Impact of urbanization on urban heat island intensity of makati city philippines

CAPISTRANO IMPACT OF URBANIZATION ON URBAN HEAT ISLAND INTENSITY OF MAKATI CITY, PHILIPPINES BACHELOR THESIS Study Mode: Full-time Major: Environmental Science and Management Facul

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

KATLEEN CZINA V CAPISTRANO

IMPACT OF URBANIZATION ON URBAN HEAT ISLAND

INTENSITY OF MAKATI CITY, PHILIPPINES

BACHELOR THESIS

Study Mode: Full-time

Major: Environmental Science and Management

Faculty: International Programs Office

Batch: 2014 - 2017

Thai Nguyen, 20/11/2017

DOCUMENTATION PAGE WITH ABSTRACT

Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry

Degree Program Bachelor of Environmental Science and

Management Student Name Katleen Czina V Capistrano

Student ID DTN1454290048

Thesis Title Impact of Urbanization on Urban Heat Island

Intensity of Makati City, Philippines

2010 and 2016 were implemented in order to quantitate the changes within

a decade period and address the location of urbanization Moreover, Land Surface Temperature (LST) of 2006, 2010 and 2016 were also retrieved from thermal infrared bands of Landsat data for the investigation of UHII within study area It was observed that UHII of Makati City boosted up 0.18oC with the increase in buildup areas during the last 10 years In addition, associated with the population growth rate from Philippine Statistics Authority, the results also indicated the effect of population growth was one of the indirect factors on UHII enhancement during the urbanization On the other hand, the decrease in the areas of open land, water and vegetation was negatively proportional to UHII intensification Therefore, the increase in population and buildup areas observed in this study were the major reasons why the UHII increases However, this study only focuses on the effect of urbanization on UHII in terms of LCC and LST retrieved from satellite data For more accurate assessment in UHII, the validation of LST retrievals with in-situ measurements should be included which will be the further study of this topic Thus the results could

be expected to the references for urban development and related policy Keywords: Urbanization, Urban Heat Island, Land Cover

Change, Land Surface Temperature Number of Pages 61

Date of Submission November 20, 2017

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to extend my sincerest gratitude to Associate Prof Tang-Huang Lin Ph.D of Center for Space and Remote Sensing Research (CSRSR) at National Central University (NCU) for the support, patience and guidance in spite of his busy schedule just to finish and achieve the goals of this study Also, to Dr Do Xuan Luan, for his support and instructions throughout writing my manuscript With the help of the Advance Education Program of Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry (TUAF), this research had been successful, thank you very much for everything!

My best regards to this awesome yet supportive parents of mine (Mommy Tale and Daddy Chef Boy Negro) for investing not just money but also their time and sweat to support for my studies To Capistrano family, especially Kuya Babs, Neyney, Mommy Baby, Tito Fred and Ate Maida, thank you for the never ending support and help To my Tita Rose and Ate IB, thank you for supporting and helping me before, on and after I went to Taiwan and to my kindest Lola Uyang, I know you are watching me from above Lola, I have made it! I survived all the hardships Thank you for being one of my inspirations!

My Vietnam buddies, Mish, Kenneth, Anne, Ekang, Colleene and Carlo, thank you so much! Through good and bad times, you are all there Thank you for making me realize that I have a lot to improve in myself and on the things I believe in I am so grateful that I have a clingy and supportive friend, Tina, thank you for everything! You da best! I could not even be more proud to have the

bestest sissy who is always there to push me through and giving me her best advices, my Sensei Kulot, thank you so much!

I consider myself lucky to meet this fabulous Fish Family (Cher, Poch, Butch, Russel, Hanh, Alison and Cang Rong), thank you very much for helping

me with my research and showing me what a real college student should do I never expected that my time in Taiwan would be this amazing To the prayer warriors of NCU International Fellowship, especially to Elizabeth Sitorus, who invested time and effort in helping me with this study, thank you is not enough I

am beyond grateful for having people who were always ready to listen and willing

to help in times of need We are indeed a family of God

Lastly, I am giving all the glory to the Lord for His blessings and guidance, for making me feel I am loved and that I can do things This journey will not be successful without Your presence Oh Lord!

