INTRODUCTION
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
To effectively implement concept mapping in enhancing reading comprehension, it is essential to understand its theoretical foundations This chapter examines existing literature to explore the nature of concept maps and their connection to language acquisition.
2.1.1 Overview of the emergence of concept mapping
Concept mapping has gained popularity across various fields such as science, mathematics, educational psychology, management, and language pedagogy This section aims to provide an overview of the key trends that have sparked interest in concept mapping as an effective instructional and learning tool, enhancing learners' critical thinking, comprehension, and retention of information.
Historical examples of early graphical organizers, often referred to as tree diagrams before the term "concept mapping" was coined, include the tree of Porphyry, which dates back to 280 A.D (Ahlberg, 2008) Additionally, Ramon Llull (1232-1315), known for his contributions to the Romance Catalan language and Neoplatonic mysticism in 17th-century Europe, utilized tree diagrams to organize knowledge effectively (Horton).
LITERATURE REVIEW
CONCEPT MAPS
2.1.1 Overview of the emergence of concept mapping
Concept mapping has gained popularity across various fields, including science, mathematics, educational psychology, management, and language teaching This section aims to provide an overview of the key trends that have sparked interest in concept mapping as an effective instructional and learning tool, enhancing learners' critical thinking, comprehension, and retention of information.
Historical examples of early graphical organizers, known as tree diagrams before the term "concept mapping" was coined, provide fascinating insights into knowledge representation The tree of Porphyry, dating back to 280 A.D., is the earliest known graphic representation of concepts and their relationships (Ahlberg, 2008) Additionally, Ramon Llull (1232-1315), who contributed to the development of the Romance Catalan language and influenced Neoplatonic mysticism in 17th-century Europe, also utilized tree diagrams to organize knowledge (Horton).
The "Tree of Knowledge," a diagram created by Lovitt and Bergerud around 1270 A.D., illustrates a central theme surrounded by subordinate concepts (Nast, 2006) This historical representation highlights the early understanding of knowledge visualization, utilizing color, lines, and associations to enhance human thinking, showcasing that such graphical displays were recognized over 1000 years ago.
The notion of concept maps dates back to research team at Cornell University in 1972 when they studied science concept learning in children (Afamasaga-Fuata’i,
2009) In 1979, Stewart, Van Kirk, and Rowell (1979, p 171) claimed in their book
In "The American Biology Teacher," it was noted that early concept maps lacked named links, making them difficult to understand without author explanation In 1984, Novak and Gowin highlighted the necessity of labeled links for identifying relationships, leading to the development of more effective concept maps Novak's approach introduced named links that created meaningful propositions from concepts, resulting in the widely adopted Novakian concept maps, which are recognized as a significant educational innovation (Ahlberg, 2004).
2.1.2 Defining concept maps and concept mapping
Concept maps are organizational tools that represent knowledge, as described by Novak (1992) Lanzing (1996) highlights that concept mapping is a technique that illustrates how individuals visualize relationships among different concepts According to Liu et al (2010), concept mapping serves as a strategy that aids learners in organizing their understanding effectively.
Strategies are intentional actions employed by students to enhance their learning and recall of both language and subject matter content According to Chamot (as cited in Ellis, 1999), these strategies can be effectively supported through the use of visual aids Furthermore, the definition of concept maps, as outlined by Novak and Caủas (2006), provides essential guidance on the latest approaches to creating Novakian types of concept maps.
Concept maps are visual tools designed to organize and represent knowledge, featuring concepts typically enclosed in boxes and connected by lines that indicate relationships These connecting lines are labeled with linking words or phrases that clarify the relationship between the concepts The connections between concepts create propositions, which are meaningful statements about objects or events, formed by linking two or more concepts together.
In other words, concept maps represent meaningful relationships between concepts in the form of propositions Also for Novak (1992), concept is defined as a
Concept maps utilize words or symbols to express the perceived regularity in events or objects, with propositions serving as unique statements that connect two or more concepts through a linking relationship, thereby forming a unit of meaning (Novak, 1992) Additionally, cross-links illustrate interrelationships between ideas across different segments of the map, enabling us to understand how concepts from one domain of knowledge relate to those in another.
