Effectively teaching english vocabulary to the 6th graders at quang trung secondary school

Recognizably, the researcher considers the technique of teaching vocabulary through contexts as a useful way for activating students to remember and use the words through useful and prac

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HO CHI MINH CITY

UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

-********* -

EFFECTIVELY TEACHING ENGLISH VOCABULARY

AT QUANG TRUNG SECONDARY SCHOOL

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF TESOL

Supervisor

NGUYEN THAI AN, Ph.D

HO CHI MINH CITY, JULY 2011

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby certificate my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitle:

EFFECTIVELY TEACHING ENGLISH VOCABULARY

TO THE 6TH GRADERS

AT QUANG TRUNG SECONDARY SCHOOL

In terms of the statement of requirements for Thesis in Master’s Programs issued by the Higher Degree Committee The thesis has not previously been submitted for a degree

Ho Chi Minh City, July 2011

TRUONG NGUYEN NGOC THAO

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, TRUONG NGUYEN NGOC THAO, being the candidate for the degree of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Thesis deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited

in the Library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the library for the care, loan

or reproduction of theses

Ho Chi Minh City, July 2011

TRUONG NGUYEN NGOC THAO

Besides, I would like to send my special thanks to my loving parents – Mr Truong Ngoc Thach and Mrs Nguyen Thi Ngoc Hoa, as well as my younger brother Truong Nguyen Thanh Tu, who warmly motivate my spirit to overcome ups and downs so that I can concentrate on my study working

Also, I am deeply indebted to my headmaster - Mr Truong Van Hoa and principle – Mrs Nguyen Thi Sinh at Quang Trung secondary school in District 4,

vice-Ho Chi Minh City for their precious help during the time of my experiment

At last, I would like to sincerely thank to all my teachers of the M.A course in TESOL, 2007-2010 at Ho Chi Minh City University of Social Sciences and Humanities, my colleagues in grade 6 in and out of Quang Trung school and my students, whose contributions into having supplied information for me to seriously and scientifically research at hands and in future

ABSTRACT

Recently, the application of innovative and effective techniques for lexical instruction has not been estimated adequately in Vietnamese secondary schools Therefore, the present study aims at proving the effectiveness and feasibility of teaching English vocabulary through contexts as a good technique

The study was mainly carried out on the theory of teaching vocabulary for language growth by Nation (1990, 2001, 2008), which creates a connection between words previously learned and currently new ones on the students’ progress of vocabulary learning Recognizably, the researcher considers the technique of teaching vocabulary through contexts as a useful way for activating students to remember and use the words through useful and practical activities on lexis from the contexts

Data were collected during a twelve-week experimental teaching from 98 students of the Control Group – class 6A4, and the Experimental Group – class 6A3

in Quang Trung secondary school located in District 4 Also, there were pre- and post-tests to assess the students’ linguistic performance as well as questionnaires to explore the reflections from the teachers and students Next, the T-tests were used to check if there were the statistically significant differences of means in lexical knowledge between the Control and Experimental Groups or not Then figures from pre- and post-questionnaires were analyzed to clarify the issues in the study

The outcomes of the study report that the Experimental Group made a significant progress in the post-test thanks to the treatment, but not owing to chance

In addition, the students expressed positive attitudes, motivation through learning activities during the application of the technique, which proves the technique of teaching English vocabulary through contexts is worthy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate of originality i

Retention and use of the thesis ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract iv

Table of contents v

List of tables x

List of figures xii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale of the study 1

1.2 Background of the study 3

1.3 Aims of the research 5

1.4 Research questions 5

1.5 Significance of the study 6

1.6 Structure of the thesis 6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Issues concerning vocabulary teaching 7

2.1.1 Why vocabulary should be taught 7

2.1.2 Active and passive words 8

2.1.3 Aspects of knowing a word 9

2.1.4 Process of teaching new words 10

2.1.5 Easy words vs difficult words 11

2.2 Teaching English to preteens 13

2.2.1 Characteristics of young learners as living entities 13

2.2.2 How preteens learn language, including vocabulary 13

2.3 Committing new words to short-term and long-term memories 15

2.4 Techniques to teach new words 17

2.4.1 Using visual aids 17

2.4.2 Making mimes, gestures and actions 18

2.4.3 Giving examples 19

2.4.4 Giving synonyms 19

2.4.5 Giving antonyms 20

2.4.6 Giving translation 20

2.4.7 Using definition 21

2.5 Teaching new words through contexts 22

2.5.1 Definition of context 22

2.5.2 New words in contexts 22

2.5.3 Selecting words to teach through contexts 25

2.5.4 Texts enriched with contexts 25

2.6 Follow-up classroom activities to consolidate new words 27

2.6.1 Recognizing aspects of words 27

2.6.2 Eliciting memories 28

2.6.3 Gap filling 28

2.6.4 Using games 29

2.6.5 Matching words with pictures or definitions 29

2.6.6 Using multiple-choice tasks 30

2.7 Roles of the teacher and students when working with contexts 30

2.8 Basic word lists of previous writers 32

2.9 Previous local studies in teaching vocabulary 32

2.9.1 Theses involved in the 6th graders 33

2.9.1.1 Tran Thi My (2002) 33

2.9.1.2 Nguyen Thi Bich Thuy (2005) 33

2.9.1.3 Phan Hong Yen (2007) 34

2.9.2 Theses involved in teaching vocabulary 34

2.9.2.1 Huynh Huu Hanh Nguyen (2007) 34

2.9.2.2 Nguyen Thi Bich Tran (2009) 35

2.9.2.3 Giang Huong Nguyen Le (2009) 35

2.10 Summary 36

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Setting of the research 37

3.2 Research method 37

3.3 Participants of the research 38

3.3.1 The Control Group 39

3.3.2 The Experimental Group 40

3.3.3 The 6th-grade teachers 41

3.3.4 The researcher 41

3.4 Instruments of the research 41

3.4.1 Questionnaires 41

3.4.1.1 The students’ pre-questionnaire 42

3.4.1.2 The teachers’ questionnaire 42

3.4.1.3 The students’ post- questionnaire 42

3.4.2 Tests 42

3.4.2.1 The test of word recognition in the “Dolch basic words list” 43

3.4.2.2 The pre-test 43

3.4.2.3 The post-test 43

3.5 The experimental teaching 44

3.6 Data collection procedure 49

3.7 Summary 50

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 A brief overview on analyzing procedure 51