Thai Nguyen 2017,

Student

Katleen Czina V Capistrano

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DOCUMENTATION PAGE WITH ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF FIGURES vii

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS x

PART I: INRTODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Investigation Area 3

1.3 Statement of the Problem 6

1.4 Objectives of the Study 6

1.5 Significance of the Study 7

1.6 Limitations of the Study 7

2 PART II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 9

2.1 Urban Heat Island (UHI) 9

2.2 Mitigation studies on Urban Heat Island (UHI) 12

2.3 Land Cover Change and Urbanization 13

2.4 Related studies on Urban Heat Island (UHI) around the world 14

2.5 Studies on Urban Heat Island (UHI) in the Philippines 19

3 PART III: MATERIALS AND METHODS 22

3.1 Materials 22

3.1.1 The objects and scope of the research 22

3.1.2 The content of research 23

3.2 Conceptual Framework 23

3.3 Data Collection 25

3.4 Image Pre-Processing 25

3.4.1 Layer Stacking 26

3.4.2 Geometric Correction 28

3.4.3 Image Subset 28

3.5 Land Cover Change 29

3.5.1 Training Samples Selection 29

3.5.2 Accuracy Assessment 30

3.6 Land Surface Temperature Calculation 33

3.6.1 Brightness Temperature Calculation 33

3.7 Urban Heat Island (UHI) Intensity Calculation 38

4 PART IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 39

4.1 Results of Land Surface Temperature 39

4.1.1 Brightness Temperature 39

4.1.2 Emissivity Results 40

4.1.3 Land Surface Temperature 45

4.2 Results of Land Cover Change 46

4.2.1 Land Cover Change (LCC) 46

4.2.2 Accuracy Assessment 48

4.2.3 Change Detection 50

4.3 Urban Heat Island (UHI) Intensity 52

5 PART V: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 56

6 REFERENCES 58

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Map of Makati City divided into six clusters……… 5

Figure 2.1 Effect of Urbanization on people, temperature and

environment 10

Figure 3.1 Conceptual Framework……… 24

Figure 3.2 Methods for Pre-processing of Remotely Sensed Data………26

Figure 3.3 Layer Stacked images of 2006 (a), 2010 (b) and 2016 (c), respectively……… 27

Figure 3.4 Study Clip Area of Makati City for 2006, 2010 and 2016,

Respectively………28

Figure 3.5 Land Cover Change Detection……… 29

Figure3.6 Flow Chart of Land Surface Temperature Calculation……….33

Figure 3.7 Thermal Band images of Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8

OLI/TIRS………34

Figure 4.1 Brightness Temperature of (a) 2006, (b) 2010 and (c) 2016 band 10

and (d) band 11……… 39

Figure 4.2 Emissivity Maps for (a) 2006, (b) 2010 and (c) 2016……… 41

Figure 4.3 NDVI maps for (a) 2006, (b) 2010 and (c) 2016……… 42

Figure 4.4 Green Vegetation Fractions of (a) 2006, (b) 2010 and (c)

Figure 4.10 Area of each land cover type vs UHII of 2006, 2010 and 2016,

(a) Build up vs UHII; (b) Open Land vs UHII; (c) Vegetation vs UHII; (d) Water vs UHII.……… 53

Figure 4.11 Scatter Plots showing the relationship of each land cover type to

UHII, (a) Build up vs UHII; (b) Open Land vs UHII; (c) Vegetation vs

UHII; (d) Water vs UHII………54

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 The images collected from Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8

OLI/TIRS………25

Table 3.2 Landsat 5 TM band numbers with respective band names……… 26

Table 3.3 Same as table 3.2 but for Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS……….27

Table 3.4 Thermal Constants of Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8

OLI/TIRS………34

Table 3.5 Rescaling Factors of Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8

OLI/TIRS……… 34

Table 4.1 Confusion Matrix for year 2006 form Accuracy Assessment…… 48

Table 4.2 Same as Table 4.1, but for year 2010………49

Table 4.3 Same as Table 4.1, but for the year 2016……… 49

Table 4.4 Percent and Area of Land Cover Change during the period from 2006

to 2016……… 51

Table 4.5 Population data of Makati City from 2000 to 2015……… 55

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission

DN Digital Numbers

EDSA Epifanio de los Santos Avenue

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

ETM+ Enhanced Thematic Mapper

ISA Impervious Surface Area

LCC Land Cover Change

LST Land Surface Temperature

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectoradiometer

NCR National Capital Region

NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

NIR Near Infrared

NMDI Normalized Multi-Band Drought Index

OLI Operational Land Images

RS Remote Sensing

SUCI Surface Urban Cool Island

SUHI Surface Urban Heat Island

SWIR Shortwave Infrared

TIRS Thermal Infrared Sensor

TM Thematic Mapper

UHI Urban Heat Island

UHII Urban Heat Island Intensity

PART I: INRTODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

UHI happens when the atmospheric and surface temperatures in the

urban areas are higher than the surrounding rural areas due to urbanization

(Voogt & Oke, 2003) In addition, the physical properties of buildings and the emission of heat from the anthropogenic activities can result to a higher

