Introduction
Background to the study
1.1.1 Teaching and learning pronunciation at AFLS
Pronunciation is a key focus in the General English course at AFLS, with additional free classes offered every Sunday to enhance learners' intelligibility However, despite learners' interest in improving their pronunciation, in-class instruction often neglects this area When pronunciation is addressed, it typically focuses on discrete sounds or select suprasegmental features, leaving significant gaps in teaching essential aspects like linking Therefore, urgent modifications to the pronunciation curriculum are necessary to better support learners in achieving clearer speech.
1.1.2 Description of the syllabus of pre-intermediate General English course at
AFLS pre-intermediate General English courses last twelve weeks, with three ninety- minute class meetings each Within this amount of time, (the first) eight units (from
New Interchange 2 by Richards [2000] are supposed to be covered
1 “Intelligibility is being understood by a listener at a given time in a particular situation.” [Kenworthy, 1992: 13]
Unit Topics Functions Grammar Pronunciation/Listening Writing/Reading
A time to remember; childhood remembering your childhood; asking about someone’s childhood
Past tense; used to for habitual actions
Listening to people talking about their past
Reduced form of used to
Reading about an actress’s career Writing an autobiography
Talking about transportation (problems); asking for and giving information
Adverbs of quantity with countable and uncountable nouns: too many, too much, not enough, more, fewer, less; indirections from Wh- questions
Listening to a description of a transportation system; listening to people ask for information
Question intonations in Wh- questions and indirect questions
Reading about ways to spend time in an airport Writing a description of a city’s transportation service
Houses and apartments; lifestyle changes; wishes
Describing positive and negative features; making comparison; talking about lifestyle changes; expressing wishes
Equal comparison with adjectives and nouns
Listening to descriptions of apartments for rent; listening to comparison; listening to people talk about lifestyle changes Sentence stress
Reading about people who changed their life Writing about a wish
Foods; recipes; instruction; cooking methods
Talking about food; expressing about likes and dislikes; describing a favorite snack; giving instructions
Simple past vs present perfect; sequence adverbs: first, then, next, after that, finally
Listening to descriptions of foods; listening to recipes Reduced forms of did you and have you
Reading about how food affects physical and mental performance
Describing vacation plans; giving travel advice; planning a vacation
Future with be going to and will; modals for necessity and suggestion: (don’t) have to, must, need to, had better, ought to, should
Listening to vacation plans; listening to vacation advice Reduced forms of ought to and have to
Riding about how to save money on travel arrangements
Complaints; household chores; requests; excuses; apologies
Making requests; accepting and refusing requests; complaining; apologizing; giving excuses
Two-part verbs; will for responding to requests, requests with modals and Would you mind … ?
Listening to requests/complaints/excuse/apolo gies
Reading about Fresh Air Fund
Describing technology; giving instruction; giving advice
Infinitives and gerunds; infinitive complements
Listening people describe how to use technology; listening to advice Syllable stress
Reading about life in the future
Writing advice about a useful item
Describing holidays, customs, festivals, and special events
Relative clauses of time; adverbial clauses of time: before, when after
Listening to descriptions of special days and customs
Reading about holidays and unseal customs Writing about a holiday or festival
Table 1: The syllabus of pre-intermediate General English course
As shown above, quite few suprasegmental features of English, particularly the modifications of speech sounds, are mentioned during the pre-intermediate General
English course Even worse, in addition to the main course book, no supplementary material on pronunciation, in general, is included in the course syllabus.
Rationale for teaching linking-assisted modifications of sounds in
Fluency is a primary objective for English learners, and mastering connected speech is crucial for achieving this goal According to Roach (2002), producing speech without gaps between words highlights the practical significance of linking Even in basic English lessons, it is essential to address pronunciation changes that occur within and between words due to their proximity to neighboring sounds, as noted by Celce-Murcia et al (2002) For instance, when teaching phrases like "This is a table" and "This is an orange," we explain the use of the indefinite articles "a" and "an," illustrating how sounds are influenced by their environment This simple rule reflects a more complex language system where sounds adapt based on their immediate context.