“represents creative leaps” of the map creator in his or her new knowledge development process (Novak & Caủas, 2006) Linking words may be general or
A reading strategy is essential for readers as it shapes their understanding of tasks, aids in making sense of the text, and provides methods to address comprehension challenges These strategies are vital processes that learners utilize to improve their reading comprehension and effectively tackle any difficulties they encounter (Singhal, 2001, p.1).
“contains”, “occurs in”, “is”, “uses”, “produces”, "involved in", "have", “such as”, etc (Noyd, 1998, para 4)
Traditional concept maps consist of labeled concepts, directional arrows, linking words, and lines that indicate hierarchical relationships, effectively representing the connections among various concepts (Wheeldon & Faubert, 2009) According to Novak and Caủas (2006), these maps are structured hierarchically, with the most general concepts at the top and more specific ones at the bottom An illustration of this structure can be seen in Figure 2.1, which highlights key concepts such as "organized knowledge," "focus questions," and "concepts" within the domain of concept maps.
“propositions”, etc.; linking words are “show”, “is”, “begin with”, etc.; propositions are “concepts are hierarchy structured”, “concepts are labeled”, etc.; and cross-link is
“linking words are used to form propositions.”
Figure 2.1: Concept Map about Concept Maps by Novak [Source: the IHMC Internal Cmap server, part of the CmapTools network
(Caủas, Hill, Pộrez, Granados, & Pộrez, 2003)]
Concept maps are diagrams that illustrate the relationships between concepts, serving as a visual strategy to represent the knowledge structure of specific topics and the connections within that structure.
The ideal concept map is characterized by a hierarchical structure; however, several researchers, including Ruiz-Primo & Shavelson (1996), Hibberd, Jones & Morris (2002), and Ahlberg (2004), have questioned the foundational assumption of this hierarchy in knowledge representation within concept maps.
In their 1996 study, it was suggested that assigning a hierarchical structure to concept maps is unnecessary, as a hierarchical map should only be used if the content structure is hierarchical Similarly, Hibberd et al (2002) emphasized that concept maps can incorporate both hierarchical and network structures Ahlberg (2004) further supported this perspective by advocating for a more flexible approach to concept mapping, arguing against overly complex rules in Novak’s standards He proposed that concept labels can include multiple words, that arrowheads should indicate the direction of connections between concepts regardless of link orientation, and that multimedia resources and numerical indicators can enhance clarity in the reading order of propositions For a comprehensive list of Ahlberg's suggestions, refer to his 2004 work.
Figure 2.2 Improved concept map of Johanna concerns her municipality ‘Parikkala’
Ahlberg argues that while hierarchies effectively present human knowledge, it's crucial to explore the interconnectedness of concepts in our thinking He emphasizes that the universe operates as a system where everything is linked, suggesting that network or conceptual systems serve as the most effective representation of concept maps Supporting this idea, Ahlberg states, “any learning theory is compatible with improved concept mapping, because it is as general as language itself” (Ahlberg, 2008, para 12).
2.1.3 The theoretical underpinning of concept maps
It can be said that the idea of concept map is based on two cognitive theories of memory: Assimilation Theory of Ausubel (1968) and Associationist Theory of Deese
According to Fraser (1993), the fundamental idea in assimilation theory is that
Memory is hierarchical, with new information being processed and stored as either more general or more specific concepts related to existing knowledge (Croasdell et al., 2003) Ausubel’s learning theory emphasizes the importance of assimilating new information into students’ prior knowledge structures Meaningful learning occurs when students integrate new concepts into their existing frameworks, enabling them to retain and derive meaning from new knowledge.
THE LINKAGES BETWEEN CONCEPT MAPS AND LANGUAGE
Concept mapping has emerged as a highly effective strategy in language learning, demonstrating significant benefits for learners The connections between concept maps and language acquisition highlight their role in enhancing understanding and retention.