temperature that can also cause the UHI During night time, the temperature in

UHIs remain high due to tall buildings, sidewalks and parking lots that block the

heat from the ground to rise into the cold night sky, so the heat is trapped on the

lower level This rise in temperature is obvious especially during summer time

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a city

with one million people or more, has the annual mean temperature of 1.8-5.4°F

(1-3°C) warmer than the surrounding rural areas With these developments, it is definitely a positive sign of growth for a city, but it can also negatively affect

the natural environment

The topics related to Urban Heat Island (UHI) are widely spread in

different parts of the world and caught the attention of the researchers over the

past decades due to urban sprawling As a result of expeditious urbanization, the

population has a massive increase together with the buildup areas (Guo, Wang,

Cheng & Shu, 2011) University of Minnesota stated that by the need of accommodations for the continuous increase of the population, construction of

new buildings for work space and houses for dwelling, buildup areas are

continuously increasing and the portion of greenery areas in certain places are

decreasing As a result, the core of the city becomes warmer forming UHI

Meanwhile, in the Philippines, people are experiencing an unusual

warm weather which is getting worse especially in urban areas like Metro

Manila, also called the National Capital Region (NCR) and one of the most urbanized areas in the Philippines Addition to that, the City of Makati, located

in Metro Manila, is considered as the Central Business District of the country

for its commercial areas are known in its role as the financial and business

center of the Philippines The continuous population growth, economic

development, with an increase in vehicular trips, cause a big problem in the city

making it inconvenient for the people as the temperature in urban areas gets

warmer from environmental changes (Makati City Portal)

Urbanization is one of the major problems that the world is facing today The increase in the world’s population recently has maximized the effects

of the economic and agricultural activities It is said that in 1800, there are only about two percent of the world’s population lived in urban areas With this,

urban areas are known to be the unhealthiest areas or places for people to live

In addition, the continuous increase in population density has affected the health

of people with the rapid spread of infectious diseases The world’s urban

population has grown from 2 percent in 1800 to nearly 50 percent in only 200

years Moreover, while the world’s population is doubling, the urban population

is tripling It is estimated that for the next few years, more than half of the

population in the world will be living in urban areas The energy consumption in

electricity, cooking, transportation and heating is said to be much higher in

urban areas than in rural areas Thus, urban consumption of energies can create

heat islands that can affect the local weather patterns and weather downwind

from the heat islands Cities radiate heat back into the atmosphere at a rate of 15

to 30 percent less than rural areas which can lead to a higher or warmer temperature in urban spaces compared to rural areas This can become traps for

atmospheric pollutants which can also affect the precipitation patterns and can

increase the frequency of cloudiness and fog

With this, Makati City is selected as the study area for it is one of the

biggest and busiest cities in the Philippines The continuous development of the

cities can highly affect the temperature particularly in summer time In order to

evaluate and monitor the temperature as well as the impact of urbanization according to the Land Cover Change detection results on UHII of Makati City

during a 10-year period from 2006 to 2016, Landsat data will be used By the help

of remote sensing and GIS technology, which were well developed and highly

applied to different fields such as atmosphere, geology, hydrology, etc., can be an

efficient way in knowing the relationship between urbanization and UHII of

Makati City

1.2 Investigation Area

Makati City is located in National Capital Region (Metro Manila),

bounded by Pasig River on the north, Pateros on the east, Taguig City on the

southeast, Pasay City on the south and southwest and Manila on the northwest Its

total population was estimated about 529,039 which ranked as ninth in terms of

population size among all the 16 cities and one municipality of Metro Manila

based on 2010 Census of Population and Housing It is considered as the Central

Business District of the country since 40% of the top 1000 companies, 53% of all

the biggest banks in the Philippines and other businesses are located in the area