Modifications of sounds in connected speech, especially linking, are often overlooked in General English classes despite their importance in pronunciation teaching Teachers frequently hesitate to introduce these concepts, leading English learners to focus on pronouncing each word distinctly As a result, their speech can become choppy, particularly among General English learners in AFLS.
Recent research in Vietnam has focused on addressing the challenges in connected speech, highlighting a notable gap in effective solutions Nguyễn Thị Phúc Hoà's M.A thesis (1996) revealed that her students struggled to recognize and produce connected speech elements, yet it lacked specific recommendations based on experimental teaching methods.
To enhance the pronunciation and fluency of AFLS students in speaking and listening comprehension, it is crucial to urgently provide them with information on sound modifications Consequently, a teaching technique focused on linking has been experimentally developed to effectively teach these modifications in connected speech.
This study aims to explore the use of linking as a method for teaching various modifications, building on the background information previously discussed.
Purposes of the study
The study was aimed at:
(1) Finding out problems facing the student subjects at AFLS in perception and production of modifications of sounds in connected speech, particularly linking;
(2) Ascertaining the effectiveness of using linking as a means to teach other modifications, at both perception and production levels;
(3) Improving the students’ perception as well as production of modifications, focusing on linking; and
(4) Investigating the students’ attitude toward the technique of using linking to facilitate their acquisition of other modifications.
Significance of the study
This M.A thesis explores the technique of linking at both perception and production levels as a method for modifying sounds in connected speech, aimed at enhancing the acquisition of other sound modifications The findings of this study, particularly regarding sound modifications in connected speech and associated teaching strategies, are intended to serve as a valuable reference for educators and researchers.
Avery and Erhlich (1995) emphasize that linking, along with other elements of connected speech, plays a crucial role in enhancing both the spoken production and comprehension skills of students This insight is particularly valuable for educators seeking to improve the English language proficiency of their EFL learners.
Organization of the study
This M.A thesis consists of five basic chapters
Chapter 1, which is the introduction, gives information on the background, rationale, purpose, significance, organization, and limitation and contribution of the study
Chapter 2 provides the review of literature related to relevant research on the instruction of linking and its related modifications of sounds in connected speech
Chapter 3 presents the methodology in which this study was conducted
Chapter 4 presents the results of data analysis and the findings of the study
Chapter 5 states the study’s conclusion
1.6 Limitation and contribution of the study
This study was done at AFLS with the participation of its 30 teachers of English and
The study, based on 60 General English students, has limited generalizability to this specific institution However, with appropriate adjustments, its findings and recommendations could benefit other learners in similar contexts Additionally, the advancements in linking-assisted modifications made by students may facilitate their understanding of various aspects of English pronunciation, particularly in relation to connected speech elements like intonation and rhythm.
Limitation and delimitation of the study
This chapter is divided into two key sections: the background theory and a relevant study, which together establish the theoretical foundation and motivation for the research The first section includes an overview of essential terms and concepts, explores pronunciation teaching and learning, emphasizes the significance of sound modifications in connected speech, and examines the characteristics of the Vietnamese language that influence students' acquisition of these modifications In the second section, the author reviews the findings of a related study conducted for an M.A thesis by Nguyễn Thị Phúc Hòa, highlighting its gaps that inspire the current research.
Below are a number of terms and concepts related to the study done for and reported in this M.A thesis
A case study is an empirical investigation of a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, utilizing multiple sources of evidence (Yin, 1984) This methodology can encompass various subjects, including groups, organizations, or events (Duff, 1990) Case studies are typically limited in scope and incorporate both qualitative field methods and quantitative data, including statistical analysis (Nunan, 1994).
General English learners participate in classes tailored to equip them with essential English skills for everyday interactions These programs focus on enhancing communication abilities and fluency across speaking, listening, reading, grammar, pronunciation, and writing.
Literature review
Background theory
Below are a number of terms and concepts related to the study done for and reported in this M.A thesis
A case study is an empirical inquiry that examines a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, utilizing multiple sources of evidence (Yin, 1984) This methodology can involve various subjects, including specific groups, organizations, or events (Duff, 1990) Characteristically, case studies have a limited scope and employ both qualitative field methods and quantitative data, incorporating statistical analysis (Nunan, 1994).
General English learners participate in classes aimed at equipping them with essential language skills for everyday use These programs focus on enhancing communication abilities and fluency across speaking, listening, reading, grammar, pronunciation, and writing.
Vocal sounds are generated in the human body through the organs of the vocal tract, and when these sounds are structured to convey information, they are referred to as speech sounds.
Connected speech is “speaking as part of a natural discourse” [Crystal, 1999: 68]
Modifications of sounds in connected speech (or adjustments in connected speech) are
“the changes in pronunciation that occur within and between words due to their juxtaposition with neighboring sounds.”[Celce-Murcia, Brinton & Goodwin, 2002:
157] In this study, ther are defined to embrace linking, assimilation, epenthesis, elision, strong forms and weak forms, and contraction
In natural English speech, words often blend together without pauses, creating a fluid connection between them This phenomenon, known as linking, involves connecting the final sound of one word to the initial sound of the next, enhancing the overall rhythm and coherence of spoken language.
The extent of linking in human speech varies based on factors like situational informality, speaking rate, and the speaker's unique speech profile, making it somewhat unpredictable Nonetheless, the consistent patterns of sound linking can be summarized in three key cases.
Linking between consonants and vowels is a prominent feature in speech When a word or syllable that ends with a consonant sound is followed by one that begins with a vowel sound, the consonant is articulated as if it belongs to both syllables This phenomenon is supported by various linguistic studies (Avery & Erhlich, 1995; Celce-Murcia et al., 2002; Hewings, 2007; Kelly, 2000; Kenworthy, 1992; Mortimer, 1993; O’Connor).
1980; Tô Minh Thanh, 2008; Underhill, 1994] For example: fetch_it /'fet~1t/, take_it _away /'te1k1t6'we1/
Resyllabification occurs when a word or syllable ending in a consonant cluster is followed by one starting with a vowel, causing the final consonant to be pronounced as part of the next syllable Importantly, this process does not result in the aspiration of voiceless stops, as seen in examples like "find out" and "left early," where the /t/ is not aspirated.
Rhotic accents of English, including North American, Scots, and West of England accents, pronounce all instances of the letter "r" in words, such as in "car" (/k@:r/) and "care" (/ke6r/) In contrast, non-rhotic accents, like Southern British or "BBC English," do not articulate the /r/ sound at the end of syllables, resulting in pronunciations like "car" (/k@:/) and "care" (/ke6/) The letter "r" is only pronounced in word-final positions when followed by a word that begins with a vowel sound, as seen in phrases like "car on" and "care of."
/ˈ k@:r4n/ and / ˈ ke6r6v/, respectively) Therefore, the notion of linking /r/ 3 is redundant in rhotic accents, but intended for the non-rhotic ones [Hewings, 2007: 85; Roach, 2002: 144; Tô Minh Thanh, 2008; Underhill, 1994: 66]
Linking between vowel sounds occurs when a word or syllable ending in specific vowel sounds (/i:, 1, a1, e1/, /u:, $, a$, 6$/, and /6, 0:/) is followed by another word or syllable starting with a vowel In such cases, intrusive sounds such as /j/, /w/, and /r/ are inserted to create a smoother connection between the words or syllables, enhancing the flow of speech This phenomenon has been discussed in various linguistic studies (Avery & Erhlich, 1995; Celce-Murcia et al., 2002; Hewings, 2007; Kenworthy, 1992; Tô Minh Thanh, 2008; Underhill, 1994).
The primary distinction between linking /r/ and intrusive /r/ lies in their representation; linking /r/ is evident in written form, while intrusive /r/ is not In rhotic accents, where the "r" is consistently pronounced, the concept of linking /r/ becomes unnecessary, and intrusive /r/ is nonexistent (Underhill, 1994: 66) Examples include pronunciations like myʲ_aunt /ma1 'j@:nt/, twoʷ_eggs /'tu: 'wegz/, and formula /'f0:mj6l6 're1/ (Roach, 2002).