2.2.1 Concept mapping as a form of pre-task planning
Research has shown that concept mapping, as a pre-task planning tool, significantly enhances task performance among second language learners by effectively influencing the impact of planning time.
To improve students' reading comprehension, Carrel, Pharis, and Liberto (1989) introduced a pre-reading activity utilizing concept mapping During this process, students brainstormed on a specific topic, established connections between idea clusters, and visually represented these ideas on a graphic map The researchers discovered that implementing concept mapping as a pre-task activity equipped students with essential concepts and vocabulary related to the reading text, while also providing a comprehensive overview of the content to be learned.
Ojima (2006) implemented concept mapping as a pre-writing instructional strategy to enhance the writing skills of three Japanese ESL learners This approach involved brainstorming and discussing associated word clusters, where the instructor introduced the topic "watch" and guided students in creating a concept map Students were instructed to place the key concept in the center and expand on related ideas, such as "fashion" and "be on time." Following a group discussion to share ideas, each student produced their own composition within a set timeframe The findings indicated that pre-task planning activities significantly improved the quality of written texts in ESL classes, while also highlighting the unique ways each learner applied the concept mapping strategy based on personal experiences, motivation, and task conditions.
Fadhilah's (2009) study highlights the positive impact of concept mapping in pre-task activities to enhance students' reading comprehension The research involved two sessions: the first focused on pre-reading and while-reading activities, while the second included post-reading activities and comprehension tests During the pre-reading phase, the teacher set lesson objectives, engaged students in brainstorming to activate prior knowledge, and created a concept map to guide students in developing their own The findings suggest that using concept mapping as a pre-reading strategy actively engages students and significantly improves their reading comprehension skills.
2.2.2 Concept maps facilitate knowledge acquisition via meaningful learning
Concept maps are valuable tools for organizing ideas logically, fostering critical and creative thinking As noted by Novak and Caủas (2006), their hierarchical structure allows for the exploration of new connections between concepts By visually illustrating relationships, concept maps enable learners to uncover hidden links, organize information effectively, and develop new knowledge, ultimately enhancing their understanding of complex topics (Afamasaga-Fuata’i, 2009) This explicit knowledge-making process helps students recognize their existing knowledge and adjust it as needed Typically, learners start with a central topic and generate a web of related ideas, reflecting the brain's natural organization of concepts Chamot et al (1999) emphasize that information retention relies on mental pathways linked to an individual’s existing schema To construct a meaningful concept map, learners must identify key terms, related sub-concepts, and appropriate linking words or symbols.
Concept maps effectively condense complex information, enabling learners to understand intricate relationships among ideas without lengthy explanations By creating concept maps with key terms and essential questions, students can clarify their thoughts and develop varied interpretations of a topic (Tomlinson, 2001) Furthermore, Gul and Boman (2006) highlight that the flexibility of concept maps facilitates a deeper understanding of new concepts and connections between ideas Due to their visual nature, concept maps serve as valuable tools for note-taking and exam review, making it easier to recall information compared to traditional linear notes (Tomlinson, 2001; Arslan, 2006; Gul & Boman, 2006).
Indeed, concept map is a promising tool to facilitate critical thinking Adler
In 1978, it was emphasized that the primary goal of education should be to enable students to question and reflect on ideas, rather than merely providing information (Gul & Boman, 2006, p 200) Effective learning requires students to organize their thoughts to make ideas meaningful and communicate clearly Many learners face challenges in reading or listening due to a lack of tools for visualizing information Concept maps can help address this issue by highlighting key concepts and illustrating the flow of ideas in texts or lectures This tool not only aids students in focusing on essential ideas but also clarifies how authors develop their arguments As Tomlinson (2001, p 77) noted, concept maps can significantly assist students struggling with print materials, lectures, or information organization.
Inspired by Ausubel et al (1986), Daley et al (1999) highlighted that constructing a concept map can significantly improve understanding of a subject They proposed that concept learning occurs through three processes: subsumption, differentiation, and integrative reconciliation.
