Techniques for teaching english grammar in four selected high schools in bien hoa city m a

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY - HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE TECHNIQUES FOR TEACHING ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN FOUR SELE

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY - HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE

TECHNIQUES FOR TEACHING ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN FOUR SELECTED HIGH

SCHOOLS IN BIEN HOA CITY

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS IN TESOL

by ĐINH THỊ PHƯƠNG THOA

Supervised by

Dr LÊ HOÀNG DŨNG

HO CHI MINH CITY, SEPTEMBER 2010

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled

TECHNIQUES FOR TEACHING ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN FOUR

SELECTED HIGH SCHOOLS IN BIEN HOA CITY

in terms of the Statement of Requirements for Theses in Master’s Programs issued

by the Higher Degree Committee

Ho Chi Minh City, September 2010

ĐINH THỊ PHƯƠNG THOA

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, Đinh Thị Phương Thoa, being the candidate for the degree of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited

in the Library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for care, loan, or reproduction of theses

Ho Chi Minh City, September 2010

ĐINH THỊ PHƯƠNG THOA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to many people who helped me both directly and indirectly

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Dr Lê Hoàng Dũng, without whose guidance and support, I could not have finished this thesis

I would like to record my thanks for the dedication and helpful instructions

of all my teachers during the course

I would like to acknowledge my debt to Dr Lê Thị Thanh for helping me with the scope of the study before I had the proposal

I owe special thanks to all those who helped me in the study, particularly,

Ms Lê Thị Tươi, Mr Đinh Tất Thắng, Mr Nguyễn Văn Đức, Ms Châu Hồng Lam, for their help with the data collection for the study; all of the teachers and students participating in the study for their cooperation; and all my colleagues and friends for their encouragement, friendship and enjoyable company

Finally, my thanks go to my family, especially to my parents, who always gives me unfailing support, both in the collection of data and in everyday problems; to my husband for his love, understanding and support; to my little daughter for her enjoyable company; to my parents-in-law for their care and help with the baby; and to my brother for his encouragement

ABSTRACT

Teaching English grammar to high school students using the new textbook series in the light of CLT is a big problem to many teachers Exploring the actual practices, collecting opinions about the actual practices of teaching English grammar in the four selected high schools, and finding out the ways to improve the teaching of English grammar in these high schools are what the thesis aims at

The study is an explanatory and exploratory one, using qualitative data with the assistance of quantitative figures It employs questionnaires, interviewing, and observation with the participation of 345 students and 21 teachers from 4 high schools in Bien Hoa city, Dong Nai Province The results reveal that the teachers and students are just at the first step in applying communicative approach in grammar lessons with a lot of difficulties, among which are the lack of time for students’ practice and differences in students’ levels High school context and the need of communication in the target language require a combination of both traditional methods and CLT

Based on the findings coming from the real need of both teachers and students at the 4 schools surveyed, suggestions are made to provide some kind of references to contribute to the improvement of teaching English grammar in the selected high schools in particular, and other high schools in general

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY i

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

ABBRIVIATIONS xi

DEFINITION OF TERMS xii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 High school context 1