Linking occurs not only between consonants and vowels or between vowels, but also between consonants Avery and Erhlich (1995) and Celce-Murcia et al (2002) highlight the concept of consonant-to-consonant links When a word ending in a stop consonant is followed by a word starting with a consonant, the stop consonant is often not released, allowing for smoother speech flow For example, in phrases like "keep laughing" and "pet dog," the /p/ and /t/ sounds are not released.
When identical consonants occur at the junction of two words, where the final consonant of one word matches the initial consonant of the next, they are pronounced as a single elongated consonant Examples include "polish shoes" and "fall leaves."
Linking in natural spoken English refers to the connection between the final sound of one word and the initial sound of the next There are three main types of linking: consonant-to-vowel, vowel-to-vowel, and consonant-to-consonant Consonant-to-vowel linking occurs when a word ends with a consonant sound and the next begins with a vowel sound Vowel-to-vowel linking happens when a word ends with a vowel sound and the next starts with a vowel sound, often involving intrusive sounds like /j/, /w/, and /r/ Lastly, consonant-to-consonant linking takes place when a stop consonant is followed by another consonant, provided the stop consonant is not aspirated, or when the final consonant of one word is identical to the initial consonant of the next, creating a longer consonant sound.
Now let us turn to another modification of sounds in connected speech — assimilation
In a string of sounds, neighboring sounds can influence each other, leading to changes in their characteristics, a phenomenon noted by Avery and Erhlich (1995) and Hewings (2007) This linking of consonants serves as a valuable tool for teaching assimilation, especially palatalization, in the Treatment class during experimental teaching.
Assimilation, also known as co-articulation, refers to the process where one segment of speech becomes more similar to another, occurring both within and between words This phenomenon predominantly affects consonant sounds, especially at word boundaries Assimilation can be classified based on its direction: regressive (anticipatory), progressive (perseverative), and coalescent, with the latter two types being particularly significant for understanding its impact on speech.
A relevant study — Some pronunciation problems facing the learners of
In her 1999 M.A thesis, Nguyễn Thị Phúc Hoà explored pronunciation errors in natural speech among fourth-year English students at Hue University Utilizing questionnaire surveys, in-depth interviews, and tape recordings, her research revealed that a significant majority of students struggled with correct English pronunciation, with 96% failing to articulate words accurately.
The Vietnamese final consonant system consists of 2 semi-vowels and 6 consonants: p, t, k, m, n, and 7 Many speakers tend to omit or weaken final consonants, especially sibilants Additionally, a significant percentage struggle with initial and final three consonant clusters, with 100% and 86% respectively unable to pronounce them correctly Furthermore, a large number of speakers have difficulty producing connected speech elements, including strong and weak forms (83% - 93%), linking, sound adaptation (assimilation), and elision, with issues reported at rates of 80% and 100%.
The researcher recommends the development of a 90-period syllabus for English phonetics and phonology, drawing on research findings and teaching experience Suggested textbooks include "Ship or Sheep" by Baker, "English Phonetics and Phonology" by Roach, "Elements of Pronunciation" by Mortimer, and "Natural Speech" by Marbe and MrArthur Practical teaching ideas include providing students with numerous ear training exercises and transcription tasks, explaining the differences between English and Vietnamese sounds, recording conversations, and encouraging loud reading of words or passages For advanced students, the focus should be on helping them learn and remember the articulation of speech sounds with clear descriptions.
Nguyễn Thị Phúc Hoà offered suggestions to enhance the situation, drawing solely from her personal teaching experience rather than experimental data Additionally, she did not provide specific strategies to address students' errors.
This section summarizes a significant study from Nguyễn Thị Phúc Hoà's M.A thesis while identifying a critical gap that this research aims to address The study focuses on utilizing linking as a strategy to enhance various sound modifications in natural speech.
Summary
This chapter provides a theoretical foundation for the study of pronunciation teaching and learning, focusing on how English sound modifications occur in connected speech and their influence on learners' communication skills It also highlights the characteristics of the Vietnamese language that affect students' ability to acquire these modifications Furthermore, the chapter reviews a previous study by Nguyễn Thị Phúc Hoà, identifying gaps that have motivated the current research.
Now let us turn to Chapter 3 which deals with the methodology describing how the research was done.