Subsumption involves reorganizing conceptual understanding to establish a hierarchy that aids in learning and retention For example, communication skills learned as individual interpersonal skills in one course can later be integrated into broader managerial skills in another course Progressive differentiation focuses on analyzing components of a larger concept, such as recognizing tenderness, redness, and swelling as signs of inflammation In contrast, integrative conciliation synthesizes these elements, understanding that inflammation encompasses all these symptoms collectively.
(as quoted in Gul & Boman, 2006, p 202)
Concept maps, when well-designed by teachers, can effectively scaffold content and language learning by clarifying complex relationships among concepts They help learners grasp the overarching themes of a topic and build a framework for understanding by highlighting main ideas and key principles By framing specific tasks and establishing meaningful purposes for activities, concept maps encourage deep learning (Le Thai Hung, 2008) Effective educators can utilize concept maps to create concise summaries of ideas within a topic or unit, making knowledge more accessible and integrated for students.
Concept map construction actively engages students in class activities, fostering a sense of ownership over the content, which enhances their ability to remember lessons This method creates a domino effect; by utilizing effective tools that promote high attention and engagement, students significantly improve their understanding and application of specific language structures, leading to substantial progress in their learning.
The creation of concept maps fosters meaningful learning by transitioning from prior knowledge to new concepts This approach encourages students to engage in complex and critical thinking, involving skills such as categorizing, inferring, summarizing, comparing, contrasting, and evaluating Consequently, learners are better able to understand, retain, and recall information when they use concept maps to organize and represent their knowledge (Chularut & DeBacker, 2004).
2.2.3 Concept maps assess learners’ critical thinking
Concept mapping serves as a valuable strategy for evaluating critical thinking as a learning outcome, demonstrating its effectiveness in both fostering critical thinking abilities and assessing their acquisition (Beissner, 1992; Daley et al., 1999; Thayer-Bacon, 2000; Castellino & Schuster, 2002; Wheeler & Collins, 2003) As an integral part of the learning process, assessment through concept mapping highlights the connection between education and professional practice This tool visually represents students' thinking, illustrating their understanding of a subject and measuring their learning growth (Akinsanya & Williams, 2004) By revealing cognitive structure changes, concept maps help identify misconceptions and facilitate recognition of knowledge development among students (Harpaz, Balik, & Ehrenfeld, 2004, in Gul & Boman, 2006) Furthermore, concept maps can assess student knowledge at a specific time and track its evolution over time (Kathol, Geiger, and Hartig, 1998) The adaptable nature of concept mapping accommodates learners at all levels, with beginners creating simple maps and advanced students developing more complex structures that reflect the interrelationships of various concepts (King and Shell, 2002).
Students benefit from revising their concept maps after receiving initial feedback, as this refinement indicates significant growth in their thinking and learning (Gul & Boman, 2006, p 203) Engaging in class discussions to create a comprehensive map allows students to receive constructive feedback from peers and teachers, enhancing their individual concept maps This process fosters critical thinking and reflection, resulting in more complex final maps compared to their initial versions Teachers can assess students' understanding through the ideas expressed in their concept maps, which can be analyzed and rated based on criteria reflecting varying levels of thinking (Gul & Boman, 2006, p 203) Furthermore, identifying misconceptions or incorrect relationships in students' maps provides teachers with valuable insights into areas where students struggle, allowing for adjustments in instructional strategies.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Research indicates that concept mapping significantly impacts language learning by serving as a pre-task planning tool, enhancing knowledge acquisition through meaningful learning, and assessing critical thinking skills Notably, it particularly aids in improving reading comprehension Based on these findings, the following hypothesis is proposed.
H1: Concept mapping implementation positively influences learners’ reading comprehension competence
Learners demonstrated positive attitudes towards the implementation of concept mapping, which was evident in their increased motivation and interaction during reading classes that utilized concept maps This relationship highlights the effectiveness of concept mapping in enhancing student engagement and learning outcomes (Wheeler & Collins, 2003; Dolehanty).
