecting learning styles preference
Learning style preferences are influenced by various factors, with differing impacts on learners at different stages Ramayah et al (2011) found that peers influence all four learning styles, while technology primarily affects reading and writing, and cultural background impacts visual, aural, and kinesthetic styles Additional studies support the significant role of culture in shaping learning preferences (Charlesworth, 2008; De Vita, 2010; Lee, 2011; Song & Oh, 2011) Specifically, research indicates that cultural differences have a "marginally significant" impact on the preference for active experimentation versus reflective observation, while age and specialization play a larger role However, culture significantly influences the choice between abstract and reflective learning styles (Joy & Kolb, 2009).
Research indicates diverse learning style preferences among language learners, with Korean students favoring visual methods, while Arabic and Chinese learners lean towards auditory styles Japanese learners show preferences for auditory and tactile approaches, and Spanish speakers also prefer auditory learning, contrasting with Vietnamese learners who favor visual techniques Reid's study of 152 ESL students revealed significant gender and grade-level differences in learning styles, finding that male and graduate students preferred visual and tactile styles more than their female and undergraduate counterparts Additionally, Lim's exploration of 173 secondary school students identified a majority as assimilators and divergers, highlighting the varied learning preferences in educational settings.
Research on learning styles and gender has produced mixed results A study by Logan and Thomas (2002) examined the learning styles of university distance education students using Honey and Mumford’s learning style questionnaire and the Grasha and Reichmann Learning Style Scale The findings indicated significant differences in learning styles based on gender, with female students exhibiting more pragmatic, theorist, and reflector styles compared to their male counterparts However, the results from the Grasha and Reichmann scale presented a different perspective.
Reichmann Learning Style Scale showed no significant difference between students‟ learning styles and their gender
Kumar, Kumar, and Smart (2004) conducted a study involving 65 students from two mid-sized universities in the Midwest, utilizing the Grasha and Reichmann Learning Style Scale for data collection The findings revealed that the students exhibited learning style preferences characterized as participant, dependent, and collaborative.
A study conducted by Uzuntiryaki in 2007 examined the learning styles of 265 tenth-grade high school students using the Grasha and Reichmann Learning Style Scale The findings revealed that the students predominantly exhibited participant, dependent, and collaborative learning styles.
According to Dunn (1978), as referenced by De Porter and Hernacki (1999), various factors significantly influence learning styles, including physical, emotional, sociological, and environmental elements For example, some students may perform optimally in well-lit environments, while others thrive in bustling, crowded settings.
Learning styles are essential in shaping how individuals acquire knowledge, as they are influenced by personal experiences and their transformation into effective learning processes (1984) Gardner (1993) emphasizes that learning styles encompass a blend of cognitive, emotional, and physiological factors that consistently indicate how learners engage with their environment Similarly, Stewart and Felicetti (1992) highlight that learning styles define the optimal educational conditions for student success Ultimately, understanding learning styles is crucial, as they significantly impact a person's learning outcomes.
Learning styles encompass visual, auditory, reading, and kinaesthetic preferences, focusing on how individuals prefer to learn rather than what they learn In foreign language education, teachers implement various strategies tailored to these learning styles, enhancing students' language performance and overall success in their studies.
Learning styles and academic achievement
Academic achievement, as defined by Ahmad et al (2011), is a key indicator of a student's success, reflecting the knowledge and skills acquired across various courses This success is assessed through tests, assignments, and final exams, adhering to the standards set by educational institutions (Garner-O'Neale & Harrison, 2013) High-performing students often demonstrate specific traits, including effective learning strategies and preferred learning styles.
Numerous studies have explored the connection between learning styles and academic achievement, revealing significant relationships (Kopsovich, 2001; Gokalp, 2013; Jilardi et al., 2011) Research indicates that aligning teaching methods with students' learning styles can notably improve academic performance, particularly at the primary and secondary levels (Smith & Renzulli, 1984) Educators have sought various strategies to boost student achievement, including identifying individual learning styles to leverage strengths (Abidin, 2011) Castro and Peck (2005) highlighted that a student's preferred learning style can either facilitate or hinder success in foreign language classes Additionally, Abidin et al (2011) noted that students often exhibit multiple learning styles, which can enhance their learning effectiveness Dunn et al (1995) further emphasized that students perform better when taught using approaches that align with their learning styles.
