Teaching and learning grammar through games in the tenth grade at hung vuong high school m a 60 14 10

To help students find language classes, especially grammar lessons more interesting, and to achieve more of teaching as well as learning effectiveness from games, the author of this thes

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LINGUISTIC AND LITERATURE

TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH GAMES IN THE TENTH GRADE

AT HUNG VUONG HIGH SCHOOL

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS (TESOL)

Submitted by NGUYỄN THỊ BẠCH YẾN

Supervisor PETER LEONARD, M.A.

HO CHI MINH CITY, FEBRUARY 2010

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify that this thesis entitled “TEACHING AND LEARNING GRAMMAR THROUGH GAMES IN THE TENTH GRADE AT HUNG VUONG HIGH SCHOOL” is my own work

This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other institution

Ho Chi Minh City, February, 2010

NGUYỄN THỊ BẠCH YẾN

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, NGUYỄN THỊ BẠCH YẾN, being the candidate for

the degree of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating

to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited

in the library should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for care, loan or reproduction

of theses

Ho Chi Minh City, February, 2010

NGUYỄN THỊ BẠCH YẾN

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Mr Peter Leonard, M.A for his enthusiastic guidance, valuable comments and support

in the preparation and completion of this thesis

I am greatly indebted to all the lecturers of the TESOL graduate program at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities for their dedication and helpful instruction during the course from the year 2005 to 2008

My special thanks go to Dr Nguyễn Thị Kiều Thu, Mr Trương Hớn Huy, M.A and Mr Nguyễn Hoàng Linh, M.A in TESOL who have given me useful advice on my thesis proposal

I am also thankful to the teaching staff of Hung Vuong High School for their help, support and encouragement I also owe sincere thanks to the tenth graders at Hung Vuong High School for their cooperation in the study

Last but not least, I am greatly indebted to my beloved family for their love, and support

ABSTRACT

High school students usually feel bored in grammar lessons To help students find language classes, especially grammar lessons more interesting, and to achieve more of teaching as well as learning effectiveness from games, the author of this thesis conducted a research into the effectiveness of using language games in the teaching and learning of grammar

The research method used in the surveys is mainly quantitative which is combined with qualitative method so as to investigate the difficulties arising in the teaching and learning of grammar in the tenth grade Such tools as questionnaires, class observations, and experimental project were used in the study In the application part, the research is conducted by an experiment with the application of language games to find out how effective it is in teaching and learning grammar in the tenth grade

The findings obtained from the study reveal the benefits of the use of games in grammar classes which stimulate tenth-grade students’ interest and retention as well With this, students actively participated in the class activities so finally their four language skills were improved especially their listening and speaking skills In

a word, the application of games to grammar teaching and learning is in agreement with the essence of the reform

With great efforts made in the research, the author of the study hopes that the study will actively contribute to the better development of teaching and learning EFL with games in the division of English at HVHS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Statement of authorship……… i

Retention and use of the thesis ……… ii

Acknowledgements ……… iii

Abstract ……… iv

Table of contents ……… v

List of tables ……… x

List of charts ……… xi

List of abbreviations ……… xii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Background to the study 2

1.2.1 The implementation of innovation 2

1.2.2 Aims of the education reform 2

1.2.3 Statement of purpose 3

1.2.4 Description of the text book Tieng Anh 10 and its contructions 3

1.2.4.1 Aims and objectives of the text book Tieng Anh 10 3

1.2.4.2 Time distribution for the implement of the textbook Tieng Anh 10 4 1.2.4.3 Constructions of each unit in Tieng Anh 10 4

