RATIONALE OF THE RESEARCH
Since the 1960s, learner-centredness has gained significant attention in language teaching, focusing on making instruction more responsive to learners' needs and encouraging their active involvement Key trends such as humanistic language teaching, communicative language teaching, and syllabus negotiation emphasize learner independence and collaborative decision-making Negotiative approaches involve teachers and learners discussing what and how to learn, resulting in a more flexible and relevant syllabus that enhances motivation and promotes self-directed learning The increasing number of successful accounts of negotiated work across various educational settings highlights the feasibility and potential of this approach in language teaching.
In recent years, learner-centredness has emerged as a significant concept in Vietnam's language teaching community, emphasizing the importance of tailoring instruction to meet learners' needs and fostering their active participation Despite the growing interest in this approach, there has been a lack of formal discussions and research on negotiation as a learner-centred strategy in language education This gap in the literature motivated the present researcher to explore the role of negotiation within the Vietnamese context.
Since the 2005-2006 school year, the University of Social Sciences and Humanities (USSH) in Ho Chi Minh City has adopted a credit system that necessitates a shift in teaching methods to better meet student needs and enhance their engagement in the learning process In response, the Department of English Linguistics and Literature (DELL) has revamped its BA program and language skills syllabuses, prompting teachers to adopt more learner-centred approaches that foster student independence and active participation As a member of the Language Skills Section at DELL, the researcher recognized the importance of exploring the feasibility of negotiation as a learner-centred strategy in language teaching at USSH.
The study is inspired by the growing concern for Vietnamese learners' verbal communicative competence and the rising interest in communicative language teaching in Vietnam Traditionally, language instruction in Vietnam has relied heavily on grammar-translation methods, leading to the common issue where learners excel in grammar, reading, and writing, but struggle with conversation As Vietnam's economy flourishes and attracts foreign tourists and investors, the ability to speak English has become essential This shift has prompted a focus on aural/oral skills and communicative teaching approaches Consequently, the researcher has pursued research on syllabus negotiation, a concept rooted in the communicative language teaching movement, which emphasizes collaborative decision-making in the classroom According to Breen (2001), this approach fosters authentic opportunities for learners to utilize and enhance their knowledge and skills, while also promoting meaningful interaction and contributing to their language development.
The study on syllabus negotiation in listening and speaking classes primarily focuses on the task level of the syllabus, driven by the existence of a predetermined syllabus and the growing recognition of tasks in syllabus design due to task-based learning Research from the 1980s in second language acquisition indicates that learner interaction and negotiation for meaning during task performance can enhance linguistic knowledge and its social application Consequently, tasks should be central to the syllabus, with teachers providing engaging tasks that foster meaningful interaction to facilitate language acquisition Additionally, the connection between learner-centredness and learning tasks has been emphasized, with scholars like Nunan (1989) advocating for the involvement of learners in task design and selection Given the significant implications for language acquisition and learner-centredness, the researcher justifies the need for negotiation between teachers and learners at the task level.
This section outlines the motivations behind the study of task negotiation in listening and speaking classes at DELL, USSH Task negotiation involves collaborative discussions among students about the tasks they will learn and their execution methods The research aims to investigate the applicability of this teaching approach within the Vietnamese educational context, specifically at DELL, and to determine its effectiveness in meeting students' needs, fostering genuine motivation, promoting responsible learning, and enhancing overall learning effectiveness.
AIM OF THE STUDY
This study aims to explore the feasibility of classroom negotiation in Vietnam, specifically at DELL, USSH It seeks to provide empirical evidence on how task negotiation impacts the teaching and learning of listening and speaking skills at DELL Additionally, the research examines students' attitudes towards incorporating negotiation as a method in these classes Finally, the study will offer recommendations for effectively implementing negotiation in listening and speaking instruction.