Accommodating a student's learning style can enhance their attitude towards learning and boost their thinking skills, academic success, and creativity (Irvine & York, 1995) Previous research on learning styles has effectively categorized learners by ability, with Kolb (1984) identifying four distinct learning styles—accommodation, assimilation, converging, and diverging—and four corresponding learning modes: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation.
In 1978, a comprehensive model was developed that integrated environmental, emotional, sociological, physical, and psychological elements of learning styles, demonstrating their relevance to teaching strategies and academic success A study by Rajshree (2013) involving 200 students from 9th to 11th grades in Maharashtra revealed that kinesthetic learning styles were more prevalent than visual and auditory styles among secondary school students Furthermore, a strong positive correlation was found between kinesthetic learning styles and academic achievement, indicating that the impacts of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles on academic performance are significant.
Researchers in learning styles emphasize that reflecting on personal learning preferences enhances meta-cognition, a crucial benefit of applying learning style theory in education This focus on meta-cognition cultivates effective learners capable of overcoming challenges and excelling in exams Thus, considering learning styles aligns with meta-learning strategies, such as goal setting, selecting suitable methods, and tracking progress, which are more effective for improving learning outcomes than merely presenting information or fostering basic understanding (Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996).
Reading strategies and reading comprehension
Reading strategies have been defined differently by different researchers Anderson
Reading strategies are defined as deliberate actions that learners choose and manage to achieve their goals (1999) These strategies, as noted by Paris et al (1983), are skills influenced by the reading context and the reader's awareness and intention A strategic reader possesses three types of knowledge: declarative (understanding what the strategies are), procedural (knowing how to apply them), and conditional (recognizing when and why to use them) Block (1986) emphasized that reading strategies reflect how readers approach tasks, what cues they focus on, how they interpret text, and how they respond to confusion Barnett (1988) described these strategies as mental operations that facilitate comprehension during purposeful reading Oxford and Crookall (1989) further characterized reading strategies as learning techniques and problem-solving skills that enhance effective and efficient learning.
Numerous studies have explored the connection between reading strategies and language proficiency, yielding varied results due to differing subjects and academic contexts In a 2015 study by Kate Tzu-Ching Chen and Sabina Chia Li Chen, high school students in Taiwan showed a preference for global reading strategies, with problem-solving strategies and support strategies following in importance Additionally, research conducted by Ngan Mai Hoang further contributes to this ongoing investigation.
A study conducted in 2015 at Northumbria University explored the relationship between reading strategy use and reading proficiency among Vietnamese students in the UK, revealing that these students were medium strategy users with no significant correlation between overall strategy use and reading comprehension Additionally, Poole (2005) investigated the reading strategies of 248 ESL university students in the U.S., finding that problem-solving strategies were frequently utilized, while global and support strategies were used at a medium frequency Gorsuch and Taguchi (2008) noted that Vietnamese college EFL students predominantly employed bottom-up, top-down, and cognitive strategies during repeated reading sessions Furthermore, Karbalaei (2010) compared reading strategy use between Iranian EFL and Indian ESL college students, discovering that Indian ESL students favored global, support, and metacognitive strategies, whereas Iranian EFL students primarily relied on problem-solving strategies.
Reading strategies and academic achievement
Effective reading strategies are essential for helping students understand texts, particularly for those struggling academically Research by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) highlights that well-implemented strategies can promote autonomous learning Additionally, Caverly, Nicholson, and Radcliffe (2004) found that developmental students demonstrated notable improvement in both teacher-made and standardized reading comprehension tests, attributing this success to the use of cognitive, metacognitive, and affective strategies.
Reading strategies, as defined by Rubin (1987), are essential operations and routines that learners employ to enhance the acquisition, retention, retrieval, and application of information By intentionally utilizing these strategies, learners can make their educational experience more efficient, enjoyable, and self-directed Moreover, these strategies empower students to take charge of their learning journey, foster autonomy, and significantly improve their progress in developing second language skills.
Formal instruction on learning strategies positively impacts students' strategy use and enhances their learning rate (Long & Crookes, 1992) However, it is crucial that these strategies are contextualized for effective training, as decontextualized teaching of individual strategies over a short period lacks long-term benefits and fails to foster the development of strategic readers The cultivation of strategy use is a long-term process that can take several years Janzen (2002) identifies key factors in formal instruction that aid in transforming learners into strategic readers.