Its total land area is 27,355,700 square meters which accounts for 4.3% of Metro Manila’s total land area with 33 barangays which were divided into six clusters

Figure 1.1 shows the map of Makati City divided into six respective clusters

Makati City serves as the gateways for vehicles since north and south

expressways are not interconnected with each other This causes major traffic

congestions in the area One of the gateways is the Epifanio de los Santos Avenue

(EDSA), considered as the busiest with 170,000 vehicles per day and has the

worst traffic congestion in the Philippines This worst traffic congestion causes pollution and other environmental consequences Makati City also, is accepted as

the Financial Center of Metro Manila Despite of being known for its financial

institutions, with corporate headquarters and shopping complexes, most of the

areas are still residential On the other hand, commercial areas are only about 14.82% of the City’s total land area and at the core of the city is where the Central

Business District is located

Figure 1.1: Map of Makati City divided into six clusters

Source: Makati City Portal

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Makati City is considered as the country’s central business district It is

home for the most important business centers and the main destination for

people seeking job opportunities Hence, its urbanization rate is affected and

constantly increasing There is an evident increase in population leading to

establishments of more buildings, skyscrapers and houses which eventually deteriorates the urban environment such as amplifying air pollution These

buildings, skyscrapers and other infrastructures can create heat islands that

warm up the temperature of urban areas which is higher than rural areas It can

affect the people living on or near the area and the natural environment as well

With this, the study will be conducted to answer these questions:

1 How obvious is the urbanization of Makati City according to the Land

Cover Change detection results from 2006 to 2016?

2 What is the impact of urbanization on Urban Heat Island Intensity (UHII)

of Makati City from 2006 to 2016?

3 What are the possible solutions/mitigations that can be implemented in

Makati City to lessen the heat island effects?

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The general aim of this study is to evaluate the impacts of urbanization on UHII of Makati City, Philippines during a 10-year period from

2006 to 2016 The specific objectives are:

 To estimate the urbanization rate by analyzing the LCC results of Makati City during the years 2006, 2010 and 2016

 To calculate the UHII of the study area from the LST results of 2006,

2010 and 2016

 To develop possible implications on the mitigation of UHI in Makati City based on the results and conclusion of the study

1.5 Significance of the Study

This study could provide additional information on the impact of

urbanization on UHII in Makati City Specifically, 1) on how the changes in

land cover types contribute to the formation of heat islands 2) other direct and

indirect factors that affect the UHII of the study area and (3) possible

implications on the mitigation of UHI The findings of this research may

contribute to the future urban planning and mitigation purposes of Makati

City, Philippines that can also help the government, residents and urban planners

1.6 Limitations of the Study

Although the study has reached its aims, there are still some limitations

for this study: (1) the validation of LST retrievals with in-situ measurements

are not included in this study due to the limitations in time and budget; (2) this

study only focused on the land cover types but not on the building types (composition, construction, height etc of the building) in analyzing its effect

on UHI; (3) the study did not able to get Landsat data with the same months

due to the limitation in the available data of the study area(Makati City); (4) the

study did not able to discuss the effect of UHI on water bodies/systems (lake,

rivers, etc.) and aquatic ecosystems on, near, or surrounding Makati City

together with the possible solutions on the problem since the only focus of this

study is the effect of urbanization on UHI; (5) the effects of UHI on people

(comfort and health) living around Makati City was not included in the study;

and (6) other factors that causes the UHI were not also in the scope of this

study which can also be considered for future studies

2 PART II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Urban Heat Island (UHI)

Urban Heat Island is one of the environmental consequences of

urbanization and industrialization, which is a phenomenon of higher

atmospheric and surface temperatures in urban areas compared to its

surrounding rural areas With this, higher temperatures can lead to numerous adverse economic and environmental impacts on local, regional and global

sectors In addition, due to the rapid increase of the population, and

construction of buildings, as well as anthropogenic wastes released by vehicles,

air conditioners, power plants and industries, the urban environment is affected

and heats up directly (Voogt & Oke, 2003; Manea D., Manea E & Robescu,

2013)

