INTRODUCTION
This chapter explores the challenges associated with using songs as an alternative method for teaching rhythm in English language classrooms for young learners.
Teaching English to young learners has a rich history, particularly in multilingual countries across Africa and Asia, where primary school children are educated in English to prepare them for its use as a medium of instruction (Cameron, 2001; Thornbury).
In recent years, there has been a significant resurgence in the teaching of English to young learners in both ESL and EFL contexts, driven by the need to expose children to foreign cultures early on, fostering tolerance and understanding (Brumfit, 1991; Cameron, 2001) This early exposure not only enhances communication skills but also maximizes learning time, as starting language instruction earlier allows for its use as a medium of teaching later (Brumfit, 1991) However, in many public and private institutions, English is often taught as a subject for only a few hours each week, resulting in limited exposure outside the classroom (Thornbury, 2006; Yuliana, 2003) Consequently, young learners typically encounter the language through minimal classroom instruction, which characterizes their foreign language learning experience (Cameron, 2001).
Early exposure to a foreign language allows children to engage primarily with spoken language, which serves as the main avenue for encountering, understanding, and practicing the new language (Cameron, 2001) In young learner classrooms, spoken language is not just one aspect of learning but the central focus, prompting children to produce spoken English from an early age This expectation can lead to uncertainty as they are required to articulate words and phrases in front of peers, often grappling with challenges related to pronunciation, meaning, usage, intonation, stress, and rhythm (Vale & Feunteun, 1995).
Rhythm plays a crucial role in shaping the effectiveness of language acts, likened to “the tide of talk” (Walker, 1989, p 98, cited in Gong, 2002, p 31) It is influenced by the contrast between stressed and unstressed syllables and their regular occurrence (Underhill, 1998, p 73) Alongside stress and intonation, rhythm constitutes the prosody of phonology, which is vital for conveying the speaker’s message and intention, impacting conversational style and the listener’s inferential abilities (Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000, p 31) Additionally, the rhythm and intonation of a mother tongue are among the first sounds an unborn baby perceives and the initial elements they replicate, closely tied to their identity (Tomatis, 1977; Crystal, 1986; cited in Laroy, 1995, p 39) Thus, prioritizing suprasegmentals, particularly rhythm, is advocated as a natural, logical, and pedagogical approach that enhances learners' comprehensibility and reduces frustration, facilitating more significant progress (McNerney & Mendelsohn, 1987, p 132, cited in Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000, p 30).
Rhythm and intonation should be prioritized in language teaching over individual sounds, as they play a crucial role in effective communication (Gilbert, 2008; Wong, 1987) While the pronunciation of individual sounds is important, it should not be the primary focus for learners For EFL students, understanding sounds within the context of rhythm and intonation enhances their learning experience, allowing them to seamlessly integrate sounds into natural speech patterns This approach ensures that learners focus on sounds that maintain the flow of rhythm and intonation, ultimately improving their overall language proficiency (Wong, 1987, pp 21-22).
Learners exposed primarily to written English, with limited interaction with native speakers, develop distinct assumptions about pronunciation compared to those who have immersed themselves in spoken English from the beginning This variation in exposure influences their understanding of stress patterns, which contribute to the unique rhythmic qualities of different languages.
English learners, especially those whose first language is syllable-timed, often struggle with proper syllable stress and rhythm in English They tend to give equal intensity to every syllable, believing that distinct pronunciation enhances clarity (Avery & Ehrlich, 1992; Celce-Murcia et al., 1996) This tendency is compounded by both physical and psychological challenges, as learners must overcome the ingrained rhythms of their native language to adopt those of English (Gong, 2002) The speech rhythms of one's first language are closely tied to personal identity, making them difficult to alter, as these patterns are deeply embedded from early childhood (Gilbert, 2008) Consequently, this can create significant resistance to learning new rhythms (Laroy, 1995).
1 Pronunciation includes “the sounds of the language, or phonology, stress and rhythm, and intonation” (Ur,
1996, p 47), or more specifically, comprises “individual sounds, word stress, sounds in connected speech, rhythm and stress in utterances, and intonation” (Gower, Philips & Walters, 2005, pp 153-154)
Misgrouping phrasing, failing to link sounds, and stressing every word can make speech sound unnatural (Gong, 2002) Mastering English rhythm is particularly challenging for foreign learners (Gong, 2002; Ilciukiene, 2005; O’Connor, 1980; Wong, 1987) To effectively teach English rhythm, it is essential for learners to know where to place stress in words, phrases, and sentences, how to properly reduce unstressed syllables (Nguyen, 2008, p 18), and to grasp the significance of stress in conveying meaning (River & Temperley, 1978, p 10), while also recognizing weak forms and features of connected speech (Kelly, 2000, p 71).