4.2 The analysis of test scores 52

4.2.1 The result of word recognition in the “Dolch basic word list” 52

4.2.2 The pre-test scores of the two groups 53

4.2.3 The post test scores of the two groups 55

4.2.4 Conclusion 57

4.3 The comparison of test results 58

4.3.1 The pre- and post-test comparison of the Control Group 58

4.3.2 The pre- and post-test comparison of the Experimental Group 58

4.3.3 The pre- and post-test comparison of the two groups 59

4.3.4 Conclusion 60

4.4 Responses to pre- and post-test questionnaires 61

4.4.1 The analysis of students’ pre-questionnaire data 61

4.4.2 The analysis of teachers’ questionnaire data 65

4.4.3 The analysis of students’ post-questionnaire data 71

4.4.4 Conclusion 76

4.5 Reflections from the study 76

4.5.1 Evaluation of pre- and post-tests 76

4.5.2 Findings from teaching new words through contexts 78

4.6 Summary 79

CHAPTER 5: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Generalizations 81

5.2 Limitations of the study 83

5.3 Contributions of the research 83

5.3.1 Selecting new lexical items to teach through contexts 83

5.3.2 Choosing contexts 84

5.3.3 Doing the follow-up exercises 84

5.4 Recommendations 87

5.4.1 For teachers 87

5.4.2 For students 88

5.5 Concerns about further research 88

5.6 Summary 89

CONCLUSION 90

REFERENCES 92

APPENDICES

Appendix 1: The “Dolch basic words list” 99

Appendix 2: The result of word recognition in the “Dolch basic words list” 101

Appendix 3: Pre-test 102

Appendix 4: A typical lesson plan 104

Appendix 5: The collection of contexts 106

Appendix 6: The suggested follow-up exercises 117

Appendix 7: The total words chosen to teach in the texts 123

Appendix 8: The suggested 500-word list 124

Appendix 9: Post-test 127

Appendix 10: The scores of pre- and post-tests 130

Appendix 11: Pre-questionnaire for the 6th graders (in English) 131

Appendix 12: Pre-questionnaire for the 6th graders (in Vietnamese) 134

Appendix 13: Questionnaire for teachers 137

Appendix 14: Post-questionnaire for the 6th graders (in English) 140

Appendix 15: Post-questionnaire for the 6th graders (in Vietnamese) 142

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Types of reading texts and vocabulary coverage 26

Table 2: The Control Group’s background information 39

Table 3: The Experimental Group’s background information 40

Table 4: The assessment of new words in a text 45

Table 5: The comparison of mean values in the two groups 52

Table 6: The description of pre-test scores of the two groups 53

Table 7: The pre-test score ranges of the two groups 54

Table 8: The analysis of the two groups’ pre-test results by the T-test 55

Table 9: The analysis of the two groups’ post-test results by the T-test 56

Table 10: The post-test score ranges of the two groups 56

Table 11: The score changes of the Control Group in pre- and post-tests 59

Table 12: The score changes of the Experimental Group in pre- and post-tests 60

Table 13: Students’ vocabulary learning experience of topics given 61

Table 14: The students’ assessment of words in “Tieng Anh 6” 62

Table 15: Aspects of Glossary helping the students learn new words 62

Table 16: Ways the students enjoyed when learning new words 63

Table 17: Difficulties the students encounter when learning new words in contexts 64

Table 18: Effective classroom activities in pre-reading contexts 64

Table 19: Effective classroom activities in while-reading contexts 64

Table 20: Effective classroom activities in post-reading contexts 65

Table 21: The students’ suggested contents of the short texts 65

Table 22: Aspects of teaching words 66

Table 23: The frequency of applying different techniques in vocabulary teaching 67

Table 24: Benefits gained from teaching words through short texts 69

Table 25: Aspects of a word the 6th graders developed after learning vocabulary through contexts 70

Table 26: Factors affecting vocabulary teaching and learning 71

Table 27: Reasons making the students prefer the texts 72

Table 28: The students’ ideas on forms of activities 72

Table 29: Aspects of new words the students learn in contexts 73

Table 30: Activities of learning new words done in pre-reading contexts 73

Table 31: Activities of learning new words done in while-reading contexts 74

Table 32: Activities of learning new words done in post-reading contexts 74

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Vocabulary in the relation to four language skills 8

Figure 2: Knowing a word 10

Figure 3: The process from understanding a context to remembering it 15

Figure 4: The four factors involved in remembering 16

Figure 5: Simple Neuron Pathway 17

Figure 6: The relationship of context and content 24

Figure 7: Tasks and rate at which information is remembered 31

Figure 8: The comparison of the level of lexical knowledge between the Control Group and the Experimental Group 52

Figure 9: The comparison of the pre-test scores between the Control Group and the Experimental Group 54

Figure 10: The comparison of the post-test scores between the Control Group and the Experimental Group 57

Figure 11: The score changes of the students in the Control Group 58

Figure 12: The score changes of the students in the Experimental Group 58

Figure 13: The post-test comparison of the two groups 59

Figure 14: The Control Group’s scores in pre- and post-tests 60

Figure 15: The Experimental Group’s scores in pre- and post-tests 60

Figure 16: Reading - the main skill for the 6th graders to learn new words 61

Figure 17: How the 6th graders learnt new words 63

Figure 18: The teachers’ realization of the role of teaching vocabulary 66

Figure 19: Basic language skills for the 6th graders to learn vocabulary 68

Figure 20: The teachers’ assessment of teaching vocabulary through contexts 68

Figure 21: Opinions on the number of short texts per week 70

Figure 22: The students’ ideas about the new words in contexts 75

Figure 23: The students’ suggestions about the short texts 76

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale of the study

The rationale of the study presented below mainly interprets the current teaching issues at Quang Trung secondary school and theoretical points of view related to the literature review in the thesis

For the past few decades, English has developed with a considerable speed in Viet Nam It becomes an essential means of communication on the progress of economic integration and development for the country, especially after its participation in WTO (2007) as well as being the Chair of ASEAN organization (2010) Recognizably, English started to be taught at secondary schools, then even

at primary ones, existing in both regular and intensive English programs Besides,

“various language centers, both public and private, have been established with different courses, programs and types of training to serve the different learning needs of different types of learners” (Do, 2006, p.8) These above are convincing proofs for the fact that English has a tremendous effect in language teaching and learning in Viet Nam today