In addition, according to Rutledge et al (2011), constructions of industrial buildings, shops and houses can trigger the urban heat islands

especially when they are constructed close to each other Building materials are

insulator of heat that makes the areas around, warmer

Moreover, according to University of Sussex in United Kingdom, urban

heat islands are formed when natural surfaces such as vegetation and water are

replaced by heat-trapping concrete and asphalt adding up the heat from cars, air

conditioners etc By this, the effect can add up to an estimate of 2 degrees to global warming by 2050 for the most populated Moreover, as stated in the

journal Nature Climate Change published on May, 2017, the total economic

costs of climate change could be 2.6 times higher when heat island effects are

involved than when they are not during this century

2.2 Impacts of Urban Heat Island (UHI) on people and environment

Urban heat island can elevate the temperature, particularly during

summer seasons where the temperature is warmer which can affect a community’s environment and quality of life According to the United States

Environmental Protection Agency, there are major impacts of UHI on the

environment such as the increase in energy consumption which can also affect

the air quality that can increase the harmful gases present in the air In addition,

UHI can also affect the human health and comfort as well as the water quality

Figure 2.1 shows diagram of urbanization and its effect on people, temperature

and the environment

Figure 2.1: Effect of urbanization on people, temperature and environment

The following are the general impacts of UHI with a brief explanation:

 Increased Energy Consumption

Elevated temperatures in the cities also demands for cooling that can increase the energy consumption According to US EPA, research

shows that the electricity demand for cooling can increase 1.5 – 2.0% for

every 0.6oC increase in the air temperature

 Elevated Emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants

As Rutledge et al (2011) stated, “waste heat” can also cause the

UHI Cars and factories which burn off energy escape as a form of heat

adding up to the harmful wastes in the air Burning fossil fuels just for

the supply of electricity release harmful gases in the air that can produce

smog, acid rain and fine particulate matter Increasing the use of

fossil-fuel-powered plants can cause the increase of greenhouse gases which can also contribute to global warming (climate change)

 Human Health and comfort

Due to warmer temperatures and polluted air, human health is affected Non-fatal heat stroke, respiratory difficulties, heat cramps and

exhaustion and other heat-related mortality Excessive heat events can

affect the sensitive populations such as children, old people and those

with health problems (US EPA, 2017)

 Water quality

Water quality is affected when warm water from the UHI flows

into local streams, rivers, ponds and lakes which affect all aspects of

aquatic life such as the metabolism and reproduction of the species

Moreover, according to the study of US EPA, pavements that are 38oC can increase the temperature of initial rainwater from 21oC to 35oC

2.2 Mitigation studies on Urban Heat Island (UHI)

In the study of Doick, Peace and Hutchings (2014), the temperature at

night time of urban areas was monitored in a 5-month study by the effect of

greenspaces present in urban areas Night time was selected for this study since

the temperature during those times is higher compared to day time in urban

areas This study concluded that urban greenspace is an important component

of UHI mitigation strategies Moreover, Yang, Qian, Song and Zheng (2016)

studied about the impacts of rivers and lakes on urban heat island effect and

found out that those rivers and lakes can separate urban thermal fields, which

can reduce thermal radiation and eliminate the UHI effect Addition to that, in

the study of Hedquist and Brazel (2014) in Phoenix, USA, concluded that by

increasing the amount of shade trees, vegetation and permeable surfaces can

decrease the effect of UHI Wong and Lau (2013) conducted a preliminary study in Hong Kong, China since urbanization is very obvious in the area

making the temperature warmer and suggested that green roof retrofit is

feasible in the area

On the other hand, Professor S.J Tol MAE said on an article provided

by the University of Sussex that even though there are hard-won victories over

climate change, the effects of the uncontrolled urban heat islands can still wipe

it out, on a global scale Although cities only cover about 1% of the Earth’s surface, they still produce about 80 percent of the Gross World Product which consumes about 78% of the world’s energy and home to an estimation of over

half of the world’s population

2.3 Land Cover Change and Urbanization

Urbanization is defined as the increase in the number of urban

population and city expansion, not only the demographical changes but also the

economic and social changes It is also due to economic development and

industrialization of an area (Tayfun & Aslı, 2008) In addition, it is a physical

landscape transformation on which the natural land covers were replaced by impervious layers These changes due to urban development are irreversible

and the anthropogenic activities which add up to the effect of this reflects on it

(Sharma, 2014) On the other hand, Land Cover Change is defined as the

change in physical characteristics of land surfaces such as forests, concrete, and

water areas This land cover change can be determined by aerial and satellite

imagery in seeing the changes over time by using remote sensing and GIS

technology With the information acquired from land cover maps for several different years, researchers can evaluate and detect the causes and effects of the

development of an area These maps can assess several environmental

concerns Moreover, these land cover changes connect the socioeconomic

changes such as the population increase (National Ocean Service NOAA

website)

With this, many studies use Land Cover Change detection in monitoring and evaluating the urbanization of an area on how the area changes from the

past to the previous years On the other hand, the effect of urbanization on land

cover change in an area is also conducted by many researchers Lo and

Quattrochi (2003) used Land-Use and Land-Cover Change to measure the rate

of urbanization in Atlanta Metropolitan Area, Georgia Since urban heat island

is caused by urbanization, He, Liu J., Zhuang, Zhang and Liu M (2007)

conducted a study in China which is experiencing rapid economic development

where the land use/land cover has substantial change during the last two

decades Moreover, Mundhe and Jaybhaye (2014) main goal on their study is to

assess the impact of land use/land covers change over four decades from 1973

to 2011 on population and urbanization growth in Pune City using geo-spatial

techniques Tali and Murthy (2013) studied the influence of urbanization using

land cover change detection in Srinagar City for about 31 years from 1979 to

2010 There are several more studies related to urbanization and land cover

changes which were conducted and most of them aimed to know the influence

of urbanization on the alteration in land cover types

2.4 Related studies on Urban Heat Island (UHI) around the world

The relationship between vegetation greenness and urban heat island

effect was observed in the city of Beijing, China by the use of the parameters

Brightness Temperature (Tb) and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index

(NDVI) These two parameters were derived from the Landsat TM images of

the said location using Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information

System (GIS) technologies The study concluded that there is a remarkable negative correlation between Tb and NDVI which explained that the negative

relationship between the two parameters is stronger when the distance between

the other figure and the central figure is less The more the complexity in the

land use structure, the stronger the correlation of feature profile between Tb

and NDVI (Zhang, Wu & Chen, 2010)

Xie and Zhou conducted a study in Wuhan, China last March 2015,

about the impact of urbanization on Urban Heat Islands based on TM Imagery

This study aimed to monitor how urbanization is affecting Land Surface

Temperature and also to examine the UHI effect from year 1987 to 2007 Using Thematic Mapper (TM) imageries of 1987 and 2007, results showed that

Wuhan experienced expeditious urban expansion during the said years though

the areas with higher temperatures were not always coming from the urbanized

areas While the Land Surface Temperature variation was affected by the

percent Impervious Surface Area (ISA) and the change in parts of greenery

areas that converted into other forms, also altered the temperature variation

These results explained how the urban expansion and change in land use/land cover can affect the temperature in the urban areas With these findings, urban

planners and other environmental concerning citizens could make numerous

decisions on urban planning and how to lessen the continuous increase in the

temperature

In addition, UHI can also contribute to the continuous warming of

climate A study in Yangtze River Delta Urban Agglomeration (YRDUA) in

China was conducted by Huang and Lu (2015) to know the effect of UHI on

climate warming using 41 meteorological stations data observation based on the analyzation of the impacts of urbanization rate, urban population and the

changes in land use on warming rate of the daily average, minimal and

maximal air temperature in YRDUA The results showed that the average

warming rates of megalopolises and huge cities are higher than medium-sized

cities and small cities, proving that UHI has a significant effect on climate

warming In addition, positive correlations were found between population,

built-up area, urbanization area and warming rate of the average air

temperature proving that UHI can also contribute to climate warming

On the other hand, in a study of Rasul et al (2016) about the diurnal and

seasonal variation of Surface Cool and Heat Islands conducted at a semi-arid

city of Erbil in Iraq, MODIS Aqua and Terra and MODIS NDVI from 2003 to

2014 were analyzed In order to assess the influence of moisture and vegetation

on the observed patterns of LST and the Surface Urban Cool Island

(SUCI)/Surface Urban Heat Island (SUHI), the relationship between LST with

NDVI and Normalized Multi-Band Drought Index (NMDI) were investigated The study concluded that during daytime of the seasons; summer, autumn and

winter, lower LST were observed which acted as a SUCI on densely built-up

areas compared to the non-urbanized area within the vicinity of the city On the

other hand, higher LST was obtained during night time which has a significant

connection with the SUHI effect In addition, the relationship between LST

and NDVI is seasonally affected and it is changing during spring time

Moreover, Lo and Quattrochi (2003) studied the known phenomenon

Urban Heat Island and the Health Implications using remotely sensed data Land-Use and Land-Cover Change was utilized in order to measure the rate of

urbanization in Atlanta Metropolitan Area, Georgia Landsat MSS and Landsat

TM images were used and an unsupervised image classification was done with

at least 85% of accuracy The results showed that land-use and land-cover has

changed with loss of vegetation and forest turned into urban use In the areas

with low-density urban use, residential areas increased over 119% between the

years 1973 to 1997 With this, surface temperature also increased with the

decline in NDVI during those years The decrease in croplands and green environment has forced the development of urban heat island phenomenon both

on urban canopy and urban boundary layers of the study area According to the

study of urban-heat-initiated precipitation during the period of May to August

1996-2000, that high-density urban areas is where it usually occurs These

urban heat islands and its urban-induced convergence zones (where the

precipitation occurs) are accountable for high ozone concentration and the

pollution in the ozone that can cause cardiovascular and chronic lower respiratory diseases Health statistics with high quality or other types of health

indicators which were standardized by age was recommended for future

studies Moreover, canonical correlation analysis was done and the results

obtained was that VOC and NOx emission showed a strong correlation with

surface temperature and NDVI derived from satellite images proving that

remote sensing approach for the research on environmental health can still be

effective

China has been experiencing rapid economic development where land

use/land cover has the greatest rates of change during the last two decades

With this, He et al (2007) conducted a study by evaluating the Urban Heat

Island (UHI) caused by urbanization together with the analysis of the land use

change in China The data were gathered in the meteorological observation

stations which were grouped by different land cover types namely dry land

forest, grassland, paddy field, water field, rural inhabitable area, urban,

industrial and mineral and waste land which were then divided into urban and

non-urban classes The UHI intensity results were obtained from the difference between the observed and the interpolated air temperature of urban type

weather stations The results attained showed that the variabilities in UHI

intensity in different land use change regions are spatially associated with

regional land use and its change pattern Moreover, the reduction in natural

vegetation and water areas can affect the microclimate patterns of temperature

that can make the environment and climate more sensitive to global

temperature change

On the other hand, Hu and Jia (2010) examined the influence of land use

change on Urban Heat Island in greater Guongzhou from 1980 to 2007 by

analyzing Landsat MSS/TM/ETM+ and MODIS satellite data as well as

meteorological records and census data In order to obtain Land Surface

Temperature results, an integrated and modified single-channel method was

used These LST results were then examined against the patterns of land use

and land cover changes in the study area Results showed that the spatial discrepancy of UHI expansion can be observed by the spatial patterns of

population increase, economic development and abundance in vegetation

cover Moreover, the significant changes in air temperature from the relocation

of meteorological stations are signals for detecting the impact of urbanization

on urban heat island

2.5 Studies on Urban Heat Island (UHI) in the Philippines

Pereira and Lopez (2004) studied the Urban Heat Islands in Metro

Manila using Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Enhanced Thematic Mapper

(ETM+) from 1989 to 2002 The results showed that the increase in Land Surface Temperature was related to the decrease in the leaf biomass which was

noticeable in the changes of land cover parameters such as surface moisture

availability and fractional vegetation cover These were derived from the

computation of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)

Moreover, the change in spatial pattern due to urbanization is associated with

the increase in UHI

On the other hand, Tiangco (2006) used Advanced Spaceborne Thermal

Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) data to obtain the Urban Heat

Island Intensity of Metro Manila, Philippines The intensity of heat islands

during night time was determined by comparing the temperature of the study

area to the neighboring towns of Bulacan, Cavite and Laguna and analyzed the

spatial variation of the surface temperature Seasonal variation of heat island

was also examined though no conclusions were drawn in the general variation

of heat island over the seasons This study concluded that regions with warmer

temperatures coincided with highly built up structures while those regions with

vegetated areas have lower temperatures

Simulated urban heat island intensity was generated and compared to a

later date satellite derived UHI with the use of Agent Base Modelling (ABM)

with historical satellite urban growth model by Macapinlac (2011) The study

aimed to investigate the effects of activities in urban areas on the increase of

UHI in Marikina City, Philippines with the use of multi temporal satellite

images in deriving the growth index that were used in estimating the agent behavior and reaction on the ABM of the UHI The study concluded that rate of

urbanization and UHI is dependent not just by the natural change of events but

mostly because of the actions which were made by decisions

On the other hand, in the study of Vallar, Oliveros, Galvez and Bagtasa

(2015) entitled “Effect of the Urbanization of Metro Manila on the Climate of Selected Urban and Rural Areas using WRF3.4.1” This study has a different

way of proving if urbanization has an effect on the UHI of Metro Manila by using the Weather Research and Forecasting model version 3.4.1on the

meteorological conditions of nearby areas This WRFV3.4.1 is used to

determine the temperature (maximum, minimum and diurnal temperature

range) of the selected rural and urban areas of up to 100km north and 100km

south of Metro Manila at 25km steps from year 2000 until 2010 The results

concluded that urbanization in the area does not affect the diurnal temperature

range during the study period

On the other hand, Cebu City, a coastal city in the Philippines had an initial study on urban heat island phenomenon by Shih and Dy Urban heat

island phenomenon was never a problem in the area but since the city continues

to grow, the study aimed to evaluate some factors that may contribute to the

UHI phenomenon around the city during summer period with the use of mobile

transect method which a thermometer measuring platform which was placed on

top of a vehicle to measure the different temperatures of a certain area The

preliminary results showed that UHI Phenomenon in Cebu City was present but

still in moderate stage compared to other Asian cities Moreover, the elevation can be used to predict the UHI phenomenon in Cebu City Since it was just a

preliminary study, further studies are needed with more variables to consider as

well as considering the anthropogenic factors and the importance of adding

greenspaces in the area Health and comfort should also be considered since

people especially the residents in the area are affected

3 PART III: MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

3.1.1 The objects and scope of the research

3.1.1.1 The objects

1 The Land Cover Change map of Makati City in 2006, 2010 and 2016

 Change Detection Map from 2006 to 2016

2 The Land Surface Temperature map of Makati City in 2006, 2010 and

2016

 Brightness Temperature Maps of 2006, 2010 and 2016

 Emissivity Maps of 2006, 2010 and 2016

 NDVI Maps of 2006, 2010 and 2016

 Green Vegetation Fraction Maps of 2006, 2010 and 2016

3 The graph representing the UHII of Makati City during the years 2006,

2010 and 2016

3.1.1.2 The scope

The whole study was conducted from April 2017 to July 2017

Understanding the terminologies and reading related articles for the study was

done between April 2017 and May 2017 while the process of collecting the

data of Makati City was done during the early month of May 2017 and the data analysis was carried out from May 2017 to July 2017 in National Central

University, Taiwan

3.1.2 The content of research

 Determining and examining the Land Cover Change Map of Makati City during the years 2006, 2010 and 2016 from satellite images

 Determining the Land Surface Temperature for 2006, 2010 and 2016 as a reference on the UHII retrievals

 Evaluating the Urban Heat Island Intensity of the research area for the years 2006, 2010 and 2016

 Analyzing and evaluating the impacts of urbanization according to Land Cover Change results on UHII in the study area

 Possible implications on the mitigation of UHI in Makati City, Philippines

3.2 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework in obtaining the Urban Heat Island Intensity

of Makati City is presented in Figure 3.1 This framework includes Land

Surface Temperature and Land Cover Change methods in order to retrieve the

Urban Heat Island Intensity of Makati City which was adapted from different

studies included also in the related literature of this study These methods will

be discussed further on the next parts of this chapter from data collection to the

last and final step

Figure 3.1: Conceptual Framework

3.3 Data Collection

The data were acquired from the U.S Geological Survey website Three

satellite images acquired from Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS for the

years 2006, 2010 and 2016 Landsat data of 2010 was also used in order to

observe as well the middle year of this 10-year period study The data used

were the available with less cloud cover (below 30%) during summer season in the Philippines during the months of April and May Since the data for Makati

City were limited, the only available data with less cloud cover are from April

2006, May 2010 and April 2016

Table 3.1: The images collected from Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS

Satellite and Sensor Date Acquired Cloud Cover Image Quality

Image pre-processing is one of the most important steps in analyzing

remote sensing data Before performing the main processes, pre-processing of

the data to be used were required to be done Corrections, compressing and

cutting the data to its designated boundary were some of the required steps Figure 3.2 shows the process in the image pre-processing methods starting

from Layer Stacking to Image Subset which will be further discussed in the

next parts