Inserting strategies in the content area of students' regular course
Teaching strategies through direct explanation, teacher modeling, and feedback
Recycling the strategies over new texts and tasks
Effective teaching strategies enhance reading tasks when they align with students' learning styles and are employed systematically Such strategies make learning faster, more enjoyable, and transferable to new contexts The ability to use these strategies distinguishes proficient readers, who apply them methodically, from struggling readers, who do so randomly Good readers can adapt their strategies as needed, facilitating efficient reading progress Integrating strategy training into academic courses allows students to practice, evaluate, and transfer these strategies in various reading tasks Additionally, providing appropriate contexts for strategy instruction enables teachers to model essential reading skills, thereby improving student performance Organized and reasoned use of learning strategies is crucial, as it promotes active text processing, comprehension monitoring, and connections to prior knowledge and other texts.
Reading serves as a fundamental source of information, providing learners with independent access to a wealth of knowledge, as well as enjoyment (Gunning, 2007) According to Schmidt, Rozendal, and Green (2002), reading proficiency is crucial for academic success, with a strong link between inadequate reading skills and school failure Mastery of reading is vital for effective learning; without it, learners' potential for success in educational settings is significantly hindered (Bohlman & Pretorius, 2002; Martin & Carvalho, 2008).
The effectiveness of reading is significantly influenced by the strategies employed by readers, as they must navigate various tasks to fully understand a written text According to Johnston (1983), these strategies are crucial for successful comprehension.
Reading comprehension is a complex behavior that involves both conscious and unconscious strategies, including problem-solving techniques, to interpret the writer's intended meaning This understanding is built through schematic knowledge structures and various cues provided by the writer, such as words, syntax, and social context Readers generate hypotheses based on these cues and test them using logical and pragmatic strategies Since text is rarely fully explicit, much of the meaning must be inferred, as even the meanings of words depend on their context.
According to Gunderson (2014), comprehension occurs at three levels: literal-level comprehension focuses on recalling details from the text, inferential-level comprehension engages readers in deriving conclusions beyond the text's information, and critical and evaluative-level comprehension enables readers to assess the validity of a text, distinguishing opinion from fact, while applying the acquired knowledge in various contexts (p.28).
Reading strategies and learning styles
The reading process, from a psycholinguistic perspective, involves various activities that begin with the reader's visual recognition of printed features and culminate in textual comprehension Successful comprehension requires readers to extract, integrate, and interpret information by connecting it with their background knowledge (Koda, 2005) This interaction between the reader and the text can be viewed as a holistic event, encompassing cognitive, metacognitive, affective, and social dimensions (Rosenblatt, 1994) Many factors, including the reader's background knowledge, personal attributes, strategic processes, task demands, and reading context, significantly influence comprehension (Anderson, 1999; Grabe, 2009; Koda, 2005) In second language education, research has focused on the reading process to identify differences between successful and less successful readers, highlighting the importance of reading strategies—conscious procedures that enhance comprehension (Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001) While early studies suggested that successful readers employ different strategies (Block, 1986; Carrell, 1989), recent research indicates that successful readers utilize strategies more effectively or frequently (Anderson, 1991; Bouvet, 2002; Thampradit, 2006).
Research indicates that the awareness of strategic reading processes and the effective use of reading strategies are key differentiators between skilled and unskilled readers (2001) Grabe (2009) highlights that successful second language readers employ a diverse range of strategies tailored to their goals and reading tasks Furthermore, the significance of reading strategy awareness has led to studies examining the perceived use of these strategies among language learners and their reading abilities Findings show a correlation between learners' perceived use of reading strategies and their self-rated reading abilities (Alhaqbani & Riazi, 2012; Mónos, 2005; Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001), as well as their performance on reading comprehension tests (Barnett, 1988; Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012; Saeedeh, 2013).
Effective comprehension relies on various factors, particularly students' learning styles, which play a crucial role in understanding (Balci, 2017) According to Ellis (1985), language learners exhibit diverse traits such as personality, learning styles, motivation, aptitude, and age, all of which significantly influence their success or failure in mastering the English language.
One of these differences is learning style Learning style refers to an individual‟s habitual and preferred way of absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills (Wang, 2007)
Each learning style possesses unique strengths and weaknesses, indicating that no single style can define an ideal learner (Moradkhan & Mirtaheri, 2011) According to Richard & Platt (1992), a learning style refers to the specific method a learner employs to acquire knowledge, emphasizing personal preferences that enhance enjoyment and comfort in the learning process This concept highlights that learning styles focus more on the preferred methods of learning rather than the content itself Additionally, individuals have distinct ways of learning, which influence how they best receive and process information Some learners may thrive through visual aids (visual), prefer listening to music while studying (auditory), or excel in hands-on activities (kinesthetic) (Barbe & Milone Jr, 1981).