1.2.4.4 Grammar points in the text book Tieng Anh 10 6

1.3 Aims of the study 7

1.4 Significance of the study 7

1.5 Assumptions 8

1.6 Methodology 8

1.7 Limitations and Delimitations 8

1.8 Overview of the thesis 9

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 10

2.1 Grammar 10

2.1.1 Definitions of grammar 10

2.1.2 The role of grammar in language teaching and learning 11

2.1.3 Grammar learning 12

2.1.4 The organization of grammar teaching 13

2.1.5 Grammar Practice 14

2.1.5.1 Pre- learning 15

2.1.5.2 Volume and repetition 15

2.1.5.3 Success- orientation 16

2.1.5.4 Heterogeneity 16

2.1.5.5 Teacher assistance 17

2.1.5.6 Interest 17

2.1.6 Basic criteria for designing and selecting grammar activities 18

2.2 An overview on deductive and inductive approaches 18

2.3 A traditional approach versus a more communicative approach 20

2.4 Games 21

2.4.1What is game? 21

2.4.2 The significance of games in language teaching and learning 21 2.4.3 How to choose games 25

2.4.4 The role of the teacher during games 26

2.4.5 How and when to employ games in language classroom 26

2.4.6 What types of games can be employed in grammar classes 28

2.4.7 Games and teenagers 31

2.5 Studies related to game using in grammar learning and teaching 31

2.6 Summary 32

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 33

3.1 Research question 33

3.2 Research design 33

3.2.1 Participants 34

3.2.2 The survey questionnaires 35

3.2.3 The experimental project 36

3.2.4 Class observations 38

3.2.5 Data collection procedures 39

3.2.6 Data analysis procedures 40

3.3 Summary 41

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 42

4.1 Data collected from the two sets of survey questionnaires 42

4.1.1 The characteristics of the subjects 42

4.1.1.1 The characteristics of the teachers 42

4.1.1.2 The characteristics of the students 44

4.1.2 The subjects’ viewpoints on grammar 45

4.1.2.1 The necessity of grammar teaching and learning 45

4.1.2.2 Teachers’ and Students’ point of view on grammar teaching and learning 46

4.1.2.3 Students’ interest in grammar classes 47

4.1.2.4 Teachers’ assessment of grammar tasks in the textbook 49

4.1.3 Ways of teaching and learning grammar in class 50

4.1.3.1 The way of presenting new grammatical rules in class 50

4.1.3.2 Teachers’ and students’ favorite ways in dealing with grammar classes 51

4.1.3.3 Students’ opinion about duration of grammar practice in class 52

4.1.4 Difficulties in teaching and learning grammar 53

4.1.5 Students’ suggestions on improving the teaching and learning of grammar in class 56

4.2 Data collected from the experimental project 57

4.2.1 The pretest test and post test of the two groups 57

4.2.1.1 The Pretest scores 57

4.2.1.2 The Posttest scores 58

4.2.1.3 Difference in the pretest and post- test scores of the two groups 59

4.3 Analysis of class observations 62

4.4 Summary 69

CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 71

5.1 Recommendations 71

5.2 Conclusion 72

REFERENCES 74

APPENDICES 79

Appendix 1: Questionnaire for teachers of English 79

Appendix 2: Questionnaire for students 83

Appendix 3: Student’ opinions: Difficulties and suggestions 87

Appendix 4: Grammar Pre-test ……… 94

Appendix 5: Grammar Post-test 99

Appendix 6: Pre-test and post-test scores of class 10H 104

Appendix 7: Pre-test and post-test scores of class 10L 105

Appendix 8: Observation checklist………106

Appendix 9: Games applied in Experimental Grammar classes 109

LIST OF TABLES Chapter 1

Table 1: The grammar points in Language Focus of Tieng Anh 10

Chapter 2

Table 2: Aspects of the teaching/ learning of structures

Table 3: A traditional approach versus a more communicative approach

Chapter 3

Table 4: The student subjects’ levels of English

Chapter 4

Table 5 : The characteristics of the teaching staff

Table 6: Teacher’s age

Table 7: Teacher’s years of teaching

Table 8: The characteristics of the students

Table 9: Difficulties teachers encounter in grammar teaching

Table 10: The experimental group’s and the control group’s pretest scores

Table 11: Comparison of the pretest mean scores of the two groups

Table 12: Comparison of the posttest mean scores of the two groups

Table 13: The experimental group’s and the control group’s posttest scores

Table 14: Comparison of the pretest and post- test scores within each of the two groups Table 15: Comparison of the scores of the two groups’ pretest and post- test

Table 16: The student subjects’ levels classified by pre- and post- test scores

Table 17: Class Observation 1

Table 18: Class Observation 2

Table 19: Class Observation 3

LIST OF CHARTS

Chapter 4

Chart 1: The necessity of grammar teaching and learning

Chart 2: Teachers’ and students’ judgment on grammar teaching

and learning

Chart 3: Students’ interest in grammar classes

Chart 4: Teachers’ assessment of grammar tasks in the textbook

Chart 5: Teachers’ ways of presenting grammar points

Chart 6: Teachers’ and students’ favorite ways in dealing with

grammar classes

Chart 7: Students’ remarks on duration of grammar practice in class

Chart 8: The student subjects’ levels classified by pre- and post- test scores

ESL English as a Second Language

HVHS Hung Vuong High School

MCQ Multiple Choice Question

PCG Pretest scores of the control group

PEG Pretest scores of the experimental group

PTCG Posttest scores of the control group

PTEG Posttest scores of the experimental group

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The chapter begins with the rationale of the study Next comes a background

to our current English teaching and learning situation together with a brief description of the textbook Tieng Anh 10, especially the grammar points included

in “Language Focus” section Last comes the aim and the significance of the study, along with its limitations and delimitations in the current English teaching and learning situation

1.1 Rationale

The study of grammar was not just considered as an essential feature of language learning, but a sufficient element for learners to actually acquire another language (Rutherford, 1988 cited in Purpura, J.E., 2004) However, grammar may

be complicated and can appear confusing Therefore, the tenth graders at Hung Vuong High School still encounter problems with their grammar learning The tenth graders said that they found it difficult to remember some grammar points even those that they have already learned during their lower secondary school years “it is difficult to remember grammar points I have learned”, etc Sometimes, they did not know how to use grammar points in appropriate contexts: “I can not distinguish the

different use between be going to and will”, etc Besides, they found grammar

classes dry and boring “I do not feel at ease during grammar classes as the grammar points are dry and difficult to remember.” etc As for the teachers of English, they state that they themselves have their own difficulties in teaching grammar such as passive students, students’ various levels, and students’ low interest in grammar, etc

Therefore, the study reported in this thesis aims at finding out whether games can be used as a useful solution to such difficulties and how effective the use of games is in grammar teaching and learning

1.2 Background to the study

1.2.1 The implementation of innovation

The implementation of innovation has officially begun since the school year 2002-2003 To support educational reform and innovations, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) published a new English textbook series for communicative teaching

According to Teacher’s book for teaching the textbook Tieng Anh 10 of the MOET, communicative and learner centeredness approaches are mainly utilized in the application of the new English textbooks The learner is now seen as an active participant in the process of language learning in the classroom This means that the learner must be ready to take part in conversation, discussion, etc under the teacher’s supervision instead of the traditional role in passive individual work Teachers who advocate the Communicative Approach are expected to come up with activities that would promote self-learning, group interaction in authentic situations and peer teaching In other words, the teacher now not only delivers language knowledge but also acts as supporter, consultant of task and learner resource It is a task not easy for the teacher Although the new series of English textbooks, including the textbook Tieng Anh 10, is much better than the old one,

my colleagues keep complaining that they still face certain difficulties in their English teaching generally and in grammar teaching in particular

Thus, the question which can be raised here is:

How effective is the use of games in teaching and learning grammar?