An experimental method was utilized in this study, focusing on students from two Listening-Speaking 4 classes at DELL of USSH Data collection involved four sources: test scores, questionnaires, interviews, and course-related documents.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Despite the increasing interest in negotiation as a teaching method in professional literature, there has been limited research on its practicality in language education in Vietnam, particularly at DELL of USSH This study is crucial as it aligns with the growing emphasis on learner-centered and communicative approaches that aim to improve learners' communicative competence and promote active participation in their learning process The researcher aims to provide insights into negotiation as a language teaching strategy and to offer recommendations for its implementation within the Vietnamese educational context.
ORGANISATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE STUDY
Apart from the present introductory chapter, which states the rationale, aim and significance of the study, and the conclusion at the end, the thesis consists of five main chapters:
Chapter 1 provides the background to the study with a description of the new language skills programme and, particularly, the Listening - Speaking 4 module at DELL of USSH
Chapter 2 is the literature review, presenting an overview of the theoretical background and the related research in the Vietnamese context
Chapter 3 focuses upon the methodology of the study with a presentation of the research questions and the research design, including the participants, treatment, instruments, and data collection and analysis procedures
Chapter 4 deals with a detailed analysis of the data collected and a discussion of the research findings
Chapter 5 sets out the implications of the research results and then offers some tentative recommendations regarding the application of negotiation in listening and speaking classes at DELL.
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
THE NEW LANGUAGE SKILLS PROGRAMME AT DELL, USSH
1.1 THE NEW LANGUAGE SKILLS PROGRAMME AT DELL, USSH
Since the 2007-2008 school year, DELL has transformed its language skills teaching by adopting an integrated skills approach, moving away from the previous method of teaching skills in isolation This shift recognizes that real-world communication often requires the simultaneous use of multiple skills, such as listening, reading, and speaking during workshops To address students' real-life communicative needs, all language skills courses have been redesigned within the context of a learner-centered credit system Now, listening is taught alongside speaking, and reading, writing, and grammar are integrated, allowing students to practice these skills in a single class meeting Although students previously learned Listening-Speaking and Reading-Writing-Grammar in separate classes, they received one overall mark for the Language Study course, with the Listening-Speaking module accounting for 40% and the Reading-Writing-Grammar module for 60% Consequently, failing the Language Study course required students to repeat both modules.
Students therefore had to try their best to improve all of their skills and their grammar and, inevitably, vocabulary and pronunciation at the same time
As part of the language skills course reconstruction, all textbooks have been updated to the latest Interactions Mosaic series (4th edition) published by McGraw-Hill/Contemporary The specific textbooks utilized in the four language study courses required for first-year students during the study period are detailed as follows.
- Language Study 1: Interactions 2 (Low Intermediate – Intermediate) (4 th edition) (Units 1 – 9)
- Language Study 2: Interactions 2 (Low Intermediate – Intermediate) (4 th edition) (Units 10 – 12) and Mosaic 1 (Intermediate – High Intermediate) (4 th edition) (Units 1 – 6)
- Language Study 3: Mosaic 1 (Intermediate – High Intermediate) (4 th edition)
(Units 7 – 12) and Mosaic 2 (High Intermediate – Low Advanced) (4 th edition)
- Language Study 4: Mosaic 2 (High Intermediate – Low Advanced) (4 th edition)
This comprehensive four-skill series features updated academic content, skill-building exercises, and communicative activities, with separate books for Listening-Speaking, Reading, Writing, and Grammar at each level Each unit across these books shares common themes, fostering a cohesive development of language skills, including grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation In the Reading-Writing-Grammar class, students engage with passages on a topic, leading to paragraph or essay writing supported by relevant grammar points from the Grammar book Meanwhile, the Listening-Speaking class involves lectures on the same theme, where students practice note-taking and participate in speaking activities such as role-plays and discussions Overall, the exercises in each unit are centered around a theme, mirroring real-world communication tasks that necessitate the integration of various skills.
The new language skills program demands significant effort from students, who must enhance all aspects of their language abilities to successfully complete their courses Additionally, students are expected to be active, responsible, and independent, as outlined in the syllabuses detailing their specific responsibilities.