2008), which paves the path for the ensuing hypothesis:
H2: Concept mapping implementation positively influences learners’ attitudes toward concept maps
Figure 2.4 shows the framework of relationships among concept mapping, learners’ reading comprehension competence, and their attitudes toward concept maps
This study focuses on the use of Novakian concept maps for university students, recognizing the complexity of constructing such maps Importantly, creating concept maps in the classroom does not necessitate costly resources, making this approach suitable for the educational context in Vietnam The discussion highlights the advantages of concept maps, particularly in enhancing learners' attitudes and improving reading comprehension skills.
Learners’ attitudes toward concept maps
H2 competence forms a basic for the construction of the research tools, criteria for analysis and interpretation of collected data from samples at HCMUTE.
SUMMARY
This chapter has examined the key issues surrounding concept maps and their connection to language learning Prior research highlights the effects of concept mapping in EFL reading classrooms, prompting this study to investigate the practical application and educational benefits of integrating concept maps into reading instruction, specifically at HCMUTE and across Vietnam.
METHODOLOGY
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Research indicates a strong connection between concept maps and reading comprehension, particularly in the context of teaching English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Studies have shown that incorporating concept maps into reading instruction can significantly improve EFL learners' reading comprehension skills and increase their overall interest in reading.
Due to the limited research on concept maps in Vietnam, this study aims to explore the feasibility of integrating concept maps into reading instruction, specifically at HCMUTE.
So as to attain the objectives of the study, the two following research questions were formulated:
1 To what extent does the application of concept map impact EFL learners’ reading comprehension?
2 What are EFL learners’ attitudes toward lessons using concept maps?
In order to answer the first research question, tests and observation were used Questionnaire survey and observation were conducted to answer the second research question.
RESEARCH DESIGN
So as to answer the research questions, the study employed experimental approach
An experiment, as described by Seliger and Shohamy (1990), is a method for testing interrelated hypotheses within a controlled environment This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness and educational benefits of using concept mapping in reading instruction to improve students' reading comprehension The experimental method involved comparing pretest and posttest scores of students who were taught reading through concept mapping with those from a control class that did not utilize this technique.
The study was conducted at Ho Chi Minh City University of Technical Education, where English is a mandatory subject for all students training to become technical teachers and engineers nationwide After completing three courses of English for General Purpose (EGP)—General English 1, General English 2, and General English 3—students are expected to score between 310 and 350 on the TOEIC test.
The study involved 77 second-year students from non-English majors, divided into an experimental group of 38 and a control group of 39 The selection of these groups was based on similarities in age, gender, high school backgrounds, English learning duration, attendance at English centers, and reading proficiency, assessed through a questionnaire and a reading comprehension pretest Conducted over ten weeks from mid-September to early December 2010, the experimental group received eight weeks of lessons utilizing a concept mapping strategy, while the control group followed the same curriculum without concept maps Second-year students were chosen for this research due to their familiarity with the university's integrated skill approach, making them more suitable than first-year students, who might still be influenced by their previous high school teaching methods.
Understanding students' backgrounds is crucial as it can significantly influence study outcomes Table 3.1, derived from questionnaire 1 conducted in the first week, outlines the characteristics of the two groups The data is categorized into five key areas: (1) students' age, (2) students' gender, (3) the location of their high school, (4) duration of English learning, and (5) participation in additional English classes.
From Table 3.1, the predominant age of the two groups was 19 years old (34.2
In the study, the experimental group had an average age of 21.24 years, while the control group averaged 21.03 years Participants ranged in age from 19 to 29 years, with individuals aged 19 and 20 constituting over half of both groups.
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent male 33 86.8 34 87.2 female 5 13.2 5 12.8
At HCMUTE, a university focused on technical disciplines, the student population is predominantly male, with 33 males representing 86.8% of the experimental group and 34 males making up 87.2% of the control group.
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent city or town 10 26.3 12 30.8 countryside, mountainous area, or remote area
Table 3.3 The place where the students attended high school
The data indicates that the majority of students from both the experimental group (73.7%) and the control group (69.2%) attended high school in rural areas, including countrysides, mountainous regions, or remote locations Learning English in urban settings contrasts significantly with the experience in rural areas, where inadequate learning conditions and limited access to up-to-date teacher training hinder educational outcomes.