1.2.2 Aims of the education reform

Prime Ministerial Decision 14/2001/CT-TTg on the innovation of program for lower secondary schools and upper secondary schools (or high schools) dated June 11th 2001 states that the aim of innovation is to train students to become creative, independent and active learners This is in accordance with Item 24 Part 2 Chapter II of Vietnamese Education Law, which says:

Phương pháp giáo dục phổ thông phải phát huy tính tích cực, tự giác, chủ động, sáng tạo của học sinh

; phù hợp với đặc điểm của từng lớp học, môn học; bồi dưỡng phương pháp tự học, rèn luyện kỹ năng vận dụng kiến thức vào thực tiễn; tác động đến tình cảm, đem lại niềm vui, hứng thú học tập cho học sinh (Education methods at lower and upper secondary schools are to develop students’

activeness, consciousness, initiative and creativity; fit each particular classroom and

each subject; foster students’ self-study and train practical skills; and make a good

impact on students’ feelings, bringing them pleasure and fondness for learning.)

(Le Vuong Ly, 2006:1-2)

1.2.4 Description of the text book Tieng Anh 10 and its constructions 1.2.4.1 Aims and objectives of the text book Tieng Anh 10

According to Teachers’ book for Tieng Anh 10, the aims and objectives of the

textbook series for high school are as follows: (1) to help students to be able to use

English as a means of communication through listening, speaking, reading and writing at a certain level of primary knowledge, (2) to develop students’ primary knowledge, which is rather systematic and complete in accordance with their psychological characteristics and levels of knowledge of their age, and (3) to develop general knowledge and attitude towards the people, cultures, and geography of some English speaking countries Besides, they help form students’ pride, respect and love for their own culture and language

The textbook Tieng Anh 10 is designed to train students in all four skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing The content of the language focuses on six main themes: (1) You and me, (2) Education, (3) Community, (4) Nature and environment, (5) Recreation, and (6) People and places It is assumed that after

finishing textbook Tieng Anh, the students are able to: (1) comprehend the main ideas and details of monologue or dialogue with about 120-150 words within the topics in the syllabus and comprehend texts at rather slow speed (2) ask and answer about these topics, and use some basic communicative functions such as giving directions, expressing ideas, and asking for directions, etc (3) read and comprehend 190-230-word texts within the above mentioned themes and develop linguistics competence such as using the dictionary, and using appropriate contexts, ect (4) write 100-200-word essays based on the given essay samples with the contents relating to the themes above

1.2.4.2 Time distribution for the implement of the text book Tieng Anh 10

According to the document for teaching plan by the Ministry of Education and Training (2007), the contents of the textbook Tieng Anh 10 are carried out as follows:

The textbook Tieng Anh 10 being used for non-English majored students at

high schools consists of sixteen units in all and six Test yourself (A-F) Each unit is supposed to be taught in five periods Each period lasts forty- five minutes Test yourself serves to measure the students’ achievement after learning two or three

units This part is supposed to be finished in one period As the suggestion of Teachers’ book, teachers guide the students to do this part at home and then it is corrected in class

1.2.4.3 Constructions of each unit in Tieng Anh 10

The textbook Tieng Anh 10 consists of sixteen units corresponding to sixteen topics expanded from the six main themes All of the sixteen units have the same

constructions with five parts: Reading, Speaking, Listening, Writing and Language Focus

Firstly, Reading is in the form of monologue or dialogue with three phases: Before you read, While you read, and After you read Before you read introduces

the theme While you read aims to develop students’ reading skills After you read is

used to consolidate students’ reading comprehension by summarizing or retelling the reading text in spoken or written language It is also used as a context for the development of students’ reading skills as well as a source of supplying the basic language knowledge of English, vocabulary and grammar, to help students with the practice of speaking, listening and writing in English

Secondly, Speaking consists of 3-4 tasks The first and the second ones supply

the students with the language knowledge and develop their competence or specific functions such as expressing preferences, talking about the uses of a computer, etc

In the rest tasks, with the competence and functions in the previous tasks, students practise speaking more freely

Thirdly, Listening aims to develop students’ listening skills such as intensive

listening, extensive listening, listening for specific information, listening for gist,

ect Like Reading, Listening has three main phases: Before you listen, While you listen and After you listen Before you listen aims to prepare the students for listening While you listen consists of 2-4 tasks in which students are asked to listen

and give true/ false answer or do multiple choice tasks, answer the questions, etc

After you listen helps consolidate students’ listening comprehension by

summarizing or retelling what they have just listened in spoken or written language and relate the topic with their real life

Fourthly, Writing often begins with a sample essay with specific type such as:

writing a letter, narrating a film, describing an event, etc Next are some tasks for the students to explore the contents, structures and vocabulary usually used in such writing types Then students are asked to write the essay with the guides given The guides include word cues, questions, phrases for the students to rearrange and rewrite with the completion of some function words such as preposition, article, pronoun, etc

Fifthly, Language Focus aims to consolidate students’ language competence This part consists of Pronunciation, Grammar and Vocabulary In Pronunciation

students practice 2-3 phonemes in words and then in statements Grammar and Vocabulary consists of some grammar points that are considered important in

developing students’ communicative competence in each unit These points are often extracted from the reading

1.2.4.4 Grammar points in the text book Tieng Anh 10

The following table consists of the titles of the sixteen units as well as the

grammar points in Language Focus of each unit

Unit 1 A DAY IN THE LIFE OF…

- The present simple -Adverbs of frequency

- The past simple

Unit 2 SCHOOL TALKS - Wh- questions

- Gerund and to + infinitive

Unit 3 PEOPLE’S BACKGROUND - The past perfect

- The past perfect vs the past simple

Unit 4 SPECIAL EDUCATION

- The+ adjective

- Used to + infinitive

- Which as a connector

Unit 5 TECHNOLOGY AND YOU

- The present perfect

- The present perfect passive

- Who, which, that

Unit 6 AN EXCURSION

- The present progressive ( with a future meaning)