Understanding the diverse learning style preferences of students is crucial for educators, as it influences how they perceive, interact with, and respond to their learning environment By recognizing these variations, teachers can better accommodate individual differences in the classroom, ultimately enhancing the educational experience (Wang, 2007).
A number of researchers have argued that learning styles are an influencing factor in strategyuse (Cohen, 2003; Ehrman, Leaver, & Oxford, 2003; Ehrman & Oxford, 1990; Li
Research indicates a connection between learning styles and reading strategy use, as highlighted in studies by Qin (2006), Cesur & Fer (2011), Jafari & Mahboudi (2012), and Williams (2010) Despite these findings, there is a lack of empirical research exploring the relationship between these two factors, with only a few studies conducted by Corbitt (2013), Díaz & Diez (2009), Shen (2010), and Tsai (2012) addressing this gap.
Research indicates that learning styles significantly impact English learners' reading strategies at the university level For instance, a study by 2009 highlighted the influence of pragmatist and reflexive styles on the frequency of reading strategy usage Similarly, Shen (2010) demonstrated that perceptual learning style preferences play a crucial role in second language lexical inferencing among higher education learners Furthermore, Tsai (2012) found a strong correlation between reading strategy use and the learning styles of university-level English learners.
A study conducted in 2013 found a connection between perceived global strategy and learning styles among Spanish learners with learning disabilities In contrast, the research indicated no significant relationship between learning styles and the perceived use of strategies in the non-at-risk student group.
Learning style has a major role in academic achievement (Purnomo, 2009, Saadi,
In 2013, Rizky's research revealed a significant difference in English achievement among students based on their learning styles—visual, auditory, and kinesthetic Additionally, Gilakjani's 2012 analysis of Iranian EFL university students highlighted a preference for visual learning, indicating that those who favored this style achieved the highest academic success in their field of study.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research design
Research design is the framework for planning and conducting a study, encompassing the procedures and techniques used to address the research question (McMillan & Schumacher, 1984) This study employed a descriptive research design, which involves structured data collection to characterize a specific phenomenon without manipulating variables (Kumar, 2011) Additionally, the study was aligned with correlation research, which focuses on gathering data to assess the existence and strength of relationships between two or more quantifiable variables (Gay, 1996).
A research design is defined as a structured plan for conducting a study, ensuring maximum control over factors that could affect the validity of findings (Burns & Grove, 2003) It outlines the timing, location, and methods for data collection and analysis (Parahoo, 1997) The design must align with the research's purpose, which dictates the chosen methodology Therefore, it is crucial for researchers to clearly specify their research objectives and questions prior to developing the research design, as these elements guide the overall methodology and structure of the study (Cohen et al., 2002).
This study utilized a purely quantitative approach to collect data from students, focusing on the development and application of mathematical models, theories, and hypotheses as outlined by Hunter, Laura, and Leahey (2008) Data was obtained through self-administered semi-structured questionnaires, with preferred learning styles identified as the primary independent variable and reading strategies as the secondary independent variable The dependent variable for the study was academic reading achievement.
Participants
The study analyzed data from 152 second-year students at the International School, Thai Nguyen University (IS-TNU), the sole institution within Thai Nguyen University offering English as the medium of instruction across all disciplines To graduate, students must achieve a B2-CEFR level in recognized international exams like IELTS or FCE Cambridge All participants completed a year-long intensive English course, comprising 73 males (48%) and 79 females (52%), as illustrated in Table 1.1 and Figure 1.3, which detail the gender distribution among participants.
Table 3.1 Number and percentage of participants by genders
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Figure 3.1 Number and percentage of participants by genders
Data collection instruments
3.3.1 Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire
The Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ), developed by Reid in 1987, was utilized in this study to assess learning preferences among non-native English speakers This self-report questionnaire incorporates modifications suggested by non-native speakers and is tailored specifically for them, featuring five statements for each of the six learning style preferences: visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, tactile, group learning, and individual learning The first four preferences fall under perceptual learning styles, while the last two are categorized as social learning styles Participants rated their agreement with each statement using a five-point Likert scale, from strongly agree to strongly disagree, and were encouraged to respond quickly without overthinking their answers Reid validated the questionnaire using the split-half method, refining an initial set of 60 statements to retain five for each learning style To enhance accuracy, the PLSPQ is available in both English and Vietnamese, accommodating the primarily Vietnamese participant group.