- read the materials and do the exercises before each class
- make necessary preparations as required by the teacher
- actively participate in the lessons
- do the exercises – inside as well as outside the classroom – assigned by the teacher
- consult materials relevant to the lessons
- take the initiative in studying issues of interest
- attend at least 80% of the time in class A reasonable excuse is needed in case of absence
(See Appendix 8 for the Language Study 4 Syllabus)
To promote student independence, the curriculum includes recommended reference books and valuable websites designed to enhance English skills and facilitate effective learning strategies Additionally, each course consists of nine chapters, with one dedicated specifically to self-study at home, allowing students to learn under the guidance of their teacher.
The development of new language study syllabuses marks a significant step towards more learner-centred teaching By adopting an integrated skills approach, the aim is to enhance students' communicative abilities Additionally, there is a stronger emphasis on increasing student responsibility and fostering autonomy, aligning with the primary goals of credit system training.
THE LISTENING - SPEAKING 4 MODULE
The experiment was implemented in the Language Study 4 – Listening - Speaking class The detailed course syllabus, designed by DELL, is provided in Appendix 8 of the thesis
In the Language Study 4 course, 50 out of 120 periods were allocated to the Listening-Speaking module, with 40 periods dedicated to class instruction, 5 for self-study, and 5 for the mid-term test and feedback Students participated in one five-period class weekly over 8 weeks, taking the mid-term test in the fifth or sixth week and the end-of-term test upon course completion All listening-speaking classes utilized standardized test papers selected by the Head of the Language Skills Section, while mid-term test grading was determined by individual teachers The grading policy assigned 30% to the mid-term test, 60% to the end-of-term test, and 10% to student participation, which was based on attendance, lesson preparation, and class engagement Each skill set in the mid-term and end-of-term tests contributed equally, with 50% weight assigned to each.
The Language Study 4 course aims to enhance students' communicative competence, focusing specifically on the Listening - Speaking 4 module This module equips students with essential subskills for real-life situations while also improving their grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.
The textbook used in the Listening - Speaking 4 module is Mosaic 2
Listening/Speaking 4 th edition (by Jami Hanreddy and Elizabeth Whalley, 2004, The
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc offers a comprehensive resource designed for High Intermediate and Low Advanced learners As the concluding book in the series, it focuses on enhancing the skills developed in the initial three Language Study courses, providing students with targeted practice and advanced learning opportunities.
Listening to lectures and radio broadcasts helps students familiarize themselves with academic English while practicing essential note-taking strategies, such as utilizing illustrations and cohesive devices Furthermore, students are equipped with diverse learning strategies, including understanding figurative language, identifying comparisons and contrasts, recognizing causes and effects, distinguishing between fact and opinion, anticipating exam questions, and developing critical thinking skills.
Students enhance their listening abilities by engaging with short conversations, focusing on key sub-skills such as listening for gist and details Additionally, they acquire vital test-taking strategies that are essential for success in standardized tests.
Incorporating natural conversational language, students engage in short dialogues that help them identify various language functions, such as persuading, acquiescing, and maintaining conversation flow Through diverse activities like role-plays, interviews, presentations, and group discussions, students not only practice speaking but also learn to apply these language functions in real-life situations.
- useful cultural information: The culture notes in some chapters help students learn more about the culture of the target language
Mosaic 2 Listening/Speaking provides ample opportunities for students to engage with authentic language, enhancing their listening skills while improving fluency and accuracy With a diverse range of listening and speaking activities, this resource empowers both teachers and students to make informed choices, explore alternatives, and tailor their learning experiences to meet specific needs.
In addition to the Mosaic 2 Listening/Speaking program, teachers and students are encouraged to explore several valuable resources, including "Advanced Listening Comprehension: Developing Aural and Note-Taking Skills" by Patricia Dunkel and Frank Pialorsi (2000), "New English File: Upper Intermediate" by Clive Oxenden et al (2005, OUP), and "New Headway: Advanced" by John Soars and Liz Soars (2003, OUP, Hong Kong).