1.1.1 Tests and exams 1

1.1.2 The students 2

1.1.3 The curriculum and syllabus 2

1.2 The problem 3

1.3 Aims of the study 3

1.4 Research questions 4

1.5 Conceptual framework of the study 4

1.6 Overview of the study 5

CHAPTER 2: A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 7

2.1 What is grammar 7

2.2 The place of grammar in learning and teaching 8

2.3 Roles of grammar in different teaching methods 10

2.3.1 Grammar – Translation 10

2.3.2 The Direct Method 10

2.3.3 The Audio-lingual Method 11

2.3.4 Communicative approach 11

2.4 Deductive and inductive approaches to grammar teaching 13

2.4.1 Deductive approach 13

2.4.2 Inductive approach 13

2.5.1 Task-based Learning 14

2.5.2 I-I-I model 15

2.5.3 PACE model 16

2.5.4 PPP model 16

2.5.5 Criticisms of PPP 17

2.5.6 Reasons for the continuing dominance of PPP 18

2.6 Main techniques for teaching grammar 18

2.6.1 Presentation techniques 19

2.6.1.1 Using a rule explanation 19

2.6.1.2 Using translation 20

2.6.1.3 Using grammar worksheets 20

2.6.1.4 Using a self-study grammar 21

2.6.1.5 Using flashcards 21

2.6.1.6 Teaching through actions 22

2.6.1.7 Using realia 22

2.6.1.8 Using a generative situation 23

2.6.1.9 Using minimal sentence pairs 23

2.6.1.10 Using concordance data 24

2.6.1.11 Matching techniques 24

2.6.1.12 Text study 25

2.6.1.13 Problem-solving 25

2.6.1.14 Story telling 25

2.6.2 Practice techniques 26

2.6.2.1 Using oral drills 27

2.6.2.2 Written exercises 28

2.6.2.3 Listening and responding 28

2.6.2.4 Drama techniques 31

2.6.2.5 Songs and verse 31

2.6.3 Production techniques 32

2.6.3.1 Games 32

2.6.3.2 Problem-solving activities 33

2.7 Teaching adolescents 35

2.8 Prior local researches on teaching and learning grammar 35

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 38

3.1 Research design 38

3.2 Research instruments 38

3.2.1 Questionnaire for teachers 39

3.2.2 Questionnaire for students 40

3.2.3 Interview with teachers 40

3.2.4 Class observation 41

3.3 Subjects 42

3.4 Collection of data 43

3.4.1 Pilot study 43

3.4.2 Actual collection of data 44

3.5 Treatment of the collected data 44

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 46

4.1 Application of CLT in teaching English grammar in the selected high schools 46

4.1.1 General information about teaching and learning English grammar 46

4.1.1.1 Attitude towards grammar teaching and learning 46

4.1.1.2 Difficulties in learning English grammar 48

4.1.1.3 Elements deciding a satisfactory grammar lesson 49

4.1.1.4 Things that help the students most and least in learning English grammar 50

4.1.2 Application of CLT in grammar lessons 51

4.1.2.1 The teachers’ awareness of CLT and the traditional methods 51

4.1.2.2 Benefits of CLT in teaching English grammar using the new textbook series 51

4.1.2.3 Difficulties of CLT in teaching English grammar using the new textbook series 52

4.1.2.4 Limited use of authentic materials 54

4.2 Techniques for teaching English grammar at the selected high schools 55

4.2.1 Presentation 56

4.2.2 Practice 58

4.2.2.1 Highly rated traditional techniques 58

4.2.2.2 Activities with communication and an element of fun in students’ preferences 61

4.2.2.3 Ways to help students remember grammar rules 61

4.2.2.5 The use of teaching aids 63

4.2.2.6 Correction of students’ grammar mistakes 64

4.2.3 Production 66

CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS AND SUGGESTIONS 67

5.1 Findings 67

5.1.1 The use of CLT in grammar teaching at the selected high schools has just started 67

5.1.2 Examinations still direct the teaching of English grammar at the selected schools 68

5.1.3 Students lack time for practice using structures in class 68

5.1.4 The learning environment in these grammar lessons is not attractive enough to pull the students’ attention 69

5.1.5 Time-saving and traditional techniques are highly rated and popularly used in teaching English grammar in the selected high schools 69

5.2 Suggestions 71

5.2.1 To the administrators 72

5.2.2 To the teachers 73

5.3 Conclusion 74

BIBLIOGRAPHY 77

APPENDIX 1 83

APPENDIX 2 88

APPENDIX 3 93

APPENDIX 4 96

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Text study 25

Table 2: Substitution table for Is/Are there 27

Table 3: Techniques for teaching English grammar 34

Table 4: Questionnaire for teachers 39

Table 5: Questionnaire for students 40

Table 6: Contents of grammar to be completed at the time of observation 42

Table 7: Students' profiles 42

Table 8: Teachers' profiles 43

Table 9: The students’ purposes of studying English 47

Table 10: The students' feelings about learning English grammar 47

Table 11: The students’ difficulties in learning English grammar 48

Table 12: The students’ satisfaction of a grammar lesson 49

Table 13: Things that help the students most and least in learning English grammar 50

Table 14: Methods the teachers use in grammar lessons 51

Table 15: Difficulties in teaching grammar in the selected high schools 53

Table 16: Where to find additional materials for grammar lessons 54

Table 17: Kind of contexts the teachers usually use to illustrate the structure 55

Table 18: How to present a new structure 56

Table 19: The students’ preferences of presenting a new structure 57

Table 20: Techniques in the practice stage 58

Table 21: The students’ preferences of practising a new grammar item 61

Table 22: How to help students remember grammar rules 61

Table 23: Teaching aids to use in class 63

Table 24: Ways to correct students’ mistakes 64

Table 25: How students want their mistakes to be corrected 65

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Quantifiers 20

Figure 2: The present perfect tense 20

Figure 3: Flashcard 1 21

Figure 4: Flashcard 2 21

ABBRIVIATIONS

CLT: Communicative Language Teaching MOET: Ministry of Education and Training LTV: Luong The Vinh Specialised High School NHC: Nguyen Huu Canh High School

TH: Tam Hiep Semi-public High School DT: Duc Tri Private High School

DEFINITION OF TERMS Approach: theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve

as the source of practices and principles in language teaching

Context: the social, psychological and physical setting in which language use takes place

Method: an overall plan for presenting language material, based on the selected

approach

Technique: a specific activity manifested in the classroom

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION English as a subject has a rather long history in high schools in Vietnam However, the quality of teaching and learning English in Vietnamese high school context has raised a myriad of controversies in the society There have been alarming results in the teaching and learning English at high school level, as after seven years of learning, most students cannot communicate in the target language (Tran, 2008) It is time the warning bell of teaching and learning English rang

A brief look at the current situation of teaching English in Vietnamese high schools will help to explain this problem

1.1 High school context

1.1.1 Tests and exams

Vietnamese high school students are often overloaded with tests and exams: regular tests (oral tests, 15- minute-tests), one-period tests, and end-of-term exams

As for English, for every term, there are at least four regular tests, two one-period tests and one end-of-term test Assessment of the students’ learning results is based

on all four skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing Teachers can choose to test one of the four skills in regular tests But one-period and end-of-term tests must include several skills such as reading, listening and writing The content of tests must be closely related to the lessons at the time of testing

The structure of one-period tests and end-of-term tests consists of four parts: grammar and vocabulary (25%), reading (25%), listening (25%), and writing (25%) (Dong Nai Service of Education and Training, 2008) However, in reality, hardly any listening has been included in these tests (at least in Bien Hoa city, Dong Nai Province)

After three years of studying in high schools, students take the national high school graduation examination regulated by Ministry of Education and Training –MOET, which has no place for speaking and listening items It is this fact that