Apparently, teaching English at secondary schools has been supplying good basic knowledge of English to help the students get higher education However, owing to many subjective and objective obstacles, teaching and learning English, including English vocabulary suffer their defects In particular, Quang Trung secondary school is located in District 4 of Ho Chi Minh City, where most parents have a limited intellectual level and they are busy with earning their living every day Moreover, there is a lot of tempting entertainment outside the class supported

by modern technology which attracts students a lot Besides, due to the absence of well-equipped studying environment for teaching and learning English at school, the students have difficulties in mastering English vocabulary Hence, the students do

not generally learn and use English vocabulary as required partly owing to their lack

of serious awareness towards the learning of English or of chances to practice English in a communicative way Also, pressure of examination and their evaluation

do not allow teachers to go far away from teaching new words in word lists, in which students are obligated to remember as many words as possible From the obstacles shown, teaching vocabulary through contexts is expected to match the learning of English words in the classroom with using them in the real-life situations through variously vivid follow-up activities

Besides, there are so many problems existing in the current teaching at Quang Trung secondary school that the students cannot effectively learn English vocabulary It cannot be denied that “Tieng Anh 6” textbook supplies various language materials to teach the 6th graders Particularly, in teaching vocabulary, new words are orderly arranged into each unit in the Glossary, which is helpful in supporting the 6th graders to discover their Vietnamese equivalents However, to the

6th graders, learning new words in the normal way by mainly listing isolated words does not satisfy their needs Although teachers employ different ways to teach new words in the classroom, using word lists is the most favorite one It leads to the unexpected fact that the students confuse translation with language use Moreover, they assume that understanding the word meaning is eventually all of the vocabulary learning Once they cannot remember the word with its Vietnamese equivalent, they blame on their bad memory In reality of teaching, even when there are contexts in the textbook, words are taught isolation, which cannot create beneficial impacts on the teachers and students as expected Furthermore, teachers rarely use follow-up exercises after teaching new words Also, from the fact that the 6th graders have learnt some knowledge of English before, it is suggested to teach new words through contexts The researcher, being accepted to conduct the teaching vocabulary through contexts at Quang Trung secondary school, tries to improve the current situation of teaching vocabulary It is hoped that the study brings positive contributions to teaching English vocabulary through contexts at Quang Trung

secondary school as well as at secondary schools in District 4 That way of teaching helps the 6th graders understand, remember and use words in appropriate contexts – the starting step to learn other language skills such as reading, listening, speaking and writing

Laufer and Hulstijn (2001, in Brown and Rodgers, 2002, p.222) report

“teachers are well aware of the fact that learning a second language involves the learning of large numbers of words”, thus it is necessary to find an effective way to enrich the students’ vocabulary This thesis mainly focuses on teaching vocabulary through contexts as that effective way Nagy and Herman (1987, in Hatch and Brown, 1995, p.375) state that “even a single encounter with a word in context” can increase the learners’ knowledge about that word and its meaning Additionally, Hatch and Brown (1995, p.375) present that learners should encounter the same word in multiples sources Gowers, Phillips and Walters (2005, p.142) interpret

“The more often a vocabulary item is encountered, the more likely it is that the full meaning will be understood and remembered” In detail, Allen and Valette (1977, p.151) suppose that “once students know the meaning of a new word, they must use

it often and correctly in the target language in order to master the word and make it part of their personal vocabulary”

In conclusion, the study is carried out over the difficulties existing in the current teaching situation mentioned above Besides, the researcher starts the

research considering the following background

1.2 Background of the study

In the connection with the rationale of the study, the experiment of teaching vocabulary through contexts has such background information about Quang Trung school, about “Tieng Anh 6” textbook and about the students in grade 6 From the background, it is necessary to help students get involved in vocabulary learning in a more effective way

Firstly, like other schools in Viet Nam, English is taught at Quang Trung secondary school from the 6th grade onwards Quang Trung is located in District 4 – one of the districts near the centre of Ho Chi Minh City However, the conditions of teaching and learning English here is still inadequate Recognizably, the daily teaching occurs without any support from the high technology There are 20 classes from grades 6 to 9 in a school year on average The normal number of students reaches from 45-50 students in every class In such a teaching environment, although the management board and teachers make many efforts to renew the teaching methodology, far from the old way in which teachers read and students write into their notebooks, there occurs unavoidable obstacles in reality Obviously, the above-mentioned things affect the teaching of English in general and of English vocabulary in particular at the school, which does not stimulate the students to learn new words Hence, it is necessary to have an effective way of teaching English, including English vocabulary, in such a context which motivates the students to learn it better

Secondly, teaching and learning English in the 6th grade fundamentally bases

on “Tieng Anh 6” textbook issued by Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) The book is designed with beautiful and colorful pictures It supplies various language materials appropriate to the 6th graders’ ability of understanding The topics of units are close to the 6th graders’ daily life However, there are few exercises, especially lexical ones in every unit The practice on lexical items mainly focuses on their form, not their meaning or use Indeed, the vocabulary practice is fairly monotonous and tedious, which cannot motivate the students to learn English words Thus, it raises the need to learn vocabulary together with various kinds of vividly lexical classroom activities which help the students to remember and use words better

Finally, most of the 6th graders at Quang Trung secondary school have an average capacity of learning Beneficially, the 6th graders in the school have learnt English at primary schools, so anyway, they have a little knowledge of English

vocabulary at the present threshold All of the 6th graders here attend the normally standard English program popular to students at secondary schools Although they are rather overactive, they are eager and willing to get more knowledge, especially English Therefore, it is appropriate to apply teaching English vocabulary through contexts to the 6th graders at Quang Trung secondary school

In summary, the issues related to Quang Trung secondary school, the main textbook and the 6th graders are laid as the foundation to implement the study From the rationale and background indicated in 1.1 and 1.2, the researcher is motivated to carry out the experiment of teaching English vocabulary through contexts

1.3 Aims of the research

The study is carried out in the researcher’s efforts to prove the effectiveness and feasibility of teaching vocabulary through contexts as much as possible It is the point that thanks to the contexts, the students can create a connection between words previously learned and currently new ones After that, the students can use the new words in other contexts appropriately Besides, the researcher aims at finding out the students’ reactions towards the technique of teaching new words through contexts The realization of this technique reflects the expectation of enriching the 6th graders’ vocabulary repertoire flexibly and effectively

1.4 Research questions

To make the study of teaching English vocabulary through contexts feasible, the process of researching was guided by the following research questions:

1 In what way is teaching English vocabulary to the 6th graders effective?

2 Which reactions do the 6th graders show towards teaching vocabulary through contexts?

The study consisted of the following hypothesis:

The 6th graders can accumulate their English vocabulary better through contexts than through word lists