Millions of children in Asia are learning English, prompting thousands of teachers to seek effective teaching approaches However, the teaching of English to Asian elementary school children is still developing, with limited research and theory available Consequently, many techniques from different contexts are adapted and applied, often without consideration for the unique characteristics and needs of young learners.
In order to foster confident public speaking skills, it is essential for learners to engage with real people and use the foreign language for practical purposes This approach not only enhances their ability to communicate effectively but also helps them achieve natural speed, rhythm, intonation, and pronunciation in the language.
Creating a positive and relaxed classroom environment for children is essential for their English language learning When students experience low stress levels while speaking English in class, they are more likely to absorb information effectively and experience reduced anxiety during real-life conversations outside of lessons.
Music serves as an engaging activity for children, facilitating their learning and development According to Blodget (2000), music is inherently mathematical, creating a rich environment for language acquisition Songs, a familiar form of music for children (Yuliana, 2003), stand out as the most memorable genre due to their unique auditory elements, including rhythm, rhyme, and melody (Rupp).
Songs, as a synthetic genre combining lyrics and music, serve as an effective tool for encouraging English speaking in the classroom (Orlova, 2003) Their diverse forms, rhythms, and meanings provide students with ample opportunities to repetitively engage with language without boredom (Cebula, 2003; Paul, 2003) This repetitive exposure helps learners recall extensive language chunks within the enjoyable contexts of rhyme and melody, fostering fluency and natural language flow (Cebula, 2003; Moon, 2005) Engaging with songs and rhymes allows young learners to produce language confidently, reducing the stress associated with individual speaking (Reilly & Ward, 1997, p 7) Ultimately, these musical elements enhance awareness of English's 'musicality' (Nixon & Tomlinson, 2005, p 9).
The musicality of English, characterized by its "rhythmic structure" of stressed and unstressed syllables, highlights its nature as a rhythmic language (Ball & Rahilly, 1999) This rhythm parallels that of music, where silent beats can help maintain a sense of rhythm (Ilciukiene, 2005; McCarthy, 1991) While music often presents a clear, recurring pulse, speech typically lacks such regularity (Ball & Rahilly, 1999) Incorporating songs into foreign language teaching not only creates a relaxed atmosphere but also enhances the learning of English rhythm, making it a valuable tool for educators (Cebula, 2003; Lynch, 2005).
“music, rhymes, […] can be exploited for their wealth of rhythmic examples without resorting to explicit treatments of the phenomenon” (Wong, 1987, p 24)
Additionally, “music training is a more potent instrument than any other, because rhythm and harmony find their way into the inward places of the soul” (Plato) (cited in Fishchler, 2005, p 5)
LITERATURE REVIEW…
Rhythm and its linkage with stress
Rhythm is an integral part of life, encompassing any form of repetition or periodicity in the physical world, as well as correspondence in aesthetic experiences (Wong, 1987; de Groot, 1968) It can be observed in everyday sounds, from a child drumming on a table to the heartbeat, the ticking of a clock, and even in the movements of athletes and artistic expressions like music and poetry (Gong, 2002; Celce-Murcia et al., 1996; Roach, 2000) Furthermore, all human physical activities, such as breathing, walking, and even simple tasks like peeling potatoes, exhibit rhythmic qualities that extend over time (Brown, 1990).
Rhythm in a language, nonetheless, is “less familiar” because it is “less obvious” (Wong, 1987; Brown, 1990), and rhythm in speech is somewhat
While some argue that the concept of rhythm in language is overstated (Ball & Rahilly, 1999), others, like Brown (1990), suggest that every language inherently possesses a rhythm Brown highlights a natural tendency for rhythm to emerge in spoken communication.
The rhythm of speech is closely linked to the physical characteristics and gestures of language speakers It encompasses how the head moves, the positioning of the lower jaw and tongue, and the diverse body movements that distinguish speakers of various languages, allowing us to recognize them even without hearing their words.
Brown (1990) asserts that the rhythm of English is shaped by the contrast between stressed and unstressed syllables, with stressed syllables providing the rhythmic beat He observes that an English speaker's physical movements, such as arm waves and head nods, synchronize with these stressed syllables, highlighting the connection between speech and rhythm Similarly, Kenworthy (1987) notes that when people hear an unfamiliar language, they tend to focus on its intonation and rhythm rather than its individual sounds, often perceiving it as melodic compared to their own language, which they consider flat This perception arises because all languages possess intonation and rhythmic patterns that operate at an unconscious level Kenworthy emphasizes that English rhythm, defined by the alternation of strong and weak syllables, results from word stress, where important elements are emphasized on strong beats and less significant ones are downplayed on weak beats.