The focus of teaching and learning English in high schools is only on grammar, vocabulary and reading comprehension Both teachers and students are under pressure to complete the contents in the syllabus as well as to achieve high results

in exams

1.1.2 The students

Vietnamese high school students are generally under so much pressure to study The content of many subjects at school is too much a load for both students and teachers (Doanh, 2006) Most students attend classes all day and take evening classes and private tutoring academies As a result, they do not have much time left for English - a subject that is labeled “secondary subject” for many students (Tran, 2008) As for these ones, they learn English tiredly just to cope with the exams and

to complete the contents in the syllabus

1.1.3 The curriculum and syllabus

The curriculum of high school classes includes many subjects: Vietnamese and literature, mathematics, civil education, physics, chemistry, biology, history, geography, technology, physical education, foreign language, and computer science Among these subjects, English as a foreign language is a basic, obligatory one in the high school education program and an essential element in general knowledge

English as a subject is compiled in two series of textbooks: the standard and the advanced ones For the standard series, there are 3 forty-five-minute periods per week; the syllabus is for 35 weeks For the advanced ones, there is one additional period per week

The content of the English textbook series is compiled in themes and topics There are five parts in each unit, including reading, speaking, listening, writing, and language focus There are also some review tests for students to complete by themselves

1.2 The problem

Though communicative approach has been widely implemented since the 1990s (Richards, ND) in language teaching, it has just been recently applied in Vietnamese high schools, where traditional methods - which are one-way imparting of knowledge - have been so deep-rooted CLT was introduced in Vietnamese high schools on a large scale in the school year of 2006 - 2007, when the new textbook series, which were written with the focus on the learner-centred and the communicative language approaches and with tasks as the main method (MOET, 2006, 2007), began to be used In reality, the application of this approach has faced many obstacles such as large classes, teachers’ limited fluency in speaking and listening, and passive students

Among all the skills and aspects of language teaching, the most challenging part to use communicative approach in Vietnamese high school context is perhaps grammar There has been much controversy in the teaching of grammar Is it good for students to do as many grammar exercises as possible, just as the way we often do? Is it not better for students to absorb the rules intuitively through communicative activities than to be taught through special exercises explicitly aimed at teaching grammar?

Under so much pressure of completing the syllabus content and coping with the work load of tests and exams in limited time, what is really going on in grammar lessons in high schools, particularly in the context of Bien Hoa city, Dong Nai province? Though there have been several researches on how to teach grammar communicatively, even at certain high schools, techniques for teaching grammar communicatively in Vietnamese high school context, especially now that the new textbook series have been in use, have not been much discussed

1.3 Aims of the study

This study aims at:

1) understanding the actual practices of teaching English grammar with the focus on techniques in the light of CLT in the selected high schools

2) collecting opinions about the actual practices of teaching English grammar

in the selected high schools

3) seeking ways to improve the teaching of English grammar in the selected high schools

1.4 Research questions

To help the study go, the following question is raised: What are the actual practices of teaching English grammar at the selected high schools in Bien Hoa?

To answer this question, three sub-questions are added:

1) To what extent is CLT applied in teaching English grammar in the selected high schools?

2) What techniques do teachers often use to teach English grammar in the selected high schools?

3) What are the most suitable techniques to teach English grammar in these

high schools?

1.5 Conceptual framework of the study

Based on the review of the related literature and the suggestions by MOET, this study employs PPP (Presentation, Practice, and Production) to communicative language teaching (CLT – which emphasises that the goal of learning is communicative competence and the use of authentic materials in teaching language) as its conceptual framework on the following grounds: PPP procedure is typical of many published English language teaching courses (Thornbury, 2000) It

is included in teaching grammar at most high schools in Vietnam as suggested in teacher’s books by MOET (MOET, 2006, 2007) because it allows the teacher to control the content and pace of a lesson Besides, PPP has proved itself to be the most easily learnt teaching approach, the most effective at managing large classes, and has cherry-picked appealing techniques from other approaches (Evans, 1999)

In this model, the teacher presents the target language (presentation) and then gives students an opportunity to practise it through very controlled activities (practice) The final stage of the lesson gives students an opportunity to practise the target language in freer activities which bring in other language elements

(production) These stages will be used in designing the questionnaires and class observation sheet, in analysing, interpreting and discussing the results and findings

PPP uses systematic, graded techniques According to Celce-Murcia (1988), just as grammar points seem to pair naturally with other aspects of language, teaching techniques should vary according to the match being emphasised In structural-social matches, dramatisation and other dynamic, interactional techniques allow learners to make a connection between structure and social function In structure-meaning matches, the most useful techniques are demonstration, illustration, and TPR activities With structure-discourse matches, the major techniques include text generation, manipulation, and explanation These suggestions of techniques will be used and made clearer in the questionnaires and interviews with teachers

Some people may argue that this popular model of planning a lesson will not motivate students in teaching-learning process since it is teacher-centred However, despite criticisms and problems and despite “the doubt as to whether PPP can deliver what it promises, i.e the ability to use the structure taught in real communication, it has proved highly durable” (Ellis, 2003) It also “provides a convenient template onto which any number of lessons can be mapped” (Thornbury, 2000:128) And when teachers know how to use and combine different activities at each stage, i e presentation, practice, production, their teaching will help provide students with sound knowledge of grammar and communicative competence

In short, PPP is employed as the conceptual framework for the whole course

of the study It forms a basis for the construction of the research tools and criteria for analysis and interpretation of the collected data from the selected high schools The discussion of PPP will continue to be developed and further explained in the review of relate literature