3.3.2 Survey of reading strategies (SORS)
The Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS), developed by Sheorey and Mokhtari (2002), is a 30-item self-assessment tool designed to measure the metacognitive awareness and perceived use of reading strategies among adolescent and adult ESL students when engaging with academic materials Utilizing a 5-point Likert scale, respondents evaluate their reading strategies, with scores ranging from 1 ("I never or almost never do this") to 5 ("I always or almost always do this") The SORS is structured into three categories: global reading strategies (13 items) that assess intentional examination of texts, problem-solving strategies (8 items) that address comprehension issues, and support strategies (9 items) that include techniques like underlining and note-taking to aid in understanding This comprehensive approach makes SORS an effective instrument for evaluating reading strategy use in educational settings.
The SORS categorizes strategies into three distinct types: global, problem-solving, and support strategies To analyze the frequency of use for each category, the researcher calculated the mean, median, and standard deviation The mean for each strategy was determined by summing the responses (1, 2, 3, or 4) indicated by participants for each statement.
The researcher calculated the subscale scores by dividing them by the number of statements in each category Following the methodology of Sheorey and Mokhtari (2002), three levels of means—high, medium, and low—were established to assess the frequency of metacognitive reading strategy usage High scores are defined as 3.5 or above, medium scores range from 2.5 to 3.4, and low scores are 2.4 or below The overall averages for each category in the SORS questionnaire indicate the most and least utilized strategies among students.
To enhance data analysis, a student demographic background questionnaire was incorporated alongside SORS and PLSPQ This questionnaire gathered essential information on participants' gender, age, nationality, native language, self-assessed English reading proficiency, duration of English study, and daily reading habits in both English and their native language outside of the classroom Participants were guaranteed that all collected data would remain confidential, and they were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time if they felt uncomfortable.
Data collection procedures
The researcher obtained permission from the administration of International School-Thai Nguyen University to conduct a study on second-year students With the assistance of instructors, the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ) was administered during class time Students were informed about the survey and filled out the background questionnaire in class, while volunteers completed the PLSPQ at the end of the session.
15 minutes of the class Participants were shown the formula to figure out their own perceptual learning styles which were Major Learning Style Preference, Minor Learning Style Preference or Negligible
In the following week, participants completed the second survey, which consisted of the 30-item Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) They identified the metacognitive reading strategies they believed they employed while reading in English The researcher emphasized that there were no right or wrong answers, encouraging honest responses All completed forms were subsequently collected by the researcher.
Data analysis instruments
This study investigates the correlation between students' learning styles and reading strategies and their academic achievement Data on learning styles were gathered using the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire, while the Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) was employed to assess students' reading strategy usage Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 20, with 160 surveys distributed and 152 valid responses collected, as some were deemed unintelligible or had only one option selected.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Results of the research question 1
What are the preferred learning styles of the non-English majored students at Thai Nguyen University?
Table 4.1 Number and percentage of participants by learning styles
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Figure 4.1 Number and percentage of participants by learning styles
The data presented in Table 4.1 and Figure 4.1 indicates that the most favored learning styles among participants are visual and group learning, accounting for 42.8% and 31.6%, respectively In contrast, tactile, auditory, kinesthetic, and individual learning styles were significantly less preferred, with percentages of 9.9%, 7.9%, 5.3%, and 2.6%.
Results of the research question 2
What is the relationship between learning styles and reading strategies uses?
The descriptive statistics (Table 4.2) show that the participants use reading strategies at medium level (M = 3.1684)
Table 4.2 The mean score of the reading strategies uses
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std Deviation
*OVRSORS: Overall uses of SORS
Table 4.3 Mean score of major, minor, and negligible learning styles
Std Error 95% Confidence Interval for
Minimum Maxi mum Lower Bound Upper
Table 4.4 Test of Homogeneity Variances for visual learners
Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig
Sig of Levene test = 0.209 > 0.05 so we can use the results in the ANOVA
Table 4.5 Sig F of the ANOVA for Visual learning styles
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig
There is a significant difference between major learning styles, minor learning styles, negligible styles, and the use of reading strategies at the p < 0.05 level (F (2,149) =1.007, p
= 0.0368) Figure 2.1 shows that visual learners as major learning styles use reading strategies more often (M=3.18)
Figure 4.2 Visual learning styles and the use of reading strategies
Table 4.6 Test of Homogeneity Variances for tactile learners
Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig
Sig F = 0.0368