- Be going to

Unit 7 THE MASS MEDIA - The present perfect

- Because of and in spite of

Unit 8 THE STORY OF MY VILLAGE - Reported speech: statements

- Conditional sentence type 1

Unit 9 UNDERSEA WORLD - Should

- Conditional sentence type 2 Unit 10 CONSERVATION - The passive voice

Unit 11 NATIONAL PARKS - Conditional sentence type 3

Unit 12 MUSIC -to+ infinitive to talk about purposes

- Wh- questions

Unit 13 FILMS AND CINEMA

-Attitudinal adjectives -It is/ was not until…that…

- a/an and the

Unit 14 THE WORLD CUP

- Will vs going to

- Will: making predictions

- Will: making offers

Unit 15 CITIES -Non-defining vs defining relative clauses

-Although as a contrasting connector

Unit 16 HISTORICAL PLACES -Comparatives and superlatives

- Making comparisons

Table 1: The grammar points in Language Focus of Tieng Anh 10

1.3 Aims of the study

The study of this thesis was carried out to investigate the effectiveness of using games in grammar teaching and learning

1.4 Significance of the study

Although grammar plays a significant part in language teaching and learning, teachers and students at high schools still get into real difficulties Therefore, what signifies in this study is to identify teachers’ and students’ difficulties in grammar classes and to suggest appropriate recommendations on the application of games to grammar classes It is hoped that the results collected from this study will help the researcher find ways of making grammar teaching and learning not only more interesting but also more effective It will serve as a minor contribution to the

improvement of students’ communicative as well as grammatical competence

1.5 Assumptions

The study was based on the following assumptions: (1) the methods and procedures of data collection and analysis are reliable and appropriate to obtain the information to answer the research question, and (2) the teachers and students with whom the research is conducted are cooperative and really honest when answering the questions and they do not misunderstand the questions

1.6 Methodology

The research method used in the surveys is mainly quantitative which is combined with qualitative method so as to investigate the difficulties arising in the teaching and learning of grammar in the tenth grade Such tools as questionnaires, class observations, and experimental project were used in the study In the application part, the research is conducted by an experiment with the application of language games to find out how effective it is in teaching and learning grammar in the tenth grade

1.7 Limitations and Delimitations

Owing to the constraint of time and resources, the research will have some limitations: (1) the sample in this thesis might be small with 102 participants from four tenth classes and ten teachers of English in only one school, Hung Vuong High School, to complete the questionnaires, (2) the methodological problems in the research design might limit interpretations as the researcher just uses questionnaires, observation and experimental project to collect data, and (3) the number of students in each class in the experimental project is rather small (26 students) compared with that in each class at many other high schools

Thus, it is highly recommended that further studies be conducted in many other schools with different subjects and different data collection methods to improve the reliability of the study The generalizations and recommendations may

be limited due to the facts above

1.8 Overview of the thesis

Besides its abstract, table of contents, references and appendices, the thesis includes the five following main chapters:

Chapter 1 discusses the rationale, the background, the aims and significance of the thesis Also, the thesis’ assumptions, methodology as well as its limitations and delimitations are included in this chapter In addition, addressed in this chapter is the organization of the thesis Chapter 2 reviews the relevant literature of this study Chapter 3 describes the methodology that used in this study It consists of two main parts: research questions and research design It involves a brief description of the experiment the author carried out with her tenth grade grammar classes, the surveys conducted on the 10th grade students and teachers of English at HVHS in Binh Duong Province, ways of collecting data and ways of processing these data Chapter

4 discusses and analyzes the findings drawn from the results of the survey, experimental teaching, and the class observations Chapter 5 offers the recommendations for the application of games to the teaching and learning grammar with the textbook Tieng Anh 10 and the conclusion of the study

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Chapter 2 consists of five main parts (1) grammar, (2) an overview on deductive and inductive approaches (3) a traditional approach versus a more communicative approach (4) games, and (5) studies related to game using in grammar teaching and learning

2.1 Grammar

2.1.1 Definitions of grammar

There have been different definitions and conceptualizations of grammar over the years Thornbury (1999:1) has also pointed out that traditionally, grammar has been concerned almost exclusively with analysis at the level of the sentence Thus, grammar is “ a description of the rules that govern how a language’s sentence is formed.”

On defining the notions of grammar, Cobbett (cited in Nunan, 1999: 96) wrote:

Grammar …teaches us how to make use of words; that is to say, it teaches us how to make use of them in the proper manner to be able to choose the words which ought to be placed, we must be acquainted with certain principles and rules; and these principles and rules constitute what is called Grammar

These days, grammarians focus on describing language as it is used, rather than describing how it should be used According to Ur (1998:4), grammar may be roughly defined as “the way a language manipulates and combines words (or bits of words) in order to form longer units of meaning.” More briefly, Ur (1996:75) has said that grammar is sometimes defined as “the way words are put together to make correct sentences.” In his book entitled Grammar Practice Activities, he also points out that there is a set of rules which govern how units of meaning may be constructed in any language: a learner who may be said to know grammar is one

who has mastered and can apply these rules to express him or herself in what would

be considered acceptable language forms

Oxford Advanced Learner’s Encyclopedic Dictionary (1989:394) defines grammar as “rules for forming words and combining them into sentences.”