1.6 Overview of the study

The thesis is divided into the following chapters: Chapter 1 presents

questions, the conceptual framework of the study, and provides an overview of the study Chapter 2 presents some ideas about grammar and techniques for teaching grammar from different viewpoints of different authors Chapter 3 explains how this research project is carried out Chapter 4 presents the results of the questionnaires, interviews, observation and some discussion on the results And Chapter 5 presents what have been found out from the study and makes some suggestions on the techniques for teaching grammar in the selected high schools

CHAPTER 2

A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews prominent researches to support the current study with the focus on grammar and how to teach grammar It also makes clear the conceptual framework of the study

it simple, grammar tells us how to construct sentences

Grammar can mean different things to different people Lewis (1999: 168) wrote:

The word ‘grammar’ has unpleasant connotations for many people For some it means reciting rules and then trying to apply them at the right time For others it means everything about the structure of the new language that is different from the language they speak already

For most contemporary linguists, “we can divide the description of any language into three major areas: grammar (comprising two subfields, morphology and syntax), phonology and lexicon Sometimes grammar is understood to encompass all three areas” (Collins & Hollo, 2000:3)

We can also look at definitions of grammar in dictionaries, such as the one

in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2004, which says grammar is (the study or use of) the rules by which words change their forms and are combined into sentences This may be the easiest way to understand

2.2 The place of grammar in learning and teaching

Is it necessary to study grammar to learn a language? The answer can be both yes and no Many people in the world speak their own, native language without having studied its grammar Children start to speak before they even know the word “grammar” However, in the long run, grammar can help second language speakers to learn a language more quickly and more efficiently It is something that they can use to find their way - like a signpost or a map “Judicious attention to grammatical form in the adult classroom is not only helpful, if appropriate techniques are used, but essential to a speedy learning process” (Brown, 2001:363)

Ur (1988) points out that knowledge – implicit or explicit – of grammatical rules is essential for the mastery of a language She asserts that the ability to communicate effectively is probably not attained most quickly or effectively through pure communication practice in the classroom Therefore, grammar is needed because it may furnish the basics for a set of classroom activities during which it becomes temporarily the main objective

However, the place of grammar in foreign language teaching is controversial and has always sparked lively debate Proponents of grammar teaching have raised many arguments (Thornbury, 2000: 15-17)) such as:

a the sentence-machine argument: grammar is a kind of ‘sentence-making machine’

b the fine-tuning argument: the teaching of grammar serves as a corrective

against the kind of ambiguity of such sentences as Last Monday I was

e the discrete item argument: by tidying language up and organizing it into neat categories - sometimes called discrete items, grammarians make language digestible

f the rule-of-law argument: learning and teaching are known as transmission; the need for rules, order and discipline is particularly acute in large classes

of unruly and unmotivated teenagers

g the learner expectations argument: some learners come to language classes with the expectations that teaching will be grammar-focused

Meanwhile, opponents hold that teaching grammar is not necessary by giving

a the knowledge-how argument: learning-by-doing , or experimental learning,

is more important than knowing how to do with the language,

b the communicative argument: grammatical knowledge is merely one component of communicative competence; putting the language to communicative use is placed a high premium,

c the acquisition argument: learning results from formal instruction, typically

in grammar, and is of limited use for real communication ,

d the natural order argument: attempts to subvert the natural order by sticking rigidly to a traditional grammar syllabus and insisting on immediate accuracy are foredoomed,

e the lexical chunks argument: word-and-chunk-learning is important,

f the learner expectations argument: many learners may already have had years of grammar study at school and are urgently in need of a chance to put this knowledge to work

language to some degree of proficiency and to be able to say what we really want

to say, we need to have some grammatical knowledge Therefore, grammar still has an important place in learning and teaching a foreign language

2.3 Roles of grammar in different teaching methods

There are many different methods that have been used for teaching foreign language throughout history Below are the most recognised ones which enjoy significant use and dominate the language market

2.3.1 Grammar – Translation

As the name suggests, this method took grammar as the starting point for instruction and had a heavy grammar emphasis It focuses on grammatical rules, which are generally stated by the teacher, in a textbook, or both, followed by application of this knowledge through the task of translating sentences and text into and out of the target language Learning proceeds deductively Traditional abstract grammatical terminology is used

The method is common in Vietnam for its simple requirements on the part

of the teachers However, this very deeply-rooted traditional method has left much negative influence on students’ communication ability

2.3.2 The Direct Method

The Direct Method was an answer to the dissatisfaction with the Grammar Translation Method, which focused exclusively on written language It is characterized by meaningful practice and exclusion of the mother tongue The Direct method prioritised oral skills, and while following a syllabus of grammar structures, rejected explicit grammar teaching (Thornbury, 2000)

Grammar was taught inductively, i.e the learner may discover the rules of grammar for himself after he has become acquainted with many examples, generally without the use of abstract grammatical terminology, and only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught In the Direct Method, grammar of the target language is not taught for its own sake, but it is a means to an end Its aim is to enable the learner to correct errors in his speech and writing

2.3.3 The Audio-lingual Method

While the Direct Method took hold in Europe in the first part of the twentieth century, it was the Audio-lingual Method (also called Mimicry-memorization method) that was popular in The United States

The Audio-lingual Method was the method developed in the Intensive Language Program It emphasises the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing, uses dialogues and drills, discourages use of the mother tongue in the classroom and often makes use of contrastive analysis (Richards et

al, 1992) This method stresses an inductive presentation with extensive pattern practice

In this method, structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills And there is a little or no grammatical explanation: grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation (Brown, 2000)