30) Holding Kenworthy’s view, McCarthy (1991) states “the impression of rhythm may arise out of a feeling of alteration between strong and weak ‘beat’ in various patterned recurrences” (p 90)
Several authors agree that the rhythm of spoken English is based on a unit known as the "foot." Roach (2000) defines the foot as starting with a stressed syllable and including all subsequent unstressed syllables until the next stressed syllable Similarly, Halliday (1970) describes each foot as comprising one or more syllables, with the first syllable always being stressed He likens the foot to a musical 'bar,' highlighting their similarities in structure.
In English speech, each foot typically begins with a stressed syllable that carries the beat, similar to how a musical bar may start with a silent beat or rest Halliday (1985) notes that the salient syllables, which follow slashes marking the feet, occur at regular intervals in natural speech, and English speakers prefer their feet to maintain a consistent length Brown (1990) adds that when reading aloud, speakers establish a dominant rhythmic foot, often following an Aaa pattern—stressed, unstressed, unstressed—where the beat falls on the stressed syllable However, he points out that the rhythm in speech can be less predictable, leading to variations in foot structure, resulting in some feet being A or Aaaaaaa instead of aAa or aaA.
O’Connor (1980) identifies the rhythm unit in English speech as centered around a stressed syllable, accompanied by any unstressed syllables Ur (1996) describes these as "tone units," which consist of a central stressed syllable and lighter surrounding syllables In contrast, some scholars refer to the rhythm of English as "thought groups" or "stressed groups," highlighting the prominence of a single stressed syllable within a group of syllables (Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000; O’Connor, 1980) A key similarity between these concepts is that both are articulated with a consistent duration, establishing a fundamental rule of English rhythm.
Rhythm in language encompasses both segmental and suprasegmental levels, involving elements such as stress, timing, and junctures (Lado, 1964) Wong (1987) emphasizes that a language's rhythm is defined by the timing patterns of successive syllables, which are influenced by variations in syllable length at the sentence level The rhythmic system of English is primarily determined by five factors: stress, accent, vowel type, structure, and pauses Celce-Murcia and Olshtain (2000) describe rhythm as the interplay of syllable length, stress, and pauses, while Celce-Murcia et al (1996) highlight that the combination of word stress and sentence stress creates the rhythmic flow of English utterances Avery and Ehrlich (1992) further contribute to this understanding of rhythm in language.
“differentiation between stressed and unstressed syllables, the reduction of function words, the linking of words and phrases, etc., all combine to give English its characteristic rhythm” (p 73)
Pauses play a crucial role in spoken language, contributing to its rhythm similarly to how rests function in music (Brown, 1990) These pauses can be categorized into "breath-groups," which are used for inhalation, and "sense groups," which clarify meaning Notably, a single breath-group can contain multiple sense groups (Jones, 1998).
Despite their differences, these definitions share common elements that explain the typical rhythm of English This rhythm relies on the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, the timing patterns of strong and weak beats, and operates on both segmental and suprasegmental levels.
2 Junctures can be considered syllable boundaries (For example: /6’ne1m / (a name/ an aim) (Ball & Rahilly,
1999, pp.109-110) aspects The typical unit of English rhythm, the foot, derives from a theory that its characteristics may be related to (see section 2.1.3 below)
2.1.2 The linkage between rhythm and stress
There is a significant connection between stress and rhythm in English language production Scarcella and Oxford (1994, cited in Wei, 2006) state that stress plays a crucial role in creating rhythm, which linguists describe as the measured flow of language In English, rhythmic patterns are characterized by the regular occurrence of stressed syllables at consistent intervals, leading to its classification as a stress-timed language, as noted by Roach.
The theory of stress-timed rhythm in English suggests that stressed syllables occur at regular intervals, regardless of the presence of unstressed syllables According to Underhill (1998), the presence of more unstressed syllables requires faster articulation to maintain the rhythm, indicating that the timing of speech is influenced by the number of stresses rather than the total syllable count In contrast, syllable-timed languages base their timing on the number of syllables spoken Content words, such as nouns, adjectives, main verbs, and adverbs, typically receive stress, while grammatical function words like articles and prepositions remain unstressed Nonetheless, speakers may occasionally choose to emphasize non-content words, as noted by Celce-Murcia & Olshtain (2000) and others Kenworthy (1987) further explores this concept.
The concept of "continuum" refers to the tendency of unstressed syllables to exhibit reduced vowel length and quality as they approach the stress-timing end, while maintaining vowel sound quality near the syllable-timing end This phenomenon becomes particularly evident in highly stylized language forms, such as poetry and nursery rhymes, where stress-timing and regular rhythms are most prominent.