In addition to the recommended websites listed in Appendix 8, teachers have the flexibility to incorporate their own materials, provided they align with the course requirements related to topics, skills, and task types.
SUMMARY
This chapter provides an in-depth overview of the new language skills program and the Listening - Speaking 4 module of DELL at USSH The following chapter will present relevant literature, including the theoretical framework and related research conducted within the Vietnamese context.
LITERATURE REVIEW
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH
2.1.1.1 A brief historical overview of the emergence of the concept of negotiation in language teaching and learning
Negotiation in learning has evolved through various disciplines such as education, psychology, second language acquisition, linguistics, and language pedagogy This section aims to provide an overview of the key trends that have sparked the profession's interest in syllabus negotiation as a method for language teaching.
The origins of the idea of negotiated decision-making can be said to lie in the Enlightenment, which was reflected in Bertrand Russell’s and John Dewey’s
In the early twentieth century, thinkers like Russell and Dewey recognized the dehumanizing effects of the industrial revolution and emphasized the crucial role of education in fostering a true democratic society They advocated for a liberal education framework that prioritized "collaborative responsibility" and "choice," aiming to counteract the inequalities of their time.
The concepts of "competition" and "coercion" have been explored by Breen and Littlejohn (2000) and contributed to a humanist perspective that has influenced educators both in the USA and globally Building on Dewey's ideas, many humanist educators have criticized traditional transmission modes of education, advocating for more democratic teaching approaches (Boomer et al., 1992; Breen & Littlejohn, 2000) Notably, one educational theorist has made significant contributions to the field of language teaching.
In "Pedagogy of the Oppressed," Paulo Freire (1970) criticized traditional education models that treat learners as passive recipients of knowledge, advocating instead for a more interactive approach He emphasized the importance of allowing students to negotiate learning outcomes, collaborate with teachers and peers, engage in critical thinking, and connect their school experiences to real-life contexts (Brown, 2000) Freire's ideas, along with those of other humanist educators, have significantly shaped the modern understanding of the educational process.
The 1960s marked the rise of the humanistic approach in psychology, notably influencing language teaching through the work of prominent psychologists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers They introduced a "person-centred" agenda aimed at "self-actualisation" in education, emphasizing that learning is a lifelong journey where the learner is viewed as a "whole person." This perspective highlights the importance of addressing learners' subjective needs and experiences Rogers advocated for teachers to serve as facilitators who foster a supportive learning environment by building interpersonal relationships The integration of humanistic psychology and the principles of humanist educators has significantly shaped language teaching practices, focusing on the learning process, personal responsibility, and respect for individual experiences.
In the 1970s and 1980s, significant research in second language acquisition (SLA) greatly influenced language pedagogy Notably, Hatch (1978) emphasized the critical role of interaction in learning language forms, highlighting how learners acquire language through communication Additionally, Stephen Krashen introduced the Input Hypothesis, asserting that language acquisition occurs when learners are exposed to input slightly beyond their current competence level Both Hatch’s focus on conversation and Krashen’s insights on input have shaped the understanding of effective second language learning.
Long's Interaction Hypothesis builds on the concept of 'comprehensible input,' emphasizing that 'modified interaction'—where a more proficient speaker adjusts language to enhance understanding—can aid language acquisition (Long, 1981, in Breen & Littlejohn, 2000) This framework represents a significant shift in understanding language acquisition, moving from a focus on the simple interaction between input and the learner's mind to the importance of negotiating meaning within social contexts Long's research has spurred further investigation into fostering negotiated interaction in language classrooms (Breen & Littlejohn).
In the late twentieth century, significant advancements in linguistics greatly influenced language pedagogy During the 1970s, linguists began to analyze language as a system for expressing meaning, shifting the focus from formal aspects to practical language use This social perspective is encapsulated in the concept of 'communication competence,' introduced by Hymes as a counterpoint to Chomsky's idea of linguistic competence Consequently, this shift reoriented language teaching, prioritizing the development of learners' ability to use language effectively over merely acquiring knowledge about it.
Since Hymes introduced the concept of ‘communicative competence’, enhancing the communicative aspect of language teaching has been a key focus for educators, leading to innovations known as communicative language teaching (CLT) Initially, CLT emphasized instructional goals and content, resulting in functional syllabuses based on common language use and needs analysis However, from the 1980s onward, the emphasis shifted towards learner engagement, introducing two significant approaches: task-based learning (TBL), grounded in second language acquisition research, and a learner-centered curriculum that promotes active learner involvement in decision-making regarding language learning This shift has sparked a growing interest in syllabus negotiation within language classrooms, highlighting the collaborative process between teachers and learners.
2.1.1.2 Definitions of the term ‘negotiation’
The concept of negotiation in language teaching encompasses various interpretations, as highlighted by Breen and Littlejohn (2000), who categorize it into three distinct types: personal negotiation, interactive negotiation, and procedural negotiation.
Personal negotiation is a complex mental process involved in interpreting information and expressing meaning through language (Breen & Littlejohn, 2000) For instance, a single poem can be interpreted in various ways by different individuals based on their unique backgrounds and experiences Additionally, even the same reader may derive a different understanding upon a second reading This negotiation is an inherent part of using language for communication and interpretation.
Interactive negotiation, defined as the collaborative effort between speakers and listeners to achieve a shared understanding of discourse, originated from second language acquisition (SLA) research in the 1970s Studies indicate that when listeners struggle to comprehend, they often seek clarification, prompting speakers to modify their language for better clarity This process of negotiating meaning is essential, as it offers learners comprehensible input, thereby enhancing their acquisition of a second language.
Procedural negotiation, also known as syllabus negotiation, involves classroom discussions among all members to organize teaching and learning, as defined by Breen and Littlejohn (2000) This process aims to reach a consensus without conflict, as the teacher's goal aligns with the best interests of the students Unlike traditional bargaining, classroom negotiation is a collaborative exploration of possibilities where both teachers and students contribute their expertise This approach emerged in the 1980s to enhance the communicative nature of teaching and learning, which is the focus of this study.
Following are the main reasons for implementing procedural negotiation in language teaching and learning a Negotiation can make the teaching responsive to learners’ needs
Recognizing the diverse experiences, expectations, and preferences of learners, it is clear that any syllabus established by the institution or teacher before engaging with students is insufficient.
Collecting information about learners often fails to bridge the gap between classroom demands and the prescribed syllabus, as it typically relies on objective data like age and language proficiency More valuable subjective information, such as attitudes and learning preferences, can only be gathered after establishing a relationship with students Consequently, a syllabus based solely on initial data is merely "superficially learner-centred." In contrast, a negotiated syllabus is more aligned with learners' needs, as ongoing dialogue between teachers and students uncovers their affective needs and expectations This subjective feedback helps refine the course objectives, content, and methodology, particularly in the early stages, resulting in a syllabus that is more responsive and truly learner-centred Additionally, this negotiation process enhances learners' motivation and involvement in their education.
PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROCEDURAL
Despite the increasing research on syllabus negotiation in language teaching globally, there has been limited discussion on this topic in Vietnam At the English Resources Centre of DELL, only one relevant study by Nguyen Van Ha (2006) focused on speaking classes, revealing that both teachers and students supported the negotiation approach for its significant impact on improving spoken English, communication skills, and learning strategies However, this study was conducted within the framework of an outdated language skills program that taught skills separately, highlighting the necessity for further research on the feasibility of classroom negotiation in the new integrated skills program.
SUMMARY
This chapter discusses key issues related to negotiation, language teaching tasks, and the instruction of listening and speaking skills It also reviews a study on negotiated decision-making at DELL, which focused on speaking classes prior to any changes in the language skills program The current research aims to gather empirical evidence on the effectiveness of negotiation in Vietnam, specifically within the context of DELL's updated language skills program.