2.3.4 Communicative approach

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) (also called the

“Communicative Approach”) arose in late 1970s from dissatisfaction with limitations of grammar-translation and audio-lingual approaches It is an approach

to foreign or second language teaching that emphasises that the goal of learning is communicative competence (Richards et al, 1992) It also emphasises the use of authentic materials in teaching language, and encourages giving learners the opportunity to respond to genuine communicative needs in real-life situations

CLT suggests that grammatical structure might better be subsumed under various functional categories In CLT, we pay considerably less attention to the overt presentation and discussion of grammatical rules than we traditionally did (Brown, 2000) However, grammar is “a tool for communicating clearly; it is not

an unconnected topic to be studied out of its context” (Katz & Blyth, 2007: 223)

CLT views errors of form as a natural outcome of the development of communication skills This means that making mistakes is unavoidable in learning

a language “The teacher may note the errors during fluency activities and return to them later with an accuracy-based activity” (Larsen-Freeman, 2000:132)

In CLT, “the importance of structure is not denied but it is thought that it is the need to express meanings that drives language development forward” (Skehan 1993: 17, cited in Thornbury, 2000) In other words, CLT is not grammar-driven, it

is meaning-driven Grammar is more flexible as it includes grammatical rules used

in the spoken variety of the language being learnt rather than the grammatical rules prescribed by the traditional grammarians

These days, however, many researchers who recognise that language instruction is context-dependent support the view that the most sensible approach

to grammar appears to be an eclectic one that combines the most effective aspects

of a variety of language- teaching methodologies (Savage et al, 2010) Such an approach would include a focus on form with contextualised, communicative practice of the target structure Eclecticism believes that a teacher can choose the best of all the teaching methods and achieve success easily But eclecticism in language teaching must be judiciously adopted not just for the sake of it but to achieve the designed goals (Aslam, 2006)

As can be seen, because “language learning methods have been bedevilled

by pendulum swings” (Hall, 2008), the place of grammar has changed accordingly

In teaching methods reliant on a structural syllabus, such as grammar – translation and audiolingualism, grammar held pride of place (Ellis, 2002) Then with the advent of communicative language teaching and natural methods, this place has been challenged However, far from grammar being irrelevant in a communicative approach, the opposite is true: the more thoroughly a learner masters the grammatical system of the language, the more effectively he or she can use this language for communication (Littlewood, ND)

In short, grammar has different places in different teaching methods However, it cannot be denied that some focus on form may well be necessary for many learners to achieve accuracy as well as fluency in their acquisition of a

second or foreign language Whatever teaching method is used, grammar is beneficial to second or foreign language learners, especially those who need to achieve a high level of proficiency and accuracy

2.4 Deductive and inductive approaches to grammar teaching

2.4.1 Deductive approach

A deductive approach (rule-driven learning) starts with the presentation of a rule and is followed by examples in which the rule is applied The deductive approach to language teaching is traditionally associated with Grammar-Translation (Thornbury, 2000).

Deductive approach in TESOL advocates a prior exposure of the students to language fundamentals in a very systematic and logical method Traditionalists have usually spoken favourably of the deductive approach citing its timesaving aspect as a major benefit, allowing for more practising hours for language lessons

It is highly effective because it helps a learner arrive at the language through the rule and gives a student a comprehensive sense and understanding of the English language It also presents ample opportunities for the teacher to plan the lessons properly, to rightly predict the problems students might face in the teaching session and prepare self with clarifications (Thornbury, 2000) However, this approach has been criticised as tiring and boring The lack of students’ involvement and struggle for understanding may result in the lesson being teacher-centred and not demanding in terms of creativity and imagination

2.4.2 Inductive approach

In an inductive approach (sometimes called discovery approach), the

learners study examples and from these examples derive an understanding of the rule without being told it in advance In this approach, the language rule is

deduced/ inferred by means of a controlled discovery The teacher provides the

students with the means to discover the rule - presenting the fundamentals as language examples rather than grammatical structures and rules It is left to the students to understand the usage of the grammatical structure in the context of the

Inductive approach is rather rewarding because rules discovered by students for themselves are more easily retained, but it is demanding and time-consuming According to Brown (2001), in most contexts, an inductive approach is more appropriate than a deductive approach because:

a it is more close to natural language acquisition

b it is more close to the concept of interlanguage development

c it allows students to get a communicative “feel” for some aspect of language before being overwhelmed by grammatical explanations

d it builds more intrinsic motivation in students

However, the choice between the two approaches depends on many factors such as students’ level, age, learning styles and preferences, expectations, the language itself, and time and resources available Besides, many grammar presentations combine teacher-centred and student-centred elements and there may also be a combination of deductive and inductive tasks

2.5 Models for integrating grammar

2.5.1 Task-based Learning

Task-based Learning was proposed by proponents of the communicative approach In a task-based lesson, the teacher does not pre-determine what language will be studied The lesson is based around the completion of a central task and the language studied is determined by what happens as the students complete it

In this method, learners are supposed to perform a communicative task that the teacher has set them without specific attention on form; the teacher then uses this to identify language features learners could have used in order to communicate their intentions more effectively Finally, specific attention on features of language form is taken into consideration before students re-perform the original (or a similar) task: task → teach → task (Thornbury, 2000)

Task-based learning has some clear advantages It is consistent with SLA theory It is enjoyable and motivating as a natural context is developed from the students' experiences with the language that is personalised and relevant to them,

and the language explored arises from the students' needs Unlike a PPP approach, the students are free of language control, and spend a lot of time communicating