1.5 Significance of the study

Only a little time can be spent on doing English vocabulary exercises in classroom, thus chances for students to practice vocabulary are inadequate The significance of the study lies in the fact that the technique of teaching vocabulary through contexts can be applied for the 6th graders to overcome the boredom of learning English vocabulary in the current situation at school, so that they can sufficiently enrich and use their English vocabulary The researcher hopes to contribute, to some extent, to practical aspects in vocabulary teaching and learning

to the 6th graders

1.6 Structure of the thesis

There are five chapters in the study Chapter One is the introduction of the study, which states the research rationale, the study’s background, the aims, the research questions as well as the significance of the study Chapter Two provides the review of literature, namely issues concerning vocabulary teaching, teaching English to preteens, short-term and long-term memories, techniques to present new words, teaching new words through contexts and different follow-up vocabulary exercises used in the experiment In addition, it refers to the teacher and students’ roles when working with contexts, to previous word lists and to local studies Chapter Three presents the methodology in which the study is conducted: how data are collected, and how the experimental teaching is carried out Chapter Four launches the results of data analyses and the findings, and gives interpretation together with tables and figures from statistics It also gives some discussions about the issues from the experiment of teaching new words through contexts Chapter Five gives some recommendations for teachers and students as well as for further research, then draws a conclusion for the study

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

As mentioned in the previous chapter, teaching English vocabulary has not been put in its high esteem at Vietnamese secondary schools Therefore, raising awareness of the importance of vocabulary development, including expanding vocabulary, plays an important role In its adequate extent, this chapter refers to the issues relevant to teaching new English words through contexts Firstly, the chapter presents some issues of teaching vocabulary which are necessary in discovering language Secondly, it mentions the teaching of English to preteens Thirdly, it shows two ways which help words stay in the memory – temporary and everlasting ones Fourthly, it states some techniques of presenting vocabulary that help learners remember words in a short time Fifthly, it indicates the issue of teaching new words through contexts Sixthly, it shows the follow-up classroom activities helping new words enter the long-term memory Seventhly, it refers to the roles of the teacher and students Also, it looks over some reliable basic word lists in order that it makes the foundation for the suggested 500-word list to the 6th graders Last but not least, it generally reports previous local studies in teaching vocabulary Finally, the chapter ends with the conclusion about the items mentioned above

2.1 Issues concerning vocabulary teaching

2.1.1 Why vocabulary should be taught

Ellis and Tomlinson (1992, p.64) present that vocabulary teaching is not beyond the purpose of enriching the learners’ vocabulary repertoire; for example, increasing the number of lexical items which the learners can understand and apply exactly when necessary Noticeably, Allen (1983, p.9-10) states that students’ interests in learning vocabulary can start from the feeling that they want to please the teacher or to pass the examination Besides, Spratt (1991, p.184) presents that vocabulary teaching aims at supplying students the tools that enables them to

function (for example: to recognize and produce word items) accurately, appropriately and fluently in the situations Also, Gestern and Baker (2000, in Nation, 1990, p.222) highlight “vocabulary learning plays a major role in successful programs for English language learners” Moreover, Gower, Phillips and Walters (2005, p.142) express that vocabulary is important to students, especially in the early stages when beginners are frequently motivated to learn basic words Especially, teaching vocabulary in reading texts, according to Pikulski and Templeton (2004, p.5), provides a large and rich vocabulary for students, which means rewarding students the valuable tool to learn language because vocabulary relates to all language skills

Figure 1 Vocabulary in the relation to four language skills

(adapted from Pikulski & Templeton http://www.eduplace.com/state/author/pik_temp.pdf)

In sum, learning vocabulary helps to make a stable language foundation

2.1.2 Active and passive words

Allen (1983, p.105), Ellis and Tomlinson (1992, p.78) as well as Harmer

(1992, p.159) state that active words are those which students have been taught or learnt, and the passive ones are words which students encounter without being able

to produce At the beginning level, it is a good idea to provide sets of vocabulary which students can learn in the classroom, and then most of these early words are constantly practiced to be active In addition, Lewis and Hill (1992, p.99-100) express that because all the words taught are for active use at the beginning of the language course, students need to know the context in which a word can appear, the possible and impossible collocations of the word, the details of meaning included in the word

Neutrally, Harmer (1992, p.160) assumes that it is difficult to say which words are active and which are passive in students’ store of words An active word may slip back into the passive storage if it is not regularly used, and vice-versa, a passive word can become active if it is provoked by contexts in use Obviously, the status of a vocabulary item seems not to be constant

In brief, there exists a mutual change between active and passive words

2.1.3 Aspects of knowing a word

Lado (1964, p.114) points out “words have a form or expression which is associated with a content or meaning” After that, Richards (1976, p.83) presents many points of view related to “knowing a word”, among which are the probability

of recognizing a word when encountering it in a text, and that of knowing the semantic value of that word and different meanings associated with it Also,

“knowing a word” implies students’ ability to use the word appropriately according

to its functions and situations Giving supplementary ideas, Ellis and Tomlinson (1992, p.60-61) consider that “the teaching of vocabulary is mainly concerned with the teaching of meaning and therefore with the presentation of content words” It refers to “all nouns, adjectives, and adverbs and nearly all verbs” Furthermore, “a dictionary word” can involve different meanings relying on where, when and how it

is used to form “derived words” For example, the dictionary word “foul” can mean

“causing disgust”, “having a bad smell”, “filthy”, “wicked”, “obese”, “rough” or

“stormy” in different contexts Also, Coates (1999, p.10) shows “map and maps” which presents the same vocabulary unit but in different forms

According to Nation (1990, p.131), students learn a word from its spoken form, written form, grammar, collocation, frequency and appropriateness, concept and association Later on, Nation (2001, p.26) summarizes that knowing a word at levels relates to form, meaning and use Likewise, beside the concept of “meaning

in context”, Lewis and Hill (1992, p.99), Harmer (1992, p.156) refer to “sense relations” when understanding a word For example, students need to know that the meaning of “vegetables” covers “carrots, cabbages, potatoes” Once students are conscious of words in the context they meet for the first time, they are able to manipulate both the meanings and forms of the word Hence, word meanings are described in the relation to word use, word information and word grammar as described in the following diagram

Figure 2 Knowing a word (Harmer, 1992, p.158)

Briefly, knowing a word means exploring different aspects of that word

2.1.4 Process of teaching new words

Nation (2001, p.107-108) defines a procedure is “a series of defined steps

leading to a learning goal” Teachers work according to the procedure to assure that students cover all what they need to cover, even in a task According to the following steps, Lado (1964, p.121) describes that new words are taught: first