Languages can be broadly categorized into two types of rhythm: stress-timed and syllable-timed Stress-timed languages include Arabic, Dutch, English, German, and Russian, whereas syllable-timed languages encompass a wide range, such as Bantu, Cantonese, French, Hindi, Italian, Polish, Spanish, Vietnamese, and various African languages.
English rhythm is a controversial matter (Kelley, 2000; Roach, 2000) Some writers support the theory of the rhythmic structure of English speech such as Brown (1990), Halliday (1985), Kenworthy (1987), and Underhill (1998) Halliday
In 1985, the concept of "syllabic rhythm" was introduced to describe syllable-timing, while "Pedalian rhythm" or "foot-timing" pertains to stress-timing The author notes that certain languages may align more distinctly with one rhythm type, while others exhibit a blend of both However, many skeptics argue that there is insufficient evidence to support the existence of stress-timing, as highlighted by Roach.
Teaching English rhythm…
2.2.1 Role of English rhythm in communication
Rhythm plays a crucial role in effective communication, serving as a key component of suprasegmental features alongside stress and intonation It is widely recognized as one of the essential elements of English pronunciation, as highlighted by Avery & Ehrlich (1992), McCarthy (1991), and Wong (1987) This significance arises from rhythm's ability to structure information within spoken language, guiding listeners through the flow of speech (Avery & Ehrlich, 1992; Brown, 1990; Wong, 1987).
Rhythm plays a crucial role in communication, as highlighted by Halliday (1970), who states that it aids in understanding and being understood, while also contributing to intonation Gilbert (2008) further emphasizes this connection by likening rhythm and intonation to “road signs” that guide listeners in grasping the speaker's intentions and focusing on the discourse's information structure Both elements are intricately linked and work together in spoken English, underscoring their importance in effective communication.
Halliday (1985) posits that rhythm is preserved subvocally within both the speaker's and listener's consciousness, highlighting its significance in communication This suggests that rhythm is integral to both the act of speaking and the experience of listening (Ball & Rahilly, 1999).
Understanding English rhythm is crucial for both listeners and speakers Gilbert (2008) emphasizes that listeners must identify syllables and discern word stress patterns, while Laroy (1995) states that rhythm and intonation are essential for effective speaking Wong (1987) warns that non-native speakers lacking knowledge of English rhythmic patterns may face communication barriers and misinterpretations O’Connor (1980) highlights that speakers from syllable-timed languages who apply the same length to every syllable risk making their speech incomprehensible Celce-Murcia et al (1996) and Celce-Murcia and Olshtain (2000) note that incorrect rhythm and prosody can lead to serious misunderstandings or even humorous errors Improper rhythm and intonation may cause learners to appear abrupt or rude, and non-native-like stress can render speech unintelligible (Celce-Murcia et al., 1996) Ultimately, incorrect word stress obscures meaning and disrupts the overall prosody of utterances (Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000).
The rhythm of everyday speech varies significantly based on context, influenced by factors such as the speaker's conversational style, the listener's inferential skills, and the interpersonal dynamics between speakers Elements like confidence, nervousness, excitement, and personal speech habits, including accent and dialect, also play a crucial role Additionally, the rate of speech can be either rhythmic or arhythmic, leading to a natural presence of false starts, hesitations, and repetitions in casual conversations These speech patterns are closely linked to the speaker's level of politeness, cultural appropriateness, and adherence to social norms.
Non-native English speakers struggle to be understood without proper stress, intonation, and rhythm in their speech Therefore, it is essential to educate them about these elements in the classroom to enhance their communication skills.
2.2.2 Role of English rhythm in English teaching
Research indicates that rhythm is crucial for language acquisition and effective language use According to Rivers and Temperley (1978), employing appropriate rhythm and intonation can significantly enhance students' speech, making it sound more natural and less foreign, often offsetting other pronunciation errors Avery and Ehrlich (1992) further support this notion, emphasizing the importance of rhythm in language learning.
“when a student does not produce utterances with appropriate rhythm, the result can range from incomprehension to annoyance on the part of the listeners” (p
189) With this in mind, Avery and Ehrlich (1992) assert “developing fluent and comprehensible speech in our ESL students is the primary goal of training in the spoken language” (p 89)
Fischler (2005) highlights that non-native speakers often transfer stress patterns from their first language when interpreting and pronouncing English, as English has distinct word and sentence stress compared to other stress-timed languages To effectively teach pronunciation, it is crucial for educators to raise students' awareness of rhythmic universality and to facilitate comparisons between their native language rhythms and those of English Explicit instruction on the unique rhythm of English is essential for all ESL learners to improve their pronunciation skills.
2.2.3 Ways to introduce English rhythm
The rhythm of English poses significant challenges for both non-native speakers learning the language and native speakers learning other languages Despite its complexity, language teachers do not overlook this aspect in the classroom English rhythm primarily relies on the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, as well as the timing of strong and weak beats, encompassing both segmental and suprasegmental features To enhance the teaching of English rhythm, a variety of practical kinesthetic, visual, metrical, non-metrical, and aural activities are employed, aiming to make the learning experience more meaningful and effective.
Rhythm plays a crucial role in human physical activities, making body movements an effective way to introduce it in educational settings (Avery & Ehrlich, 1992; Celce-Murcia & Olhstain, 2000; O’Connor, 1980; Wong, 1987) Teachers can enhance students' understanding of general rhythms and the specific rhythm of language by engaging in activities such as tapping toes, clapping hands, or nodding heads Utilizing rhythmic beats on a table with fingers or a pen can also be beneficial Additionally, conducting gestures, where teachers move their arms and hands like an orchestra conductor to emphasize stress, intonation, and rhythm in language, can reinforce these concepts (Avery & Ehrlich, 1992; Gower et al., 2005; Kenworthy, 1987) It is essential for each beat or arm movement to align precisely in timing with each other to maintain coherence.
The question here is that how teachers decide what words or syllables go together in a “rhythm unit” O’Connor (1980, pp 99-100) points out the rules:
1) Any unstressed syllables at the beginning of a word group must go together with the stressed group
2) If the unstressed syllable(s) is part of the same words as the stressed syllable they belong to the same group
3) If the unstressed syllable(s) is closely connected grammatically to the stressed word, although not a part of that word, they belong to the same rhythm unit
4) Whenever you are in doubt as to which rhythm unit unstressed syllables belong to, put them after the stress rather than before it
Underhill (1998) points out another technique to introduce English rhythm
Finger correction, as illustrated in Figure 2.3, enables teachers to associate individual sounds or words with each finger, enhancing the learning experience According to Underhill, this method is “quick, specific and supportive of the learner’s capacities” (p 160) Additionally, Underhill identifies two complementary functions of finger correction that further enrich its effectiveness in teaching.
Fingers play a crucial role in articulating speech by breaking it down into distinct components, allowing for careful examination and identification of each part, before seamlessly integrating them back into fluid communication.
Fingers are utilized to navigate from a broader flow of connected speech to the specific components within that flow, transitioning from Level 3 to individual words.
2), or from individual words down to individual sounds (Level 2 to Level 1)
To change, improve, correct, and shape an utterance
The fingers are used to shape what is there, or to add something, to remove something, to induce self correction
Fingers are used to break words down into their component sounds and to build the sounds back into words
Fingers are used to break connected speech down into its component words and to build the words back into connected speech
Fingers are used to shape and correct words and the individual sounds they contain
Fingers are used to shape and correct connected speech
Visual aids are essential for teaching stress and rhythm in language, as highlighted by Gower et al (2005), Kelley (2000), Kenworthy (1987), Lado (1964), Rivers & Temperley (1978), and Ur (1996), who suggest marking rhythm on the board The initial step involves identifying the stress patterns of content words, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs Once these stress patterns are marked, teachers can read entire lines aloud to facilitate student practice Notably, the use of capital letters serves as an effective method for indicating stress, as demonstrated by Underhill (1998).
I LEFT my Office in a RUSH this afterNOON b) A short vertical line above or before the stressed syllable
I left my office in a rush this afternoon c) Italicization
I left my office in a rush this afternoon d) Underlining
I left my office in a rush this afternoon e) Circles, boxes, or dots above the stressed syllables
I left my office in a rush this afternoon
Lado (1964) recommends using a dot scale to illustrate stress, intonation, and juncture in language teaching, as shown in Figure 2.4 This pseudo-musical notation is not only easy to read but also quickly learned by students.
Indicates primary stress secondary stress tertiary, and weak
Figure 2.4: Dots on a scale (Lado, 1964, p 81)
Songs and English language teaching
2.3.1 The benefits of songs towards English language teaching
Music plays a vital role in engaging young learners in ESL/EFL classrooms, as children naturally love to sing and enjoy music Research, including findings by Read (2007), highlights the positive impact of songs on language learning and acquisition for children By incorporating songs into language instruction, educators can effectively enhance the second language learning experience in various creative ways.
Rhymes, chants, and songs can effectively serve as a ritual for beginning and concluding lessons, while also being integrated into language, storytelling, or topic-based activities Additionally, they play a crucial role in reinforcing knowledge and skills across the curriculum, including areas like numeracy and citizenship, such as environmental stewardship.
Songs can effectively enhance language skills in young learners by improving their listening abilities Activities such as listening comprehension, summarizing, and focused listening can be employed to develop these skills Engaging with songs also benefits children's speaking abilities, as they often attempt to sing along after listening The repetitive nature of song refrains helps children memorize lyrics, allowing them to recall and articulate words confidently Overall, integrating songs into language learning fosters both listening and speaking skills in an enjoyable way.
Songs play a vital role in encouraging students to speak English confidently, allowing them to practice without fear of mistakes (2003) In-class speaking activities, complemented by homework such as humming, reciting lyrics, and creating new lyrics, help reinforce learning (Spicher & Sweeney, 2007) Additionally, matching songs with pictures and discussing chosen phrases fosters engagement (Yuliana, 2003) Beyond speaking fluency, songs can enhance reading and writing skills through activities like reading poems, writing chants, and completing dictations (Read, 2007; Yuliana, 2003) Ultimately, integrating chants, songs, and rhymes into lessons promotes better pronunciation and language awareness, supporting overall speaking development (Klancar, 2006).
Songs play a crucial role in enhancing children's linguistic skills by exposing them to various tenses and grammatical structures They provide authentic vocabulary that is simple, natural, and contextually relevant Additionally, songs present themes familiar to young children, such as family, animals, and city life, using extensive chunks of language rather than isolated words or sentences This approach not only makes learning engaging but also reinforces language acquisition effectively.
Children easily remember words and patterns through authentic and colorful language, as noted by Metin (2000) and Yuliana (2003) The emotional connection created by linking words to rhythm and music enhances memorability (Reilly & Ward, 1997) Additionally, Cebula (2003) points out that songs eliminate the need for translation, encouraging children to infer meanings of words and expressions instead This aligns with Cameron's (2001) perspective on learning through meaning.
Songs play a crucial role in improving children's pronunciation skills by providing an implicit learning experience Engaging with songs and rhymes allows young learners to better recognize syllables in words and differentiate between challenging sounds, such as vowels, consonants, and minimal pairs.
Older children can enhance their pronunciation skills through rhymes, chants, and songs, which explicitly address aspects like stress, pitch, and intonation (Read, 2007; Spicher & Sweeney, 2007) Singing allows them to practice connected speech features such as linking and elision (Paul, 2003; Read, 2007; Yoo, 2002) while exposing them to a variety of accents, including British, American, and Caribbean English (Lynch, 2005) The diverse musical genres, such as Gospel, soul, R&B, pop, rock, reggae, and jazz chants, contribute to the rich accents in songs Young children, being excellent mimics (Reilley & Ward, 1997), are adept at copying these accents, intonation, and rhythm, which leads to improved pronunciation as they focus on sounds rather than meaning (Klancar, 2006; Reilly & Ward, 1997).
Incorporating songs into the classroom enhances the understanding of individual sounds and connected speech while promoting rhythm The rhythmic nature of rhymes, ballads, and folk songs, rooted in the stress, pitch, and rhythm of specific cultures, transforms them into engaging narratives (Spicher & Sweeney, 2007) Research by Orlova (2003) highlights that the primary methodological purpose of using music in education is to practice English stress, intonation, and rhythm patterns Additionally, songs can enrich language practice for speakers of flat-toned languages (Paul, 2003) Reilly and Ward (1997) emphasize that songs and chants in stress-timed languages like English help learners place stress correctly and recognize strong and weak forms Saricoban and Metin (2000) note that while prosodic features may be fragmented into structural points, they regain coherence through music To cultivate children's awareness of rhythm, Read (2007) recommends activities like clapping the rhythm of rhymes, focusing on content words that carry the main stress.
Songs play a vital role in enhancing children's cultural awareness by reflecting the diverse geographical and social contexts from which they originate They effectively convey cultural themes through their lyrics, addressing various social issues such as civil rights, environmental concerns, and conflict Traditional folk songs, rhymes, and chants serve as valuable tools for introducing children to the cultural aspects of the English-speaking world, enriching their understanding of different societies.
Incorporating songs into the classroom not only introduces the music itself but also the rich cultural context surrounding it Songs serve as a lens through which students can explore and compare different cultures, fostering a deeper understanding of diverse perspectives.
In sum, songs are of great values in children’s development of language skills, of linguistic knowledge, including pronunciation, and of cultural awareness
Empirical research underscores the effectiveness of incorporating songs in language classrooms A 2007 study by Horn demonstrated significant improvements in listening skills among 72 second language learners at an English primary school in South Africa The participants, divided into experimental and control groups, underwent a pretest followed by six months of music and movement activities for the experimental group The posttest results indicated that these activities positively impacted early ESL learners’ language acquisition, enhancing both auditory and visual perception Horn identified various purposes for using songs in ESL classes, including greetings, commands, memory skills, vocabulary development, creativity, relaxation, motivation, joy expression, and community awareness She emphasized the importance of fostering cognitive and physical development to improve learners' English proficiency.
Novak (2007) investigated the impact of melodic and rhythmic interventions on vocabulary acquisition among preschool children with typical hearing and varying levels of hearing loss The study involved 30 participants aged 3 to 4, divided into two groups: 15 with typical hearing and 15 deaf/hard-of-hearing Participants were tested on 24 vocabulary words across themes like plants and musical instruments, using two control conditions (verbal instruction only and no teaching) and two treatment conditions (rhythmic chants with visual aids and songs) Results indicated no significant difference in overall vocabulary identification between the groups; however, hearing participants benefited more from conversational teaching, while deaf/hard-of-hearing participants thrived under rhythmic instruction Novak acknowledged limitations such as a small sample size and educational variability among participants, which could have influenced the findings, alongside factors like pretest score variability and the limited exposure to teaching materials.
She aimed to conduct further research on the characteristics of rhythmic chants, focusing on aspects like meter, tempo, note values, and the selection of signs used in performance, to determine their appeal to students who are deaf or hard of hearing.
A study conducted by Medina (1993, cited in Medina, 2002) investigated the impact of music on second language vocabulary acquisition among 48 second-grade students with limited English proficiency The research utilized a comparative design featuring four treatment groups, which included combinations of music and illustrations.
Young learners
Young learners are generally defined as children aged between four and fourteen, encompassing those in their first year of formal schooling to early secondary education According to various sources, including Cameron (2001) and Phillips (1994), this group typically includes children from five to twelve years old, while Brumfit (1991) and others extend this definition to include adolescents up to eighteen Young learners can be categorized into three distinct age groups: very young (four to seven), preteen (eight to twelve), and teenagers (Wilson, 2008) Overall, the definition of young learners primarily reflects the years spent in primary or elementary education before transitioning to secondary schools.
Children's maturity is not solely determined by their age, as various factors such as culture, environment, gender, and parental and peer expectations play a significant role (Phillips, 1994) According to Phillips et al (1999), children of the same age can differ greatly in maturity, intelligence, and background Scott and Ytreberg (1990) emphasize that developmental milestones vary widely; for instance, abilities of five-year-olds can differ drastically from those of ten-year-olds Some children develop at an accelerated pace, while others progress more gradually, making it impossible to set fixed expectations for what all children can achieve at specific ages (p 1).
The age at which young learners begin studying English varies across countries, with many multilingual nations introducing English in primary school to prepare students for secondary education In both EFL and ESL contexts, the age of eight is often regarded as the standard starting point for English language acquisition, which may be lower in some regions (Thornbury, 2006) Furthermore, primary education is crucial for children's overall development—intellectually, physically, emotionally, and socially Therefore, it is essential for teachers to recognize and consider the unique characteristics of young children in their teaching approaches.
Although the age of primary schooling varies considerably from one country to others, young learners around the world share some characteristics (Brumfit,
Young learners, just starting their educational journey, present a significant opportunity for teachers to shape their expectations of school life This age group is often more diverse than secondary or adult learners, as they are still closely connected to their varied home cultures and are just beginning to adapt to the conformity enforced by educational institutions They are typically eager and enthusiastic about learning, free from the inhibitions that older children may experience Their educational experiences are closely tied to their development of ideas and concepts, as they are new to formal schooling Additionally, young learners require physical movement and activity alongside cognitive stimulation, and integrating these elements enhances their learning experience.
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget proposed that children progress through distinct stages of cognitive development before achieving mature reasoning and understanding In the Sensorimotor stage, which spans from birth to age 2, children engage physically with their surroundings, forming foundational concepts about how the world operates However, during the subsequent Pre-Operational stage, from ages 2 to approximately 7, children are unable to think abstractly, which limits their cognitive abilities.
Children in the Concrete Operations stage (ages 7-11) begin to conceptualize and solve abstract problems, yet they still learn best through hands-on experiences In contrast, those in the Formal Operations stage (ages 11-15) can think abstractly like adults Piaget emphasizes that children are active learners, as learning occurs through action They assimilate new information when it involves no change to themselves and accommodate it when they adjust to their environment Notably, young children tend to forget language that is not connected to action, highlighting the importance of experiential learning in early development.
Young learners aged four to seven experience significant developmental milestones, particularly in motor skills and basic literacy, as highlighted by Wilson (2008) During the writing process, they face challenges in letter formation, spelling, and creating meaningful sentences, which enhances their understanding of the relationship between sounds and written forms Cognitively, these learners struggle with abstract concepts and have limited language manipulation skills, as their schemata are primarily based on their immediate surroundings, including family, food, and familiar routines Additionally, they tend to have short attention spans, as noted by Reilly & Ward (1997) and Vale &
Children often struggle to maintain focus for extended periods, frequently losing interest in activities such as songs or stories and becoming easily distracted by toys (Feunteun, 1995; Wilson, 2008; Reilly & Ward, 1997).
During the preteen years, children's cognitive abilities become more pronounced, as they develop longer attention spans and begin to understand the world around them They start to recognize patterns, theorize, and make deductions, which broadens their schemata This cognitive growth is accompanied by an enrichment of knowledge, allowing them to reference past experiences and anticipate future events while conceptualizing various objects and phenomena As noted by Scott and Ytreberg (1990), children aged eight to ten have formed basic concepts that enable them to develop personal views about learning and preferences They differentiate between fact and fiction, ask numerous questions, collaborate effectively with peers, and learn from one another (Wilson, 2008).
During the teenage years, cognitive and motor skills are significantly developed, allowing adolescents to become attentive, creative, and dynamic learners when engaged with favorable topics However, social and emotional challenges can hinder their ability to acquire a second language, as they may become less motivated to please teachers, anxious about peer perceptions, and more critical of classroom activities they dislike (Wilson, 2008, pp 128-129).
Young learners exhibit distinct cognitive characteristics, as highlighted by Thornbury (2006), who identifies two key features Firstly, affective factors play a crucial role; children often lack self-consciousness, which allows them to express themselves freely, but they require encouragement and support Their motivation tends to stem from intrinsic factors, such as the enjoyment of engaging tasks or games, rather than extrinsic rewards like passing tests Moon (2005) emphasizes that children learn languages through motivation and interaction in a trusting environment filled with enjoyable activities Secondly, Thornbury points out that young learners often struggle with social skills, particularly in collaborative settings, making them reliant on teachers for guidance Their integration into classroom life is facilitated by the establishment of regular routines.
All in all, it is likely that it is the characteristics of young learners that make their language learning different from adults’
2.4.3.1 Children’s oral language development in first language acquisition
Native speakers rely heavily on stressed words to interpret utterances, a phenomenon clearly observed in young children's language acquisition Toddlers often articulate only the stressed syllables of words, neglecting unstressed ones, as seen when they say /’n@n6/ for banana or /’m@t6/ for tomato This pattern extends to longer phrases, where early speech predominantly consists of nouns, verbs, and adjectives, with correct stress patterns applied to content words in utterances like "Johnny all gone" or "daddy come." Furthermore, when young children mimic speech, they tend to omit unstressed grammatical words while accurately repeating the stressed lexical ones.
In early language development, children often mimic phrases spoken by their parents, such as a mother saying "Mommy," which the child may repeat as "come Mommy." This behavior exemplifies "telegraphic speech," where children simplify their language by omitting function words, similar to how adults would in a telegram.
According to Konza (2006), children without hearing issues or intellectual disabilities learn to speak by imitating the sounds around them, facilitating their ability to communicate and meet their needs By age five, children typically develop oral language skills that focus on social communication about familiar topics, using gestures and intonation for clarity In contrast, literacy language, which is encountered in school and written texts, is more formal, precise, and grammatically correct This literacy requires specificity and punctuation to convey meaning, as it lacks the intonation present in spoken language Consequently, while children may successfully imitate spoken utterances from media, they often struggle to read those same phrases in print.
According to Konza (2006), children develop phonological awareness, including rhythm and rhyme, at a young age, with these skills evolving progressively Initially, children recognize the sounds of language by clapping to the beats of their names or multisyllabic words, indicating their awareness of linguistic rhythm As they play with words, they begin to notice that certain words have similar endings, often repeating rhyming syllables This playful engagement with language helps them familiarize themselves with its rhyming aspects, highlighting essential skills that show their early understanding of oral English.
Summary
Songs hold a unique power in education, significantly aiding language acquisition and fostering both physical and mental development in learners As highlighted by Griffee (1995), while the reasons behind the impact of songs remain unclear, their effectiveness is universally acknowledged Incorporating songs into classroom activities can enhance their benefits, particularly for young children, making them an essential component of the learning process.
Previous literature primarily highlights the role of music and songs in enhancing vocabulary acquisition among young learners, with a significant focus on ESL and native students who have greater exposure to English However, these studies may not address the specific needs of Asian elementary school children learning English as a foreign language, who often do not perceive learning English as essential (Paul, 2003, pp 1-2) Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of using songs in the classroom to improve English rhythm production among Vietnamese young learners.
In the following chapter, the research methodology and design will be described in full.