However, it is not without its problems It is difficult to identify what criteria determine the selection of tasks, the ordering of tasks, and the evaluation of tasks Besides, the management problems associated with setting and monitoring tasks are more problematic (Thornbury, 2000)

Therefore, it is a demanding job to teach a tasked-based lesson Moreover, many language courses have specific instructional outcomes to attain (e.g examination targets) or have to address specific language needs rather than the general communication skills targeted in a task work, which task-based approach fails to provide In such cases, task-based instruction “may seem too vague as a methodology to be widely adopted and seems rapidly to be assuming the status of another ELT/TESOL bandwagon” (Richards, ND) This often makes teachers give

it a second thought whether to employ the model One solution to this is that many teachers are finding ways of marrying elements of a task-based approach with the traditional grammar syllabus

2.5.2 I-I-I model

Another model was introduced by Mc Carthy and Carter in 1995: the I-I-I (Illustration- Interaction- Induction) model In this procedure, the communicative value of language learning is highlighted Grammar is set in communicative context and learners are exposed to using the structures before they have knowledge of that structure A lesson in this model begins with the illustration of the language in a communicative situation In Interaction stage, there is interaction among the learners to use the language in forms of role-play, games In Induction stage, learners discover grammar structures from their observation and discussion The merits of this model lie in its simplicity and straightforwardness, in the logical sequence of clearly defined steps that seem to lead successfully to language acquisition (Bocale, 2004) However, this model does not account for the complexity of the process of language learning

2.5.3 PACE model

PACE (Presentation – Attention – Co-construction – Extension) is a model for contextualising interactions with learners about the form of language introduced by Donato and Adair-Hauck in 1994 The four steps of this model include:

 Presentation: The teacher foreshadows the grammar explanation through

the use of integrated discourse (stories, poems, tape selections, songs, etc.) Emphasis is on literal comprehension and meaning

 Attention: Teacher assists the learners in focusing their attention on a

particular language form or grammatical structure

 Co-Construction: Using guiding questions, teacher and learners

co-construct the grammar explanation by discovering the underlying patterns

or consistent forms

 Extension: Through interactive extension activities, the learners need to use

the grammatical structure(s) in order to carry out a particular function or task

The model allows learners to construct understandings of form in collaboration with the teacher and each other “This process contrasts sharply with explicit teacher explanation of grammar and implicit approaches that assume that all structures can be analyzed equally well by students by their own, solely on the basis of the input they hear” (Shrum & Glisan, 2005: 196)

However, this model was developed for integrating focus on form in the context of a story-based language lesson Therefore, it is a demanding job to choose the appropriate story, and may take a lot of time for just the presentation phase alone

Presentation

In this stage, the teacher introduces new language in a particular communicative situation, focusing on its meaning, form and on its function Building up stories on the board, using realia or flashcards and miming are fun ways to present the language (Cotter, 2005)

Practice Students work through activities from controlled to free in order to practice the new language in different situations The emphasis at the beginning is on accuracy Gap fill exercises, substitution drills, sentence transformations, split sentences, picture dictations, class questionnaires, reordering sentences, and matching sentences to pictures are among numerous activities which can be used for this stage

2.5.5 Criticisms of PPP

PPP is criticised for many reasons such as its assumptions on how students learn, the syllabus it chooses, and what is done in the classroom (Evans, 1999) It assumes that language is best learnt in incremental steps, one bit of grammar at a time, and that the teacher can influence the process by choosing what bit of grammar to focus on Meanwhile, language acquisition is more complex, less linear and less amenable to teacher intervention (Thornbury, 2000) Besides, the model assumes that lessons should always present new language forms, and does not take into consideration that students may often simply need opportunities for practice Moreover, this model is highly teacher centred and therefore predictable,

which may lead to disinterest, and reduce opportunities for student talking time in the language classroom

2.5.6 Reasons for the continuing dominance of PPP

PPP has its defenders, not in academia but in the classroom It allows teachers to maintain control over the content and direction of the lesson, and focus their preparation accordingly It follows a linear, logical and methodical format, making the lesson easy to follow, and it is a comfortable and familiar lesson style for many teachers and students in many cultures

There are other reasons for the survival of PPP, perhaps most importantly resistance to change This is entirely natural, and exists in all domains of the profession, teachers, students, teacher training and publishing (Evans, 1999) PPP model is still included in course books chosen in teacher training in many countries, among which is Vietnam It has proved itself to be the most easily learnt teaching approach, the most effective at managing large classes, and has cherry-picked appealing techniques from other approaches

As can be seen, all the models have their advantages and disadvantages, and teachers can use different models depending on the lesson, class, level and learner styles Among these models, the PPP approach is relatively straight forward, and structured enough to be easily understood by both students and new teachers It is

a good place to start in terms of applying good communicative language teaching

in the classroom For an inexperienced teacher, the PPP format provides structure and guidelines for a successful lesson in terms of presenting language and showing how it is used in context And experienced teachers may play with the model, i.e they may reverse the phases Therefore, PPP is employed as the conceptual framework of the study

2.6 Main techniques for teaching grammar

Teaching techniques are an essential part in every teacher’s work because even the most skilled and knowledgeable person can fail to pass on the necessary information to students by not using the appropriate teaching skills or methods

Thus, this part focuses on the main techniques, i.e kinds of classroom activities, which have been applied by several teachers and book authors for teaching grammar that can be used in the three stages of a PPP lesson

According to Celce-Murcia (1988), modern (communicative) grammar teaching uses different techniques to make grammar lessons clear Below are the main ones in the literature that have been proved good and applicable to teaching grammar