Metaphor and idiom

Parts of speech

Spelling and pronunciation

Verb complementation, phrasal verbs, etc

WORD USE MEANING

WORD INFORMATION

WORD GRAMMAR

WORDS

Meaning in context Sense relations

Collocation Style and register

Prefixes and suffixes

Nouns: countable and uncountable, etc

Adjectives and adverbs: position, etc

hearing the word, next pronouncing it, then grasping its meaning, and at last practicing its usage It is helpful for teachers to make slow pronunciation without any distortion Students themselves pronounce a word to remember it longer Moreover, the word meanings are conveyed through a plentiful variety of techniques for presenting vocabulary (for instance: using opposites, synonyms, drawings, definitions) Last but not least, practice makes the process of vocabulary perfect on the purpose of reinforcing students’ understanding of the word and making a habit to use it when necessary

Allen and Valette (1977, p.250) suggest that students should hear the word before seeing its written form Allen (1983, p.21), Gower, Phillips and Walters (2005, p.146) together take the teaching of word meaning prior to hearing the word, next writing it and then practicing its usage Later on, Harmer (1992, p.159) indicates students are unable to use a lexical item which they do not understand, so they first read or hear the word and later practice it Next, Blake and Majors (1995,

in Nation, 2001, p.107-108) describe five steps to make words recycled, which includes the pre-teaching of vocabulary, the oral teaching of a text containing the intended vocabulary before exploring the text meaning, the deliberate word study, the vocabulary tests and the use of the words Differently, Hatch and Brown (1995, p.218) make five steps to work with words as at first encountering a new word, next getting the word form, then understanding the word meaning, afterwards consolidating word form and meaning to let them stay in the memory, finally using the word in appropriate situations

In summary, following steps of the procedure in teaching words is helpful The procedure by Hatch and Brown (1995, p.218) was chosen for the present study

2.1.5 Easy words vs difficult words

It is possible that the words chosen for the early stages are due to the ease

of showing their meaning (Lado, 1964, p.115) Later on, Rodgers (1969, in Nation,

1990, p.48) presents that vocabulary learning is affected by word categories A little differently, Allen and Valette (1977, p.149-150) consider words of concrete

definitions as the easiest to learn, then adverbs and adverbial expressions more difficult Besides, it is not easy for students to learn inflected forms of nouns, adjectives and adverbs In generalization, Palmberg (1994, p.24), Hatch and Brown (1995, p.220) assess that it is, to young learners, more successful to learn “words for concrete, tangible, physical objects” than any other types of nouns

Afterwards, Nation (2001, p.23-24) reviews the principle of learning burden that “the more a word represents patterns and knowledge that learners are familiar with, the lighter its learning burden is” Concretely, the linguist interprets the learning burden is based on three factors: the learners’ background knowledge of English and their first language, the way in which the word is taught and learned as well as the difficulty inside the word Sufficiently, Nation (ibid., p.39), Gower, Phillips and Walters (2005, p.143) suggest reducing the learning burden of a word meaning by teachers’ introduction of a word predictable from its form, having its meaning corresponding to a mother-tongue word’s meaning or enabling learners to guess its meaning through various examples of its uses Folse (2008, p.15) adds “the frequency of a word is often cited as a major factor in a given word’s difficulty” Previously, Lado (1964, p.127) states that content words should be assigned to the selected contextual areas (ibid., p.120) These are suggested contextual areas such as “food, clothing, sports, work, school, shopping; music, language, literature, art; the human body, a person, a city, a country; a discovery, an exploration, geography; a newspaper, education, and government” (ibid., p.127) Likewise, Ek (1978, in Spratt, 1991, p.184) supplements some contextual areas:

“personal identification, house and home, life at home, travel, relationship with other people, health and welfare, drink, services, foreign language and weather” According to Allen (1983), teachers introduce basic words because they know that most of these words will be used for defining difficult words in the future (p.8)

In summary, it should be careful to choose words for beginning students

In the researcher’s experiment, words belong to some of the suggested contextual areas The next part is about preteens and teaching them how to learn English

2.2 Teaching English to preteens

2.2.1 Characteristics of young learners as living entities

Pinter (2006, p.1) shows that young learners at primary level are various

in different parts of the world, from the age of 5 to 14 McKay (2006, p.1) defines young learners are “between the ages of approximately five and twelve” Also, the writer mentions that “young language learners may be foreign language learners, leaning a language in a situation where the language is seldom heard outside the classroom” (ibid., p.2) Thus, the 6th graders in the research are included in the general concept of young learners

Young learners possess physical growth, develop cognitive language, have progress in emotional and social aspects as well as in spiritual development, so there should be a thorough understanding of all aspects of their development when working with them (Crosse, 2007, p.7) In detail, from the reports of Carnegie Corporation (Jackson and Davis, 2000) and the National Middle School Association (2003), there are 7 features inside young learners such as “competence and achievement, opportunities for self-definition, creative expression, physical activity, positive social interactions with adults and peers, structure and clear limits, and meaningful participation in family, school, and community” (in Wormeli, 2006, p.14) Additionally, different students will require different degrees of attention regarding each of seven above-mentioned factors and effective instructions for them Recognizably, they can really understand a problem under various ways of explanations from teachers (ibid, p.14-16)

In a word, young learners are interesting living entities on all sides

2.2.2 How preteens learn language, including vocabulary

When children bring up to the “preteens” at the age of 12, they can think logically about objects and events, even the abstract ones (Atherton, 2010, p.2) In addition, preteens react differently to the lessons from each other because of their different types of intelligence (Templeton, 2007, p.16) Clearly, Gardner (1993, in McKay, 2006, p.5) finds out 8 types of intelligence, which are individually various

in different young learners as “linguistic, musical, logical mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic” This explains why some students can understand issues right after the teacher explains, some realize those issues later and some cannot handle them (Templeton, 2007, p.16) As a result, teaching is based on the balance between conscious, cognitive language learning and activity-based incidental learning (ibid., p.15) Also, teachers should develop all sorts of classroom activities, including integration, in a lesson so that they can lead preteens to achieve the knowledge (ibid, p.16)

Noticeably, McKay (2006, p.5) states that when learning a language, young learners bring their own personalities, cognition, capacity and intelligence into it Besides, there are differences in “socioeconomic, cultural and home background”, so young learners develop and study at varying and individual rates according to their own background experiences Previously, Richards (1976, p.78) points out there occurs the frequent development in vocabulary beyond the childhood years

One more thing, McKay (2006, p.5) points out that young learners in the early school years can only focus their mind in a rather short time, from 10 to 15 minutes However, when they get 12, they improve their ways of thoughts to think more systematically and logically, help each other, and become more skillful in solving problems and in many more classroom learning activities (ibid, p.6) Besides, when students aged 11 to 13, they begin to develop “the ability to manipulate thoughts and ideas”, but they still need “hands-on experiences” Their use of language in expansion enables them to predict, hypothesize and classify the issues within their capacity (ibid, p.7), so the teacher’ assessment tasks should not

go beyond the young learners’ experience of the world (ibid, p.10)