The most comprehensive recent conceptualization of grammar has been provided by Larsen- Freeman (1995) She sees grammar as a higher-order concept within linguistics, arguing that it has three interrelated dimensions: form, meaning and use Thus, her model attempts to integrate three aspects of linguistics that have traditionally been kept separate: syntax (study of form), semantics (the study of meaning), and pragmatics (the study of use) Similarly, Halliday (1985) states that

“grammar is the study of how syntax (form), semantics (meaning), and pragmatics (use) work together to enable individuals to communicate through language.” (cited

in Nunan1999: 101)

2.1.2 The role of grammar in language teaching and learning

The study of grammar has had a long and important role in the history of second language and foreign language teaching

According to Rinvolucri (1984: 3), “grammar is so serious and central in learning another language that all ways should be searched for which will focus student energy on the task of mastering and internalizing it.”

Besides its importance in language classroom, grammar is also considered to play an important part in the outside world Nunan (1999:96) has mentioned that

“the essence of language lies in grammar.” He has also pointed out that when someone is said to “lack skills in language”, or when the popular press decries what

it sees as the declining standard of English, they are generally referring to an actual

or perceived decline in the ability of individuals to express themselves grammatically

Ur (1988:4) asserts that “a knowledge - implicit or explicit- of grammatical rules is essential for the mastery of a language” because one cannot use words

unless one knows how they should be put together He also points out that grammar may furnish the basis for a set of classroom activities during which it becomes temporarily the main learning objective Therefore, according to Ur (1988:5), “the learning of grammar should be seen in the long term as one of the means of acquiring a thorough mastery of the language as the whole, not as an end in itself.” Brown (1994: 353) asserts that “grammatical information, whether consciously or subconsciously learned, is an enabling system, a component of communicative competence like phonology, discourse, the lexicon, etc.” Therefore, according to him, as courses help students to pursue relevant language goals, grammar is best brought into the picture as a contributor toward those goals

2.1.3 Grammar learning

What does learning grammar involve? The sheer variety of all the different structures that may be labeled “grammatical” is enormous Some have exact parallels in the native language and are easily mastered; others have no such parallels but are fairly simple in them; while yet others are totally alien and very difficult to grasp

Thus, Ur (1988: 5) points out that before planning the organization of the teaching, the teachers need to have clear in their minds exactly what the subject-matter is: what sorts of things are included under the heading grammar and what is involved in ‘knowing’ a structure?

Also, Ur (1988: 6) suggests that when teaching structures, the teachers should get students to learn quite a large number of different, though related, bits of knowledge and skills: how to recognize the examples of the structures when spoken, how to identify its written form, how to produce both its spoken and written form, how to understand its meaning in context, and produce meaningful sentences using such structure They are illustrated in the table below:

Skills Form Meaning

LISTENING Perception and recognition of the spoken

form of the structure

Comprehension of what the spoken structure means in context

SPEAKING Production of well-formed examples in

speech

Use of the structure to convey meanings

in speech READING Perception and recognition of the written

Table 2: Aspects of the teaching/ learning of structures

Ur (1988: 6) advises that when teaching grammatical structures, teachers should keep the above-mentioned in balance, taking into account, of course, the needs of the particular class being taught

2.1.4 The organization of grammar teaching

According to Ur (1988:6), any generalization about the “best” way to teach grammar — what kinds of teaching procedures should be used, and in what order

— will have to take into account both the wide range of knowledge and skills that need to be taught, and the variety of different kinds of structures subsumed under the heading “grammar.”

Therefore, Ur (1988: 7) suggests the organization below only as a general framework into which a very wide variety of teaching techniques will fit

1 Presentation

The aim of the presentation is to get the learners to perceive the structures - its form and meaning - in both speech and writing and to take it into short-term memory

2 Isolation and explanation

At this stage, we move from the context, and focus, temporarily, on the grammatical items themselves: what they sound and look like, what they mean, how

they function- in short, what rules govern them The objective is that the learners should understand these various aspects of the structure

3 Practice

The practice stage consists of a series of exercises done both in the classroom and for home assignments The aim of practice is to cause the learners to absorb the structures thoroughly or to transfer what they know from short-term to long-term memory

4 Test

Learners do tests in order to demonstrate- to themselves and to the teacher- how well they have mastered the material they have been learning The main objective of tests within a taught course is to provide feedback, without which neither teacher nor learner would be able to progress very far

He thinks that of the four stages in grammar teaching mentioned above, the practice stage is the most important since it is through practice that the material is most thoroughly and permanently learnt

2.1.5 Grammar practice

Ur (1996:83) said that the aim of grammar practice is to get students to learn the structures so thoroughly that they will be able to produce them correctly on their own According to him, one of the jobs as teachers is to provide students a variety

of practice activities that familiarize them with the structures in context, giving practice both in form and communicative meaning

According to Ur (1988:11), the practice stage comes after the initial presentation and explanation, when the learner is assumed to have perceived the material and taken it into short-term memory However, the learner cannot be said

to have really mastered the material yet Ur (1988:11) has defined practice as “any kind of engaging with the language on the part of learner, usually under teacher supervision, whose primary objective is to consolidate learning.” He also points out that during practice the material is absorbed into long-term memory and the learner

enabled to understand and produce examples of it with gradually lessening teacher support A practice technique may involve reception- ‘passive’ exposure to spoken

or written input- or ‘active’ production of language items and discourse

Ur (1988) also mentions some factors that, according to him, definitely contribute to successful grammar practice procedure as follows:

2.1.5.1 Pre- learning

Practice is the second or third stage in the process of learning a structure-not the first The function of a practice procedure is to familiarize learners with the materials, not to introduce it Therefore, learners should only be asked to practise material they have already been taught

If effective pre-learning has not taken place prior to the practice- that is to say, if the material has not been clearly perceived and taken into short-term memory

by the learners; then much time will be wasted on incomprehension or unacceptable responses, forcing the teacher to interrupt the procedure for explanations and corrections, and lessening the time available for real practice

2.1.5.2 Volume and repetition

By ‘volume’ Ur (1988:12) means the sheer amount of (comprehensible) language that is spoken, heard, read, or written in the course of activity The author has stated that “the more language the learners are exposed to or to produce, the more they are likely to learn.” By this he means that the learners will devote plenty

of time to practice sessions, and exploit that time of learning efficiently

Also, according to Ur, when the material is specific, as in the learning of grammatical structure, most of the volumes should consist of repetition of the items

to be learnt

By ‘repetition’ Ur (1988) does not mean mere mechnical reiteration of forms but the procedures designed to induce the learners to engage with the items to be

learnt as many times as possible with repeated reception and production in speech and writing, of different examples of the structure’s form and meaning

2.1.5.3 Success- orientation

Ur (1988:12) has pointed out that although it is certainly true that correction of mistakes does contribute towards learning (on a conscious, intellectual plane), the kind of thorough, semi- intuitive absorption of material which is aimed for in language teaching can only be achieved if, after mistakes have been eliminated, learners have plenty of experience of doing it right The author asserts that success- orientation contributes significantly to a positive classroom climate of relaxation, confidence and motivation

Thus, practice in general is more effective if it is based on more or less successful performance, and practice activities should be designed and presented in such a way that learner responses will be acceptable

2.1.5.4 Heterogeneity

According to Ur (1988:13), a ‘heterogeneous’ exercise is one which may be done at various different levels The use of heterogeneous exercises provides teachers with more reliable feedback on learners’ performance In addition, it not only ensures that a higher proportion of the class gets learning value out of the practice; it also, like success- orientation, has a positive effect on learner attitude and motivation Response at many different levels can be “right”, hence heterogeneous exercises provide an opportunity for the teacher to give slower or less confident students the approval and encouragement they need

As most classes are, in fact, composed of mixed-ability groups, a

“homogeneous” exercise cannot possibly provide effective practice for all students:

it will be too difficult for the weaker ones, and or lacking in volume and challenge for the stronger Therefore, it is advisable for teachers to design heterogeneous practice tasks to provide students of all levels with effective practice

2.1.5.5 Teacher assistance

Having presented the practice task, the teacher needs to make sure that students really do perform it successfully and fairly briskly (to get through as much volume of language as possible to maintain interest)

Ur (1988: 14) advises that there should be very little correction of mistakes if there has been proper pre-learning, and if the exercise is really success- oriented Teacher activity in the course of the practice should therefore be largely directed towards supporting and assisting the students in their production of acceptable responses rather than towards assessing and correcting their mistakes

Therefore, teachers have to be very alert to sense when and where help is needed and what form it should take

2.1.5.6 Interest

(Ur, 1988:15) thinks that in most practice activities, motivation has to derive rather from the intrinsic interest of the activity itself: its topic and the task to be done

Interest, according to Ur, is an essential feature of successful practice, not just

an optional extra He has pointed out that a well- designed practice procedure may fail to produce successful learning simply because it is boring Learners who are bored find it difficult to concentrate, their attention wanders, and they may spend much time thinking of things other than the learning task in hand However, if the class is interested in what it is doing, its members may not only learn more efficiently, they are also likely to enjoy the process and want to continue

Ur (1988:15) comes to the conclusion that effective practice procedures are usually characterized by the features of pre- learning, volume and repetition, success- orientation, heterogeneity, teacher assistance and interest Any one particular exercise may, of course, lack one or more of these and still be effective in gaining specific objectives However, if too many of them are absent, the practice is likely to become a virtual test, and provide little learning value

2.1.6 Basic criteria for designing and selecting grammar activities

According to Grassick (2006), the basic criteria for designing and selecting grammar activities were the E- factors In other words, a good grammar activity generally needs to be easy, economical and effective

A grammar activity should be easy for the teacher to prepare and conduct in class It should not be time consuming to prepare or complicated to set up or organize in class Besides, it is necessary for a grammar activity to be economical with instructions: the activity should be explained with short, clear and concise instructions so that it is easier for students to understand because too many instructions and long explanations confuse learners What is more, the grammar activity should be effective in the following ways:

 Attention: The effectiveness of a grammar activity depends partly on the degree of attention it arouses

 Understanding: Is the context of the activity easy to understand? Is the explanation clear and concise? How can the teacher check learners’ understanding

of the activity?

 Memory: How memorable is the activity? Is it interesting and appropriate for teenagers?

 Motivation: Does the task engage the learners? Is it relevant to their needs?

Is there an achievable outcome?

2.2 An overview on deductive and inductive approaches

Thornbury (1999) defines these two approaches respectively as follows:

A deductive approach starts with the presentation of a rule and is followed by examples in which the rule is applied

An inductive approach starts with some examples from which a rule is inferred

Thornbury (1999:30) also points out the disadvantages of deductive:

 Starting the lesson with a grammar presentation may be off- putting for some students, especially younger ones They may not have sufficient metalanguage (i.e

language used to talk about language such as grammar terminology) Or they may not be able to understand the concepts involved

 Grammar explanation encourages a teacher-fronted transmission-style classroom; teacher explanation is often at the expense of student involvement and interaction

 Explanation is seldom as memorable as other forms of presentation, such as demonstration

 Such an approach encourages the belief that learning a language is simply a case of knowing the rules

Besides the disadvantages, the following advantages of a deductive approach

are also mentioned:

 It gets straight to the point, and can therefore be time saving Many especially rules of form- can be more simply and quickly explained than elicited from examples This will allow more time for practice and application

rules- It respects the intelligence and maturity of many- especially adult students, and acknowledges the role of cognitive processes in language acquisition

 It confirms many students’ expectation about classroom learning, particularly for those learners who have an analytical learning style

 It allows the teacher to deal with language points as they come up, rather than

having to anticipate them and prepare for them in advance

Brown (1994: 351) has pointed out that an inductive approach is currently more in favor because of the following reasons:

(a) it is more in keeping with natural language acquisition as rules are absorbed subconsciously with little or no conscious focus,

(b) it conforms more easily to the concept of interlanguage development in which learners progress through possible stages of rule acquisition,

(c) it allows students to get a communicative “feel” for some aspect of language before getting possibly overwhelmed by grammatical explanations, and (d) it builds more intrinsic motivation by allowing students to discover rules rather than being told them

However, also according to Brown there may be occasional moments when a deductive approach- or a blend between the two- is indeed more appropriate In practice, the distinction is not always apparent

2.3 A traditional approach versus a more communicative approach

According to Grassick (2006:8), the stages of teaching grammatical items used

in the two approaches are outlined as follows:

Traditional approach More communicative approach

1 The teacher writes down the grammar point

3 The teacher gives examples to illustrate the

rules or structures introduced

3 The teacher uses yes/no and simple questions to check students understanding of form, meaning and use

4 Practice: the teacher asks students to use the

target language to make up sentences

4 Controlled Practice: the teacher gets students to practise the target language in a controlled way using, for example, repetition and substitution drills, word prompts, or picture prompts The language used is realistic and contextualized

5 Practice: the teacher gets students to do some

quite controlled exercises at sentence level such

as gap-fill exercises, sentence completion,

matching, or translation

5 Less controlled/freer practice: The teacher provides students with opportunities to use the new language in a freer, more creative way The activities are personalized i.e the students get to use the new language (and previously learnt language) to talk about themselves, their lives, their opinions and things they are interested in or care about

Table 3: A traditional approach versus a more communicative approach

Instead of teaching grammar traditionally, teachers need to relate teaching grammar to meaning and use According to Chen (1995) on (http://eca.state.gov/forum/vols/vol33/ no3/p58.htm) on May 20, 2009, grammar instruction should be integrated with communicative language teaching That is to say, language structure practice should be used in contexts that involve some basic principles of appropriateness Saricoban & Metin on (http://iteslj.org/Techniques /Saricoban-Songs.htm) on May 20, 2009 state that games and problem-solving activities, which are task-based and have a purpose beyond the production of correct speech, are the examples of the most preferable communicative activities

In a word, games and problem solving activities provide favorable usages for extended communicative practice of grammar

2.4 Games

2.4.1 What is game?

Game has been defined in various ways Greenhall (1984:6) defined game as

“an element of competition between individual students or teams in a language activity” Similarly, game was defined by Richards et al (1992:153) as an organized activity that usually has the following properties: a particular task or objective, a set of rules, competition between players, and communication between players by spoken or written language According to Hadfield (1999) a game is an activity with rules, a goal and an element of fun but should be used as an integral part of the language syllabus, not as an amusing activity for Friday afternoon or for the end of term

2.4.2 The significance of games in language teaching and learning

Many experienced textbook and methodology manual writers have argued that games are not just time-filling activities but have a great educational value Lee (1979:2) holds that most language games make learners use the language instead of thinking about learning the correct forms He also says that games should be treated

as central not peripheral to the foreign language teaching programme A similar opinion is expressed by Richard-Amato, who believes games to be fun but warns against overlooking their pedagogical value, particularly in foreign language teaching There are many advantages of using games "games can lower anxiety, thus making the acquisition of input more likely" (Richard-Amato 1988:147) Prasad (2003) holds that games introduce an element of competition into language-building activities This provides valuable impetus to a purposeful use of language

In the same way, on analyzing the usefulness of games in language learning, Ersöz (2000) holds the opinion that as games are amusing and interesting, they are highly motivating They can be used to give practice in all language skills and be used to practice many types of communication They employ meaningful and useful language in real contexts, encourage and increase cooperation

According to Ur (1988), games are interesting since they provide their participants with a feeling of pleasurable tension Therefore, he concludes that games can contribute to the interest of language-practice activities He also suggests that teachers should present a grammar practice activity in an enjoyable and interesting way by the introduction of an element of tension associated with game playing

Lewis and Bedson (1999) hold the same idea that besides their motivational value as an enjoyable form of activity, games create the circumstances for meaningful repetition, involve both co-operation and competition, rules and unpredictability, enjoyment and serious commitment

In the same way, on mentioning Competitive games, Rinvolucri and Davis (1995: x) has asserted that “competitive activities that pit pairs against pairs and threes against threes are excellent for fostering collaboration and mutual help within each team In this heightened atmosphere, a lot of learning takes place without the students noticing they are “studying” Also with this kind of game, students are asked to decide which sentences are correct and which are wrong from a set of sentences So the writers believe that this testing of their own criteria is central to

students building up a strong internal monitor to help them speak and write correctly

Wright et al (1984:1) remark that “language learning is hard work Effort is required at every moment and must be maintained over a long period of time Games help and encourage many learners to sustain their interest and work.” Also, these authors mention the benefits games bring to teachers: “games also help the teacher to create contexts in which the language is useful and meaningful The learners want to take part in and in order to do so they must understand what others are saying or have written, and they must speak or write in order to express their own point of view or give information.”

These authors have also pointed out the need for meaningfulness in language learning that has been accepted for some years A useful interpretation of

“meaningfulness” is that the learner responds to the content in a definite way If they are amused, angered, challenged, intrigued or surprised, the content is clearly meaningful to them Thus, the meaning of the language they listen to, read, speak and write will be more vividly experienced and, therefore, better remembered According to Glasses, the author of “Retention Rates of Information Based on Learning and Teaching Approaches” on May 22, 2009, practice by doing and experience personally helps retention rates rise up to 80%, on

however, during game play learners also use the target language to persuade and negotiate their way to desired results This process involves the productive and receptive skills simultaneously

According to Ersöz (2000), the reasons for using games in grammar teaching are as follows: (1) games that are amusing and challenging are highly motivating, and (2) games allow meaningful use of the language in context

Rinvolucri (1984:3-4) has said that one way of focusing student energy on the task of mastering and internalizing grammar is through the release offered by games Games could be fun and serious at the same time The point is that the fun generates energy for the achievement of the serious goal He also points out four advantages of Grammar games as follows:

 The students have to take individual responsibility for what they think the grammar is about

 The teacher is free to find out what the students actually know, without being the focus of their attention

 Serious work is taking place in the context of a game The dice- throwing and arguing lightens and enlivens the classroom atmosphere in a way that most people do not associate with the grammar part of the course The “game” locomotive pulls the grammar train along

 Everybody is working at once- the 15-30 minutes the average game lasts is a period of intense involvement

According to Lee (1995) on (http://eca.state.gov/forum/vols/vol33/no1/ P35.htm) on March 25, 2009, “there is a common perception that all learning should

be serious and solemn in nature and that if one is having fun and there is hilarity and laughter, then it is not really learning This is a misconception It is possible to learn a language as well as enjoy oneself at the same time One of the best ways of doing this is through games.”

Like Rinvolucri (1984), Lee confirms that games are a welcome break from the usual routine of the language class Besides, games are motivating and

challenging, so they encourage students to interact and communicate with each other In addition, games help students to make and sustain the effort of learning Furthermore, as games create a meaningful context for language use, they provide language practice in the various skills- speaking, writing, listening and reading Chen (2005) sums up the benefits of using games in language learning in nine points as follows:

1 learner –centered,

2 promote communicative competence,

3 create a meaningful context for language use,

4 increase learning motivation,

5 reduce learning anxiety,

6 integrate various linguistic skills,

7 encourage creative and spontaneous use of language,

8 construct a cooperative learning environment,and

9 foster participatory attitudes of the students

To sum up, games prove to be a useful language teaching tool that should be employed in language classroom Games offer students a fun-filled and relaxing learning atmosphere, a highly motivating class and most importantly, they can give meaningful practice in all language skills

2.4.3 How to choose games

According to Wright et, al (1983:6), it is essential to choose games which are appropriate to the class in terms of language and type of participation In addition, Wright et, al (1983:3) also advised that the following questions should be taken into consideration before a game is chosen:

1 Will the game take you a long time to prepare, compared with the amount

of useful work you will get from it?

2 Will it be relatively easy for you to organize in the classroom?

3 Is it likely to interest the particular group of learners you have in mind?

4 Is the language or is the language skill you are concerned to teach intrinsic

to the activity? Or are you just forcing it into the game?

5 Is the amount of language and the type of use enough to justify the use of the game? Or do you have another good reason for introducing it?

According to these writers, if the answers to the above-mentioned questions are

“yes”, then the game chosen are highly efficient means of satisfying the learners’ needs

2.4.4 The role of the teacher during games

Wright et al., (1983:5) mentioned the role of teacher in organizing the game with group work They said “the teacher’s role, once the groups are in action, is to

go from group to group listening in, contributing and, if necessary, correcting.” According to Klauer (1998) on (http:// maxpages.com/teachenglish/Games-in-Language-Teaching) on March 25, 2009, during games, depending on the type of interaction pattern in the games and the type of game, a teacher plays different roles He/ she may be Master of Ceremonies, a language consultant or an informant and directs the games Other roles are those of monitor/ corrector and referee.According to Wright et al., (1983:6) new games are normally introduced in the following way:

 Explanation by the teacher to the class

 Demonstration of parts of the game by the teacher and one or two learners

 Trial by a group in front of the class

 Any key language and/ or instructions written on the board

 First try by groups

 Key language, etc removed from the board

2.4.5 How and when to employ games in language classroom

Wright et al., (1983:6) have stated that having chosen an appropriate game, its character and the aims and rules must be made clear to the learners It may be

necessary to use mother tongue to do this because if the learners are unclear about what they have to do, chaos and disillusionment may result Also, according to them, once the teacher is familiar with a variety of games, they can be used as a substitute for parts of the course which the teacher judges to be unsuitable

Games are often used as short warm-up activities or when there is some time left at the end of a lesson Yet, as Lee (1979) observes, a game "should not be regarded as a marginal activity filling in odd moments when the teacher and class have nothing better to do." Games ought to be at the heart of teaching foreign languages

Similarly, Rixon (1981) suggests that games be used at all stages of the lesson, provided that they are suitable and carefully chosen Holding the same idea, Wright

et al., (1983-I) have said that “games can be found to give practice in all the skills (reading, writing, listening and speaking), in all stages of the teaching/ learning sequence (presentation, repetition, recombination and free use of language) and for many types of communication (e.g encouraging, critic sing, agreeing, explaining).” Saricoban & Metin (2000) state that games are generally used after the presentation, in the practice part, because such communicative tasks can only be handled after mastering sufficient grammar and lexical points

According to Rinvolucri (1984: 3), in his own teaching he has used games in three ways:

1 diagnostically before presenting a given structure area to find out how much knowledge of the area is already disjointedly present in the group;

2 after a grammar presentation to see how much the group have grasped;

3 as revision of a grammar area

As Thuy Tien’s (2006) suggestion, before a game starts, game rules must be clear to all the players as a demonstration is always necessary

As for class organization when using games, Wright et al., (1983:5) mention four forms of them: class, individual, pair and group work However, they found faults with class work since, according to them, it is easy to demonstrate that