2.6.1 Presentation techniques

The following techniques can be used in complete grammar lessons, but this section just focuses on the steps involving the first stage of a PPP lesson to offer a wide variety of practical options for presenting grammar and help in selecting which is most appropriate at a particular time These techniques are mentioned in the presentation stage as they introduce new language in a particular communicative situation, focusing on its meaning, form and its function

2.6.1.1 Using a rule explanation The teacher uses an illustrated explanation to highlight a feature of English syntax For example,

The President phoned someone

The President did phone someone

Using diagrams to present grammar is especially helpful to visual learners and help give it an order, which makes the explanation more memorable and effective Here are some examples of diagrams to illustrate different grammar points (Clandfield & Kerr, ND):

Figure 1: Quantifiers

Figure 2: The present perfect tense

This technique is extremely economical in terms of time if the rule is relatively simple It is particularly appropriate for adult learners whose learning style and expectations predispose them to a more analytical and reflective way of language learning

2.6.1.2 Using translation The teacher writes some sentences in the students’ mother tongue on the board, and asks for English translations Translation is probably the most economical means of conveying meaning, but it is always only an approximation and requires great mental effort Over-use of translation may also reduce the amount of exposure students get to the target language Moreover, translation is only really possible in monolingual classes and where the teacher has a good command of the students’ language

2.6.1.3 Using grammar worksheets Students are divided into groups to work with an exercise sheet using different grammar summaries provided by the teacher They use their summaries

to do the exercise and then exchange their understanding of the summaries to have

a complete summary of the grammar point

This technique is only economical in terms of the time spent on it if the students are communicating in English, but preparation of grammar summaries and exercises can be time-consuming for the teacher Besides, this is only appropriate for classes who like talking about grammar and who are happy to take some responsibility for their own learning

2.6.1.4 Using a self-study grammar Students are directed to the appropriate unit in a certain grammar book They study the grammar rules for homework, do the exercises on that grammar point in the book and check them by reference to the answers in the back of the book The lesson is revisited in the next class

This technique is maximally efficient in terms of saving in-class time, but may be asking a lot of certain students, especially those who would prefer the teacher to be the source of grammar input

2.6.1.5 Using flashcards Flashcards are cards with pictures or words on them to help present language Flashcards with pictures can be used to elicit or drill a sentence, to set up

a generative situation For example,

You’ve won the lottery

What are you going to do with the money?

Flashcards with words can be used to present inverted questions, the

prompt for short answers, to provide prompts for a substitution drill, to indicate if

an error has occurred, to provide prompts for sentence transformation exercises (Clandfield & Kerr, ND)

2.6.1.6 Teaching through actions The teacher does some actions, and at the same time says sentences with the target grammar point He/she then calls some students to perform some instructions

This is typical of a TPR-style lesson Using actions to convey the meaning

of grammatical items is highly efficient, but there are only a limited range of language items that lend themselves to physical demonstration and classroom enactment This technique is particularly suitable for young learners or beginners, but for adult learners, some advance explanation of the rationale underlying this technique might be a good idea

2.6.1.7 Using realia The teacher shows the class a collection of objects that she says she found

in a bag left in the teachers’ room They include a bus pass, an empty glasses case, the guarantee for a well-known brand of watches, a novel in French, and a swimming cap She divides the class into pairs and hands each pair an object to work out some characteristics of the owner of that object so that the teacher can work out who the bag belongs to and return it The teacher then asks the class: ‘Do you think it’s a man or a woman?’, and elicits sentences from the learners based on their deductions, such as ‘he takes the bus’, ‘he reads French’, ‘he goes swimming’ After that, the teacher directs attention to the form of the verbs

Visual aids and realia are useful in that they circumvent the need for translation, and they can communicate a greater range of meanings than can actions Real objects engage students’ interest, and hence heighten their attention However, it is not easy to collect a sufficiently varied range of objects, and adult learners may be wary of a style of teaching that harks back to the primary classroom

2.6.1.8 Using a generative situation

By generative situation, we mean a situation that can generate a lot of the kind of language you wish to focus on For example, the situation of two friends meeting each other after a long time could generate several examples of perfect

tenses – e.g How have you been? What have you been doing? I’ve changed jobs I

haven’t seen him for ages (Clandfield & Kerr, ND)

This technique rates high in terms of efficacy A situational context permits presentation of a wide range of language items The situation serves as a means of contextualising the language and this helps clarify the meaning However, if students do not get the rule or get the wrong rule, it comes to nothing Besides, this kind of presentation takes more time than an explanation and requires much from the teacher

2.6.1.9 Using minimal sentence pairs The teacher writes some sets of sentences that are only different in one or two particulars on the board and asks students to identify the structures in each of the sets For instance,

1 a Have you ever been to Peru?

b Where were you in Peru?