Participants Experimental group Control group
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent up to 3 years 1 2.6 0 0.0 from more than 3 up to 7 years 9 23.7 8 20.5 more than 7 years 28 73.7 31 79.5
Table 3.4 Students’ English learning length
The analysis presented in Table 3.4 reveals that the duration of English learning among students in both the experimental and control groups is quite comparable Over 75% of students in each group had extensive English education during their secondary and high school years prior to enrolling at HCMUTE Specifically, 73.7% of students in the experimental group reported studying English for over 7 years, while 23.7% had learned the language for 3 to 7 years, and only 2.6% had less than 3 years of experience In the control group, these figures were 79.5%, 20.5%, and 0.0%, respectively.
Frequency Percent Frequency Percent yes 6 15.8 6 15.4 no 32 84.2 33 84.6
Table 3.5 Information regarding whether students had attended extra English classes elsewhere
Table 3.5 shows a comparable percentage of students attending extra English classes in both the experimental group (15.8%) and the control group (15.4%), with only 6 students from each group indicating they had studied English elsewhere.
Table 3.6 Other places where students had attended extra English classes
Table 3.6 reveals that only five English centers were attended by students from both the experimental and control groups for extra English classes In the experimental group, 2.6% of students studied at Construction Technical College No.2, 5.3% at Nong Lam University - Center for Foreign Studies, and 7.9% at HCMUTE - Center for Foreign Studies In contrast, the control group had 7.7% of students at Nong Lam University - Center for Foreign Studies, 2.6% at HCMUTE - Center for Foreign Studies, and 2.6% each at the American-English Center and HCMC University of Pedagogy - Foreign Language Center.
The data gathered from Questionnaire 1 reveals that both the experimental and control groups share similar characteristics, including the number of students, age, gender, high school locations, duration of English learning, and attendance in additional English courses This indicates a resemblance between the two groups.
The pretest results indicate that students in both groups possess similar reading proficiency levels at the start of the course.
Descriptives Experimental group Control group
Table 3.7: Descriptive statistics for the pretest scores
The analysis of the two groups reveals that their average scores were closely aligned, with the experimental group averaging 5.842 and the control group at 5.667 Both groups exhibited identical median scores of 6.000 and comparable standard deviations of 1.6689 and 1.7671, indicating similar score dispersion They also shared the same minimum score of 2.0, maximum score of 9.0, and a range of 7.0 Given the mean difference of 0.175 and a high standard deviation, there is significant overlap in score distributions The t-test results show a p-value of 0.918, which exceeds the 0.05 threshold, suggesting that the difference in pretest reading scores between the two groups is not statistically significant Consequently, it can be concluded that both groups demonstrate equivalent levels of reading proficiency.
The project took place over ten weeks in the General English 2 course from mid-September to early December 2010 Concept mapping was utilized in the experimental group for 60 minutes once a week for eight weeks The instructor introduced the concept and construction of concept maps during the second class meeting This innovative teaching method was integrated throughout the reading process: at the pre-reading stage to enhance vocabulary and ideas, during the while-reading stage to provide a scaffold for text comprehension, and in the post-reading stage to facilitate discussion and summarization among students.
In the second class meeting for the experimental group, a 30-minute introduction to concept mapping was conducted, where the researcher provided handouts detailing the concept, characteristics of concept maps, common linking words, and examples of effective maps Following this instruction, the topic "Communication" was introduced, and students were given a list of concepts from the Unit 1 reading text "Body Talk" to discuss in groups They then created their group concept maps within 15 minutes, adhering to the outlined procedure.
1 Select major concepts from the list and think of other concepts that they think should be included into the map
SUMMARY
This chapter outlines the methodology used to investigate the effects of concept maps on reading comprehension and learners' attitudes towards lessons Data collection involved pretests, posttests, questionnaires, and classroom observations The analysis and discussion of the collected data will be presented in the following chapter.