Finally, from the social growth aspect, young learners from 5-12 years old mostly gain confidence and are eager to learn to “interact with peers” or “develop a concept of self” (ibid, p.8) Working in groups makes students at this age increase their motivation and interest in the task (ibid, p.9) Additionally, from the physical

growth aspect, McKay thinks that it is a good idea to let students at those age perform their tasks in the coordination of hands and eyes (ibid, p.10)

In brief, preteens can learn language systematically and logically

2.3 Committing new words to short-term and long-term memories

Thompson (1987, p.43) realizes whether students understand spoken and written language as well as performing productive skills depends much on the ability to recognize and retrieve data stored in memory Gairns and Redman (1991, p.86) report short-term memory can hold information over a brief duration up to thirty seconds in continuum; meanwhile, long-term memory can store information for a long time after the initial input In addition, Smith (1991, p.37-46) emphasizes short-term memory automatically clears itself to absorb the next item and is able to hold about six or seven words each time if these words are organized meaningfully

by letting small details into larger units On the contrary, long-term memory is not available at once, but it demands positive actions to get the information out Lindsay and Knight (2006, p.71) point out that our brain grasps short sections of the text long enough to maintain them in short-term memory Besides, students use their language repertoire and knowledge of the world existing in their long-term memory

to help them decode the text

Figure 3 The process from understanding a context to remembering it

(adapted from Lindsay and Knight, 2006, p.71)

According to Nation (1990, p.33), it is helpful to know “storage according

to form is replaced by storage according to meaning” Descriptively, Forster (1976,

1979, in Gairns and Redman, 1991, p.88) presents that all vocabulary items are organized in one large “master file” which connects with “peripheral access files” containing information about spelling, phonology, syntax, and meaning of the word

text

visual input

input into working memory

connection to long-term memory

thanks to meaning relation Items which appear most frequently are easy to be retrieved owing to they are on the top of the file In contrast, Gairns and Redman

(1991, p.89) mention the decay theory – issue of forgetting – which asserts that data

stored in the long-term memory become useless if they are not activated regularly Helpfully, students find it easier to obtain and retrieve a lexical item from the long-term memory if they learn it through different contexts Therefore, Nation (1990, p.5) and Russell (1979, in Gairns and Redman, 1991, p.102) suggest that news words should be regularly repeated in five or ten minutes after a recent study period, twenty four hours later, from one week later up to one month and so on The factors helping students remember better are illustrated in the following figure

Figure 5 Simple Neuron Pathway (adapted from Eagle, http://www.bankersacademy.com/pdf/FosteringRetentionInAdultLearners.pdf)

In sum, it is essential to make students’ short-term and long-term memories effectively work in learning a language

2.4 Techniques to teach new words

Gower, Phillips and Walters (2005, p.142) reach the point that it is easier to remember a word if its meaning is well understood, so a clear vocabulary presentation from the teacher is necessary in a lexical lesson These were 7 techniques of teaching new words relevant to the teaching of vocabulary through contexts in the experiment Depending on the word meaning in context, some of these 7 techniques were combined to teach the new words

2.4.1 Using visual aids

Gairns and Redman (1991, p.73) assume visual aids are extensively used and particularly useful for teaching concrete word items such as “food or furniture”,

or words belong to certain vocabulary areas such as “places, professions, descriptions of people, actions and activities” Afterwards, Gower, Phillips and Walters (2005, p.149) state “for concrete items it is usually much quicker to show the item than explain the meaning Visuals make the lesson more interesting and lively” Nowadays, Richards and Dolati (2010, p.6) realize visual aids motivate and make students more enthusiastic in the classroom activities Thus, this technique of using visual aids was frequently used in the experiment

Pictures can be “board drawings, wall pictures and charts, flashcards, magazine pictures and any other non-technical visual presentation” (Harmer, 1992, p.162) Formerly, Lado (1964, p.123) comments “drawings can be used to illustrate the meaning of things, actions, qualities and relation” Additionally, Lewis and Hill (1992, p.102) propose that teachers can thoroughly create very simple sketches to illustrate meaning Alternatively, Allen (1983, p.27) suggests letting the students draw if the teacher prefers not to make pictures

Besides, in textbooks for beginners, the vocabulary usually contains words which are easy to illustrate It is helpful to hear the word and see the real objects it refers to at the same time again and again (ibid., p.7) Lewis and Hill (1992, p.102) highlight that teachers entirely save time when using real objects in the classroom

Allen (1983) state that although students are rarely asked to point to, walk

or to touch the real things in the classroom, real objects are better than pictures whenever teachers use (p.24) However, in the case of teaching words like “man, woman, boy and girl”, pictures or stick figures are more suitable than real classroom students (p.25)

Generally, using visual aids to learn new words is very interesting

2.4.2 Making mimes, gestures and actions

It was helpful to regularly use this technique of using mimes, gestures and actions to teaching vocabulary in the experiment Allen and Valette (1977, p.152) state that gestures are used to convey the word meanings of descriptive adjectives,

for example, tall, thin, fat, happy Afterwards, Gairns and Redman (1991, p.73)

highlight teachers build a situation to illustrate the new word meaning in the support from blackboard and gestures to reinforce the concept of the word Meaningfully, Lewis and Hill (1992, p.102) express that the demonstration helps to make the meaning clearer and associates it in students’ minds on visual and aural aspects Wilberg (1987, p.141) presents that mimes and actions serve to introduce basic vocabulary essential to the beginners Noticeably, Harmer (1992, p.162) presumes

“actions, in particular, are probably better explained by mime” Gower, Phillips and Walters (2005, p.149) conclude that “mime may seem frivolous at times but it is efficient and memorable”

In general, making mimes, gestures and actions becomes popular in

conveying the new words’ meanings owing to its descriptive effects

2.4.3 Giving examples

Teachers should give more than one situation to make the word meanings clear In addition, this technique is most helpful when abstract items are taught (Gairns and Redman, 1991, p.74, Lewis and Hill, 1992, p.102) It is better to give several examples so that they can illustrate the variety of using the new words (Lado, 1964, p.126) Noticeably, it is necessary to give appropriate examples which can clarify the variation of word usage (Mehta, 2009)

Moreover, Gower, Phillips and Walters (2005, p.149), Spratt (1991, p.185) realize that giving examples often conveys the meaning of abstract terms by

giving other words in the same lexical field For instance, teachers can list shirt,

jeans, jacket to illustrate the word clothing

Therefore, the technique of giving examples was applied to teach words containing abstract concepts in the experiment

2.4.4 Giving synonyms

Lado (1964, p.123) presents that a synonym maximizes the understanding

of the word meaning if the synonym is known more popularly than the word being taught In addition, Gairns and Redman (1991, p.74) state that teachers often use synonyms to convey word meanings with low level students because of the limit of length and complication of explanation Lately, Mehta (2009) realizes “synonyms help to enrich a students’ vocabulary bank and provide alternative words instantly” After that, Ellis and Tomlinson (1992, p.71) highlight that a useful way to teach a new lexical item is presenting it with another item having similar referents and being familiar to the students However, there are no true synonyms in any languages because of differences in degree, reference, implication and grammatical

form; for instance, angry, annoyed, upset, and irritated in English Moreover, there

are differences between synonyms, even in the same language according to “degree, reference, implication and grammatical form” Additionally, it is helpful if teachers remember to say “It is similar in meaning to…” rather than “It means the same as…” because the former builds up in the students’ mind that language can be chosen and words are not equal to each other, which the latter cannot convey (Lewis and Hill, 1992, p.102)

In brief, students understand word meanings more exactly with synonyms

Therefore, based on the advantages, giving synonym was applied in the study

2.4.5 Giving antonyms

Gairns and Redman (1991, p.74) notice that it is necessary to give contexts in which the contrary is acceptable For example, in the sentence “Sugar is sweet and lemons are sour”: “sweet” is opposite to “sour”, but it is incorrect to say the antonym of “sweet wine” is “sour wine” Additionally, Lado (1964, p.122), Ellis and Tomlinson (1992, p.71) elicit that a new lexical item can be effectively taught

by contrasting it with another item possessing opposing relation to the new one and popular to the students Moreover, Harmer (1992, p.161) mentions that teachers enable to present the antonyms with pictures or mimes Recognizably, Mehta (2009) points out using antonyms to teach new words helps students “understand the different shades of meanings of a word” Hence, the researcher used this technique

of giving antonyms in the experiment

However, Lewis and Hill (1992, p.102) remind because of the differences between synonyms, even in the same language, it is really difficult to exactly choose which synonym becomes the antonym of the word intended to teach Therefore, teachers find it uneasy to find the antonym both exact and familiar to students

In conclusion, antonyms should be used in defined contexts

2.4.6 Using translation

Lado (1964, p.120) shows that translation is commonly used as the most direct and time-saving way to teach a word meaning Nonetheless, Nation (1990,

p.127) assumes the new foreign word should associate with that in the mother tongue rather than a foreign synonym or definition Later on, Nation (2001, p.351) expresses that translation is one of the means conveying word meaning which is generally “no better or worse than the use of pictures, real objects, definition, L2 synonyms and so on”

Noticeably, Lado (1964, p.120) finds out that learning to use the word should be higher than merely understanding the meaning Besides, translation may not always convey the exact meaning of the lexical item If teachers abuse this technique, students hardly make difference of sense relations in the new language and create non-language learning atmosphere in the class (Gairns and Redman,

1991, p.75-76) Also, Allen (1983, p.12) present that teachers should pay attention

to the words first, then show the word meanings for beginners through “explanation

in the students’ own language” Allen and Valette (1977, p.150) add that teachers help students properly make use of words in full sentences

In comparison, Lewis and Hill (1992, p.102) review that traditionally, translation is considered as a boring way of conveying word meanings, but it is the most direct way which is used frequently to teach abstract terms Besides, Harmer (1992, p.162), Gower, Phillips and Walters (2005, p.150) point out that translation allows to present the meaning of words in a quick and easy way However, it is not always to translate words, even it may discourage students from interacting with words (Harmer, 1992, p.162)

In brief, because of its both advantages and disadvantages to explore the new words’ meanings, translation was sometimes used in the experiment

2.4.7 Using definition

Definition alone is usually combined with contextualized examples to bring the word meanings into light For instance, “to break out” in the sentence “A fire broke out.” has the sense of “to start”, but it is completely wrong to say “The lesson broke out” in English (Gairns and Redman, 1991, p.75) Noticeably, Lado (1964, p.121), Allen (1983, p.12) point out that definition in the target language is

effective only when words used to give definition are “better known or more easily guessed” than the words needed to define Therefore, this technique was applied in the experiment with respect to the students’ familiarity of the words used to give definition Giving supplementary ideas, Harmer (1992, p.161) states that explaining

to define a word includes the explanation of the word use

As such, it is essential to use definition so as to teach the new words’

meanings because of its connection with contexts

In summary, all of these presentation techniques can be used either singly

or in combination with one another In addition, each technique has its own advantages, so the integration of these techniques can bring landmark benefits when using eclectically (Harmer, 1992, p.162)

2.5 Teaching new words through contexts

2.5.1 Definition of context

Context plays an important role to help students understand how words

work in sentences Richards, Platt, J and Platt, H (1992, p.82) define context as

“that which occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance

of a text The context helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word,

phrase, etc” Celce-Murcia and Olshtain (2000, p.236) express context is all the

factors and elements “which affect spoken or written communicative interaction”

In the study, context can be a phrase, a sentence or even a short text

Also, Nordquist (from http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/contextterm.htm)

presents context as “the words and sentences that surround any part of a discourse

that help to determine its meanings.”

As such, context helps to define the word meaning exactly Thus, it is

necessary to understand new words in contexts as in the next part

2.5.2 New words in contexts

Lado (1964, p.119) indicates “the words must be taught and learned in context” because only through contexts words appreciated as the memory of the

situations are considered and thoroughly understood More clearly, Drum and Konopak (in McKeown, Curtis, 1987, p.84) mention prior knowledge contributes

to the continuum of knowledge, so repeated exposures to various contexts can provoke students’ vocabulary memorization Besides, Meifang (2008) presents as words frequently have more than one meaning, sometimes relate their meaning to other words and words “can be changed, stretched, or limited” by the way to use them, it is necessary for the teacher to help students know the word meaning in context Sternberg (in McKeown and Curtis, 1987, p.89) concludes that learning from context is taken as the fastest and most efficient way for students to learn specific vocabulary In addition, this writer (ibid., p.94) states whether students use prior information to learn from context well depends on the students’ ability to retrieve information, to recognize its relevance, and then to apply it appropriately” In this learning, simplified reading texts can be used to establish familiar vocabulary by repeated use in context (Lewis and Hill, 1992, p.106) Recognizably, Harmer (1992, p.23-24) expresses that students need to learn which meaning a word conveys and how it is used, which leads to the need of showing it with other words in contexts Richards and Rodgers (2001, p.10) assert “words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practiced in meaningful contexts and not be taught in isolated, disconnected words”

Greg and Cook (2008) claim learning words in contexts means learning a

new word when reading or listening As students learn words in context, they can know the meaning of the word in that sentence Furthermore, Mehta (2009) points out that “the context makes the situation clear, and this in turn illuminates the meaning of the new word” It is illustrated in the following figure that context is compared with the glass whereas content contributed by the meanings of words or sentences is water

Figure 6 The relationship of context and content

(from http://pood.cashflow.ee/10steps/Step+7_pp53-54_Wisdom.pdf)

In addition, Sasson (2007) points out that in the practice stage “there are three principles involved in teaching and learning vocabulary in context: practice, understand and infer (going beyond the text).” It is added that vocabulary activities are considered as one art of this vocabulary learning When words in contexts are taught routinely and creatively, the learners entirely enjoy funs and enrich their experience in vocabulary learning

Gairns and Redman (1991, p.115), Greenwood (1990, p.107), Smith (1991, p.37) find that written texts contribute to contextualize new language items towards the students; especially interesting texts can make students remember words they first meet for a long time Even students can ignore the difficult words

to return later thanks to the total context in which the word occurs Gower, Phillips and Walters (2005, p.147) point out an effective way of introducing new words described through reading texts because words derive their particular meanings through specific contexts Besides, according to Gutlohn and Diamond (2006),

“vocabulary is acquired incidentally through indirect exposure to words and intentionally through explicit instruction in specific words” Towards explicit teaching, National Reading Panel (2000, in Gutlohn and Diamond, 2006) notice that teachers should not directly give definition of meaning to the word in context

Water is content

Glass is context

Necessarily, teachers require students to actively use and think about its meaning

as well as create the relationship between it and other words

In summary, it is sufficient when learning new words in contexts

2.5.3 Selecting words to teach through contexts

Ellis and Tomlinson (1992, p.75) suggest that “selection is the process of

deciding which items to teach” Normally, teachers make up their mind to have their own selection of vocabulary for students The selection is based on these criteria:

the frequency, availability, teachability and coverage of the word The frequency of

the word is assessed according to its popular use by native speakers in many different contexts and regularly known to everyone nowadays When a word is used

in a particular context with a high rate of appearance, it refers to availability

Teachability means the easiness of teaching a word For instance, “handbag” is

easier to teach than “sincerity” because of its obvious definition and concrete

referents The coverage of the word is shown when it can be replaced with another

word; for example “immediately” is used instead of “straight away”, “without delay”, “instantly”, or “in a flash” (ibid., p.76) Besides, Harmer (1992, p.154) repeats words are chosen by two criteria: frequency and coverage Differently, Gower, Phillips and Walters (2005) decide which vocabulary to teach on the type of lesson, the aim at receptive or productive use of words, and the programmed lexical syllabus (p.145)

Lewis and Hill (1992, p.106) assert the text is too difficult if new words account for more than about 6% Teachers are suggested to teach the meanings of 10-15 new words each week (Duffy, 2009, p.16) As such, new words intended to teach in the present study are based on the issues above

In a word, words chosen to teach must be considered reasonably so that students can obtain within their knowledge

2.5.4 Texts enriched with contexts

Nation (1990, p.79) states that if beginning learners get a vocabulary size

of 500 words, they can enable themselves to read texts at that level and lower Ellis

and Tomlinson (1992, p.147) states the text length at the beginning of secondary schools should not be more than 500 words Furthermore, Lewis and Hill (1992, p.106)) suggested that follow-up activities match different kinds of texts such as

“menus, instructions, signs, information, stories, advertisements, hand-written notes, letters, telexes, reports” or “adapted penetrable texts from novels, web pages, newspapers, magazines” (Harmer, 2007, p.100) Hughes, Moate, and Raatikainen (2007, p.83), Geddes and Sturtridge (1982, p.9) describe basic texts - both the source and context for practice - are supplemented by vocabulary ones, which are either available or prepared by the teacher Noticeably, Allen and Valette (1997, p.255), Lewis and Hill (1992, p.109) suppose that “if the basic program does not offer sufficient materials, additional selections must be located”

Nation (2001, p.150) points out texts for vocabulary learning contain from 2%-5% of the unknown words (excluding proper nouns) This incidental vocabulary learning “involves explicit learning processes” to show students’ active role in vocabulary acquisition (Rieder, 2003, p.29)

coverage

Intensive reading Developing language

Developing strategy use knowledge

Less than 95% coverage Extensive reading for

Table 1 Types of reading and vocabulary coverage (Nation, 2001, p.150)

As seen from the things presented above, it is effective to teach and consolidate vocabulary through contexts

In summary, contexts play an important role in determining the word meanings Furthermore, learning new words in contexts helps students practice better as well as remember the words for a long time

2.6 Follow-up classroom activities to consolidate new words

Students forget eighty percent of the new information they have learnt within twenty-four hours from their initial acquaintance with it Hence, there should be useful classroom activities to defeat decay (Gairns and Redman, 1991, p.90) Besides, Goh, Cao, Solvberg and Rasmussen (2007, p.428) indicate “follow-up learning activities that use the same material, presented through various kinds of individual and interactive exercises, maximize the chance of the word being retained over the long term” In the experiment, there were 6 types of follow-up classroom activities used to help the student remember new words better as below

2.6.1 Recognizing aspects of words

Folse (2008, p.17) offers a variety of ways to consolidate new words, including using pronunciation Previously, Allen (1983) refers to the test in which students choose the word having the same meaning with the sample word among three or four listed options For example, in “brief – fair, loud, short, warm’’, students are expected to choose “short” Regularly, students who choose the right answer need to know meanings of all the options; however, it may happen a lucky guess to some students Besides, there are some students who fail to choose “short”

as they actually know the sentence context in which “brief” and “short” are different In fact, “brief” and “short” are not true synonyms (p.27) Likewise, in the case of “cruel – fine, merry, stubborn, kind”, students who thoroughly understand the word “cruel” may confuse They think that a “cruel” person is never a “fine”,

“kind” or “stubborn” one, so they decide “merry” as the correct antonym (p.112) Clearly, Crawford (2005, p.36, in Stoller, 1993) mentions there are effectively various ways to create distractors for target words, such as using different morphological forms (try, tried, tries) or reordering the letters Also, Warrington (2006, p.54) highlights that “if a teacher takes the time to help students make letter-sound associations and recycles those in different contexts, these associations will eventually come to be stored in memory”