2 a I’ve seen all of Jim Jarmusch’s films

b I saw Jim Jarmusch’s latest film last month

He/she then asks the learners to consider the differences in meaning in each case, and to see if they can come up with a general rule for the difference between the two structures to be taught

By getting straight to the point, the minimal pair presentation combines the best features of an explanation-driven approach and a discovery approach It is also relatively easy to plan and set up, and is therefore a useful way of dealing with problems as they arise In terms of efficacy, it relies heavily on the choice of example sentences The lack of context can sometimes lead students to the wrong conclusion or no conclusion at all

2.6.1.10 Using concordance data

“A concordance line is a piece of data taken from a corpus – a random sample of uses of a particular word or words – used to highlight a piece of language” (Clandfield & Kerr, ND)

Here is some concordance data for the word manage

1 sident who will consolidate partition or to manage a crisis, he said yesterday

2 ays are at a peak will be more difficult to manage Action: Unit level The

3 lems Halberds would also be easy enough to manage, and although the pike was

4 <20:244> Well <20:245> I’m sure I’ll manage <20:246> GRANT Sometimes

5 Don’t worry Leave it where it is I’ll manage Hello cocker! What you

6 ashes with as pure a color mixture as I can manage However, first I thoughtfully

7 ean? So I’ve got to watch that But I could manage I could certainly manage to have

8 rse is not so great as the writing poet can manage, it is still great enough for him

9 stuff just for you I don’t know if I can manage it tonight or tomorrow, but I’ll

10 ound full of children Do you think you can manage it”? Mavis smiled “I’ll

11 you want Have a little hold oh yes I can manage that for short distances I

12 ng in Pest for those children who never manage to attain the standards of

13 ttle fault with the design We didn’t quite manage to construct the item

14 med to them I know that so long as I don’t manage to count up to one hundred

Using this information, the teacher can ask students questions about the word

What part of speech is manage? What words or phrases come before manage? What words come after manage? Does the verb manage take an object? What form does a verb take after manage?

Using concordance data improves students’ understanding, but the amount

of time taken to work out the rules and the difficulty of understanding the concordance lines detract the ease of the technique Moreover, adopting this technique depends on the teacher having access to concordancing software and a sufficiently large database to apply it to

2.6.1.11 Matching techniques Students are asked to make choices about what goes with what Often they work in pairs to match parts of sentences and phrases and treat this activity rather like a problem-solving exercise The point of matching exercises is to get students

to work things out for themselves, which helps them to discover correct facts about grammar

2.6.1.12 Text study Another way of getting students to discover new grammar is to ask them to concentrate on its use in a text in order to get them to recognise the new language

To focus on the language in the text, here are some techniques we can use, with sample grammar points (from Clandfield & Kerr, ND)

Table 1: Text study

Find examples of X and underline

them

different parts of speech - e.g past tense verbs, adjectives, adverb

Find examples of X and underline

them along with word(s) next to

them

collocations and word partnerships, quantifiers with countable/uncountable nouns

Find examples of X and circle them

along with word they refer to

Find examples and think about why

the writer/speaker used that word or

phrase

modal verbs, articles

2.6.1.13 Problem-solving Problem-solving activities are “learning activities in which the learner is given a situation and a problem and must work out a solution.” (Richards et al, 1992: 290) The problem can be, for example, that six sentences use the same structure, but it has six different meanings – what are they? Or the problem

concerns typical mistakes that students make – how can they be corrected?

2.6.1.14 Story telling

A story can be used as an interesting context, from which the teacher elicits the meaning as well as the form of the targeted structure Stories are a great way to include grammar points in context They are absorbing and just plain fun if

and involve the students Students can help create stories and impersonate characters in them (Celce-Murcia & Hilles, 1988) If the story is a true one, and told well, it has the added effect of providing some intrinsic motivation for the learners to listen

According to Celce-Murcia and Hilles (1988), stories should last from one

to five minutes, and the more exaggerated and bizarre they are, the more likely the students will remember the teaching points they illustrate However, in their article, Adair-Hack et al in Shrum and Glisan (2005: 197), state that “the length of time required ultimately depends on the nature of the story, its length, and the amount of negotiation work required to establish meaning”

Stories can come from the teacher or students To teach the inferential use

of must, for example, the teacher can tell a story about one of his/her students,

José: ‘Usually he’s a very good student who pays close attention in class However, today he is gazing out the window with a silly grin on his face When I

call on him, he only sighs When I walk by his chair, I see José + Maria, with little

hearts, written all over his notebook What can we conclude?’ The teacher then lets the class volunteer, and continues, ‘Obviously, José must be in love.’ The teacher writes the sentence on the board, then tells another story that will elicit the

inferential use of must and draws students’ attention to the salient points

Teacher can also begin the lesson with some ideas and then ask students to complete the story For example, teacher has his/her students complete the following with a story: ‘Last night I got locked out of my house because …’

In short, in the first phase of a PPP lesson, there are many different ways of presenting grammar, and we need to select a technique that is appropriate for a particular group of students on a particular course on a particular day No single method and no single course book can provide all the answers all the time

2.6.2 Practice techniques

Practice activities may vary from controlled mechanical training to controlled meaningful and then free practice while activities at production stage are more open and free, involving students in real tasks Therefore, there is an

semi-overlap between the two stages Some techniques can be used both in practice and production stages such as drama techniques, games, and problem-solving activities

Below are some typical techniques in the practice stage:

2.6.2.1 Using oral drills

Drill is “a technique often used in language teaching for practicing sounds

or patterns in a language, based on guided repetition or practice A drill which practices some aspect of grammar or sentence formation is often known as pattern practice” (Richards et al, 1992:117) “The aim of a drill is to give students rapid practice using a structural item” (Harmer, 1992: 41)

Drills are classified under three categories: mechanical, meaningful, and communicative (Paulston & Bruder, 1976; Allen & Valette, 1977) depending on the degree of control Paulston and Bruder (1976) also made a typology of structural pattern drills basing on the type of restructuring: repetition drills, discrimination drills, alternation drills and reply A simpler and more popular classification can be found in Richards et al’s (1992): substitution drill, repetition drill and transformation drill

Below are some examples: