The application of short video clips to improve english learners oral skills at binh dương university foreign language center m a 60 14 10

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HCM CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE THE APPLICATION OF SHORT VIDEO CLIPS TO IMPROVE ENGLISH L

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HCM CITY

UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE

THE APPLICATION OF SHORT VIDEO CLIPS

TO IMPROVE ENGLISH LEARNERS’ ORAL SKILLS

AT BÌNH DƯƠNG UNIVERSITY FOREIGN LANGUAGE CENTER

Submitted to the Faculty of English Linguistics & Literature

in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in TESOL

By

TRẦN THỊ TƯỜNG VI

Supervised by

NGUYỄN HOÀNG TUẤN, Ph.D

HO CHI MINH CITY JUNE 2011

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Dr Nguyen Hoang Tuan, who gave me special instructions, contributions and provided valuable supports in the preparation and completion of my thesis Also, I would like to thank Dr Đinh Điền for giving me my knowledge at the beginning of my study

Next I would like to send my special thanks to all of the staff at the

Foreign Language Center of Bình Dương University, who has helped me actively to be able to carry out the study as well as to have learners involve in the study

I would like to thank Mr Nguyễn Văn Hùng, Ms Nguyễn Thị Phước Bình, Ms Nguyễn Thị Bạch Yến and Ms Ung Thị Út who have played important roles in this study These people have helped me teach learners under my suggestion, score learners’ oral skills, collect and analyze data

I would like to sincerely thank all of the staff working at Bình Dương University, who has covered a lot of my work for me to have time

to fulfill this thesis

This thesis is my success; however, these people, in any position, already contributed important roles to my success

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled:

THE APPLICATION OF SHORT VIDEO CLIPS

TO IMPROVE ENGLISH LEARNERS’ ORAL SKILLS

AT BÌNH DƯƠNG UNIVERSITY FOREIGN LANGUAGE CENTER

In terms of statement of Requirements for Theses in Master’s Program

issued by Higher Degree Committee

Ho Chi Minh City, June 2011

TRẦN THỊ TƯỜNG VI

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I, TRẦN THỊ TƯỜNG VI, hereby state that I being the candidate for the degree

of Master in T.E.S.O.L accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s theses deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in

accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for the care, loan or reproduction of the theses

Ho Chi Minh City, June 2011

TRẦN THỊ TƯỜNG VI

Table of Contents

Statement of Originality

Retention and Use of the Thesis

Acknowledgement

Table of Contents i

List of Figures, Tables, and Graphs v

Abstract vi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 01

1.1 Background to the study 01

1.1.1 Oral skill courses at the Foreign Language Center of Bình Dương University 01

1.1.2 SVCs in teaching learners oral skills 02

1.2 Problem Statement 05

1.3 Purposes of the Study 05

1.4 Significance of the Study 06

1.5 Research Questions 07

1.6 Research Hypotheses 07

1.7 The Scope of the Study 07

1.8 Definition of Terms 07

1.9 Assumptions of the Study 08

1.10 Limitations of the Study 09

1.11 Summary 09

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 11

2.1 SVCs 11

2.1.1 Using SVCs in teaching second or foreign languages 11

2.1.2 Effectiveness of Applying SVCs in Language Teaching Studies 18

2.2 Related Learning Theories 25

2.2.1 Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory 25

2.2.2 Interactive Learning Techniques 26

2.2.3 Theory of Multiple Representations 27

2.2.4 Cognitive Flexibility Theory 28

2.2.5 Bruner's Three-Form Theory 29

2.3 Oral Skill Assessment through Testing 30

2.4 Summary 33

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 34

3.1 Research Design 34

3.2 Participants 35

3.2.1 Students 35

3.2.1.1 The control group 36

3.2.1.2 The experimental group 36

3.2.2 The teacher & examiners 37

3.2.2.1 The teacher 37

3.2.2.2 The examiners 37

3.3 Instrumentation & Materials 38

3.3.1 Tests 38

3.3.1.1 Pretests 38

3.3.1.2 Posttests 38

3.3.2 Scoring method 39

3.3.2.1 Pretest 39

3.3.2.2 Posttest 39

3.3.3 Questionnaire 40

3.3.3.1 Pilot questionnaire 41

3.3.3.2 Research questionnaire 42

3.3.4 Material used in the study 46

3.3.5 Short Video Clips (SVCs) 47

3.4 Research Procedures 48

3.5 Data Statistics 49

3.5.1 Item-Total Statistics 49

3.5.2 Reliability Statistics 50

3.5.3 Correlation 50

3.5.4 Critical  value and T-test 51

3.5.4.1 Critical  value 51

3.5.4.2 T-test & Descriptive Statistics 51

3.6 Summary 51

CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 53

4.1 Reliability 53

4.1.1 Correlation 54

4.1.1.1 Pretests 54

4.1.1.2 Posttests 54

4.1.2 Reliability and Item-Total Statistics 57

4.1.2.1 Pilot questionnaire 57

4.1.2.2 Research questionnaire 61

4.2 Data Analysis 64

4.2.1 Results of the tests 64

4.2.1.1 Pretest 64

4.2.1.2 Posttests 65

4.2.2 Questionnaire 69

4.2.2.1 Task Value Items 69

4.2.2.2 Learning Activeness Items 70

4.2.2.3 Self-Evaluation Items 73

4.3 Discussions & Findings 74

4.4 Implications 79

4.5 Summary 79

CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY OF FINDINDS, RECOMMENDATIONS & CONCLUSION 81

5.1 Conclusion 81

5.2 Recommendations 82

BIBLIOGRAPHY 83

APPENDICES 90

Appendix A: Pilot Questionnaire 90

Appendix B: Research Questionnaire 98

Appendix C: Holistic Scoring Instructions – Pretest 108

Appendix D: Analytic Scoring Instructions – Posttest 110

Appendix E: Lesson Plan – Using SVCs in teaching oral skills 112

Appendix F: Lesson Plan – The current teaching technique 116

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Correlations for the pretests of the two groups 54 Figure 2: Correlations for the posttests of the two groups 55 Figure 3: Correlations for the posttests of the two groups on the components of

Value after removing three items less correlation 59

Figure 9: Reliability and Item-Total Statistics for the items of the section of

Learning Activeness 60

Figure 10: Reliability and Item-Total Statistics for the items of the section of

Learning Activeness after removing the items #3, and #4 61

Figure 11: Reliability and Item-Total Statistics for Task Value section in the

research questionnaire 62

Figure 12: Reliability and Item-Total Statistics for Learning Activeness section in

the research questionnaire 63

Figure 13: The descriptive statistics for the pretests of the two groups 64 Figure 14: The descriptive statistics for the posttests of the two groups 65 Figure 15: The descriptive statistics for the components of Pronunciation and

Fluency in the posttests of the two groups 67

Figure 16: The descriptive statistics for the components of Vocabulary and

Response in the posttests of the two groups 68

Figure 17: Results of the t-test for the posttests of the two groups 69 Figure 18: Patterns of responses to items for the section of Task Value (above) and

Learning Activeness (below) 72

Figure 19: Patterns of responses to the item of “evaluating your improvement on

English oral skills after the course” 73

Figure 20: Patterns of responses to the item of “feeling about the improvement of

your self-confidence when the course is over” 74

ABSTRACT

The research aimed to study whether Short Video Clips – SVCs, abbreviatedly – would improve learners’ oral skills in terms of Pronunciation, Fluency, Vocabulary and Response and to examine learners’ attitudes towards the use of SVCs in teaching oral skills

The research used Non-Equivalent Two-group Pretest-Posttest Experimental Design to compare the differences between the two groups in oral skills at the end of the study On other dimension, the research based on a seven-point Likert-type questionnaire to examine the attitudes of learners in the experimental group on three sections of Task Value, Learning Activeness and Self-Evaluation

Quasi-The study proved that learners taught with Short Video Clips would be motivated These learners took part in learning activities actively As a result, these learners did better than their counterpart at the end of the research when the final oral skill exams for the two groups were held The results of the study displayed that learners in the experimental group scored 18.77% better than those in the control group while at the beginning of the research learners in the control group scored 0.45% better The independent t-test proved that the difference between the two groups in the posttests was statistically significant with p value is only 0.000000008577

These results are consistent with previous studies showing that the use of SVCs in teaching oral skills significantly improves learners’ oral skills as well as motivates these learners to pay high attention to learning environment The researcher, therefore, would like to recommend SVCs to be used intensively in teaching oral skills for the second language

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

This thesis reports a combination of qualitative and quantitative research on the oral skills of 87 learners at the Foreign Language Center of Bình Dương University The research aimed to study whether Short Video Clips (hereafter SVCs) would enhance learners’ oral skills in terms of Pronunciation, Fluency, Vocabulary and Response and also to study learners’ attitudes towards the intervention

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1.1 Oral courses at the Foreign Language Center of Bình Dương

University

English oral courses at the Foreign Language Center of Bình Dương University are aimed to help learners fulfill the requirements of their university curriculum Learners attending these courses largely are students from different majors at the university These learners have to submit English certificates (level B) issued by the Center to get their university degree Learners, therefore, when coming into these courses usually take with them high extrinsic motivation, which is an advantage Another advantage is that the demographic aspect of these learners is usually focused Learners are at the same age, making them have high co-operative attitudes in learning

When enrolling into these courses, learners have to take a placement test These tests are administrated by the Center to avoid heterogeneous classes There are four levels for learners learning oral skills at the Foreign Language Center of Bình Dương University At level one, learners take part in classes without taking placement tests Level two is for learners whose score is below 5.0 from the

placement tests Level three is for learners whose score is from 5.0 to 7.0 from placement tests and level four for learners get better results The placement tests are administrated by the Foreign Language Center of Bình Dương University Two examiners rate the speaking levels of the enrollers in these tests

Each oral course lasts three months and learners have to take a final exam Usually learners are observed and evaluated by two examiners in the final exam As

in the placement tests, these examiners evaluate learners in the final exam using holistic scoring rubrics issued by the Center The rubric instruction can be found in Appendix C, page 108

The oral courses at the Foreign Language Center of Bình Dương University focus on the activities of pair work and group work to help learners communicate with one another However, the biggest problem of these activities is that learners can only communicate with second language learners, having no opportunity to interact with native speakers More importantly, with these activities, when learners fail to understand one another, they tend to use their mother tongue, Vietnamese, which reduces their ability of guessing what the speakers want to express In addition, learners at Bình Dương rarely have opportunities to communicate with English native speakers when the number of foreigners living in the province is small

1.1.2 SVCs in teaching oral skills

SVCs were used in teaching oral skills to help learners overcome the problems mentioned previously Since the late 1960s, the improvement of technology has introduced using video clips in teaching environment (Berwald, 1985; Baltova, 1999; Sherman, 2003) The most important advantage of using video clips in teaching second language is that learners can approach the real life, the real cultures in conversations of native speakers Heron (1994 in Canning-Wilson, 2000 ) finds that advanced organizers based on videos helped learners improve

comprehension and aid in the retention of information With simple equipments consisting of a laptop, a projector and an audio system, video clips can bring learners to any contexts that learners can observe firsthand the ways that native speakers make conversations Not only does this advantage speed up the process of learning a second language but also helps learners easily imitate native speakers’ pronunciation and the ways that native speakers respond to utterances

Using SVCs in teaching oral skills at the Foreign Language Center of Binh Duong University utilizes such advantage The use focuses on letting learners interact with activities happening on the screen SVCs then will be used for replacing pair work and group work Learners after watching and listening to SVCs will be asked to substitute a character in the SVCs to communicate with the remaining character(s) on the screen or describing something at the same time with the character’s motions on the screen By doing so, learners will have more opportunities to listen to and, in some way, to communicate with native speakers and then it is easier for them to imitate native speakers’ pronunciation Learners’ pronunciation, then, is believed to be improved when these learners can easily mimic and memorize the way that native speakers pronounce the sounds in the video

clips This teaching method of Audio-Lingualism terms is called as “mim – mem”

(Krashen, 1987; 129 – 130) Learners’ fluency will be improved when these learners have to try their best to catch the speed of uttering sentences to keep the conversation smooth when they communicate with the character(s) on the screen Using SVCs is also believed to improve learners’ vocabulary retention ability when learners have to try their best to remember the subtitles to practice without them Some authors have already demonstrated video clips are more efficient than still pictures when we teach unknown vocabulary items (Al-Seghayer, 2001) Canning-Wilson (2000) suggested that “images contextualized in video or on its own can help

to reinforce language learning, provided the learner can see immediate meaning in terms of vocabulary recognition” (Canning-Wilson, 2000:3) Learners are also

believed to improve their response to communicators Through practicing, learners can collect some common expressions made by the characters on the screen to use in real conversation in English The advantages of using SVCs will be discussed in details in the next chapter

To evaluate learners’ oral ability, the analytic scoring system was used for scoring the oral skills of learners in the two groups in the posttests This method of scoring avoids the potential flaw in global impression band scales of uneven development in the different criteria (Weir, 2005:189) It is very easy for a teacher to give a higher scoring for a certain component by giving a certain coefficient For example, of the five components of oral skills, the four components of Pronunciation, Fluency, Vocabulary and Response were scored with the coefficient

of two while the component of Grammar was scored with the coefficient of one

In fact, “there are not yet good answers to questions about the criteria for testing oral skills and weighing of these factors” (Kitao & Kitao; 1996:1) Depending on the purposes of the tests, different components are introduced to be

the criteria for scoring oral skills Generally, the components of vocabulary,

grammar, fluency, pronunciation, communicative success, listening comprehension

are considered as the criteria to score learners’ oral skills by different tests

In this study, Pronunciation, Fluency, Vocabulary and Response were used for considering as the variables to compare the oral skills of learners in the experimental group to those of learners in the control group after the process of learning These components would be improved when learners were exposed to SVCs as mentioned previously The aspect of Grammar was not considered as a variable to take into consideration when this component had been taught similar to one another between the two groups as the lesson plan in Appendices E, page 112 and F, page 116 state

The next chapter will discuss these criteria in details

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

One of the problems encountered by schools, universities, language centers in teaching a second or foreign language is that education facilities fail to bring the real life, the real culture of the second or foreign language into their teaching activities The problem turns to be more serious with the oral skills when learners have not much time to organize their ideas, causing learners to express their ideas in their mother tongue A native speaker may be the best solution for the case It, however, turns to be another problem for educators in provinces where the number of native speakers is a small one

Oral courses at the Foreign Language Center of Bình Dương University have also encountered these problems Rarely do learners in the center have the opportunity to communicate with native speakers Most of the time these learners communicate with their friends who are also Vietnamese This introduces many limits for these learners in approaching the real life, the real culture in the language they are learning as well as imitating native speakers’ pronunciation

1.3 PURPOSES OF THE STUDY

The study aimed to find out a method of teaching appropriate to facilitate learners of English in Bình Dương province Using SVCs in teaching oral skills, the study aimed to improve learners’ oral skills in terms of pronunciation, fluency, vocabulary and response by giving these learners the opportunities to communicate with the “native” speakers in the video clips

The use of SVCs also aimed to offer learners more opportunities to learn oral skills by themselves Learners could take the SVCs home to practice by themselves These learners could choose to act the role of any character to practice lessons with the remaining character(s) In such a way, learners could improve not only their oral skills but their listening skills as well Additionally, these learners could easily learn some common expressions to respond to their illoculators in the conversation

This study also aimed to build up in each learner his/her self-confidence Using SVCs in teaching second language is believed to reduce the stress that learners usually get when making conversation with the “virtual” – instead of “real” – native speakers In such a way, using SVCs will gradually build up in each learner him/herself-confidence Another purpose of the study was to investigate into learners’ attitudes towards using SVCs in teaching oral skills

1.4 SIGNIFICANCES OF THE STUDY

This study will be a significant endeavor in giving an insight to using SVCs

in teaching oral skills Based on the theory of Dual Coding which states that learners need visual and verbal communications to increase their learning ability, the study proves that learners, after being taught with SVCs, improve all components of oral skills The study proves that learners will pronounce more native-like when they imitate the sounds in the video clips Learners also speak their second language more fluently when they try to speak at the speed of native speakers Learners’ vocabularies are also improved significantly when their ability retention is improved with the use of SVCs The study also proves that learners will response more naturally after learned with the SVCs

In addition, the study will be useful in proving the necessary relationships between the learning materials and real-life experiences Learning with SVCs, learners not only observe the conversations but also participate in the conversations, interact with characters in the videos The use of SVCs, then, will overcome the bridge of lacking “authentic language” that the “academic” learning materials create

Importantly, the study, when applying an innovation technology into teaching oral skills, encourages teachers and educators using SVCs as well as other innovation technology in teaching the second language The results of the study prove that learners will be more appealed by the innovation features of the SVCs SVCs, then, interest learners, motivate them to learn hard

- Hypothesis: Short Video Clips will improve learners’ oral skills in terms

of pronunciation, fluency, vocabulary and response

1.7 THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This method of teaching is designed to teach learners in oral courses at the Foreign Language Center of Bình Dương University These learners are in the age

of 20 and over A majority of them were learning at Bình Dương University These learners usually come to the courses with high extrinsic motivation when they have

to pass the course to be qualified for their university degree However, it seems that these learners have less intrinsic motivation when their English is not good enough, especially with the classes that the study focused on, of which learners got the mark

of five and below in their placement tests

1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS

The acronym of “SVCs” used in this study should be understood as Short

Video Clips Each clip is only in 1 to 3 minutes There are three types of SVCs

which will be explained in details in chapter three

The terms of “learning activeness” used in this study implies the frequency that each learner willingly takes part in the learning environment to respond to the

use of SVCs The level of activeness is set from “never” for lowest to “always” for highest Concretely, the levels are “never”, “very rarely”, “rarely”, “occasionally”,

“frequently”, “very frequently” and “always” Naturally, a learner’s response which

is closer to the highest end of an item in the questionnaire means that the learner takes part in the relevant learning activity more actively

The scores taken into analysis of the two groups for the posttests used in this study are the average scores taken from the scores given by three examiners As the procedure of the posttests required, each examiner scored learners analytically with Pronunciation, Fluency, Grammar, Vocabulary and Response, of which Grammar was multiplied with the coefficient of one and the four remaining components were multiplied with the coefficient of two The final scores given by each examiner then would be the total of the multiplied scores of five components divided by five and then rounded up/down to half point system From the three scores given by three examiners, the average scores were counted for analysis These scores have two decimal numbers

1.9 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE STUDY

First, the study assumed that the two groups were of the same level Although the study took the two placement tests as the pretests to compare the level of using English of the two groups, there were possibly some differences when the study failed to set up two groups in Paired Match Design

Second, the study assumed that the participation of learners in the two groups affected nothing on the results of the study It was reported that there were some cases of absences with the two groups in the courses, but it was assumably unlikely

to affect the results of the study

Also, other variables between the two groups were assumed that they were equal to one another The study were assumably not affected by these variables

1.10 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The number of learners taken into the study is a limitation to the study Only

87 learners, 41 for the control group and 46 for the experimental group, may fail to generalize the results with which the study comes up

Another limitation of the research is that the examiners participating in the research all were native speakers of Vietnamese These Vietnamese native speakers will surely get some limits when examining the learners’ oral skills in English This limitation will reduce the reliability of the examining procedures

The scope of the study is also another limitation of the research The research was done with the learners at the Foreign Language Center of Binh Dương University This scope limited the generalization of the research

Non-major English learners are also a limitation of the research The learners involved in the research are non-major English learners These learners have some limits in their English background, compared to major English learners Therefore, the research got a limitation to generalize the findings

1.11 SUMMARY

This chapter introduces the thesis studying the effectiveness of SVCs in teaching oral skills The research aimed to study whether the use of SVCs would enhance learners’ oral skills and also to examine the attitude of these learners towards the use of SVCs The technique focused on giving learners opportunities to communicate with “virtual” native speakers by interacting with the character(s) in the video clips This chapter also mentions the research questions that lead the study

In addition, this chapter also presents some assumptions that the study had to come

to Section 1.8 in this chapter is for terms’ definitions, in which the terms of SVCs, learning activeness and the final scores of the posttest are defined

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews the main issue of the study, Short Video Clips and the literature for the theories relating to the issue The last section mentions the methods that educators score oral skills, which, to a certain extent, the background for the analytic scoring rubrics used in the posttests of the study

2.1 SHORT VIDEO CLIPS

2.1.1 Using SVCs in teaching second or foreign languages

The advent and proliferation of the newest technology of SVCs – Short Video Clips – have allowed for the widespread use of video clips in different fields In many countries, SVCs have gradually become a part of the civilized life SVCs appear in all aspects of human life, from media to privacy People across the world have used video clips for marketing, for advertising, for recording some special moments in their life, for telling the world what is happening in a specific area, so forth Since the late 1960s, video clips and other multimedia belonging to this kind

of materials have been around the teaching environment (Berwald, 1985; Baltova, 1999; Sherman, 2003) However, it is the recent drop in costs in the first decade of the new millennium that have made these kinds of materials a practical possibility in

a wide variety of classroom, more and more educators have come to look these tools

as media of instruction second or foreign languages (Williams & Lutes, 2009: 1) On the website of http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk, in November 2009, 31% of the respondents said, “Yes, a lot”, 35% said, “Yes, sometimes”, only 12% of the

respondents said, “No, never” when responding to the query Do you use video in the

classroom? Video materials have such advantages because of the innovative features

that can be used for making instruction more appealing to learners Learners tend to

be appealed by this kind of materials than any other kinds of materials (Keller & Suzuki, 2000) However, the lack of active research in this area has left video materials largely at the anecdotal level with teaching ideas being exchanges through workshops and similarly focused practical venues (Williams & Lutes, 2009:1–2)

Traditionally, two main uses of video have been distinguished: instructional videos, specifically created to teach foreign languages, and authentic video materials, such as film, TV series, commercials, etc originally created for native speakers of the language (Sherman, 2003; Stempleski, 1987; Baltova, 1999) While instructional videos are prepared carefully by providers to choose the language used appropriate with the level of learners, there is an obvious problem in using authentic videos in foreign language classes when these videos present real language that is not graded nor simplified and spoken at a normal speed Therefore, authentic video clips need to be prepared in advance, accompanied by the appropriate pre-viewing, viewing, and post-viewing (Stempleski, 1990) Nowadays, the proliferation of video recording, even being able to do with a small mobile phone, accompanied with computers and some specific software, make authentic videos for using in teaching learners second or foreign languages not “impossible missions” as some years ago With the purpose of exposing learners to the real life, the real language, authentic video clips are more and more used in teaching second or foreign language (Sherman, 2003; Al-Seghayer, 2001)

Alessi & Trollip (2001, in Williams & Lutes, 2009) state that there are four steps in the process of transferring and acquiring knowledge They are a) perception and attention, b) encoding, c) memory and d) comprehension (Williams & Lutes, 2009:3)

The first step, perception and attention, relates to the issues of focusing on the received information within the learning environment In this step, learners use their senses to collect the information spreading to them by their teacher, their friends, and anything happening in learning environment There is a rule of thumps in the

learning environment stating that the more learners pay attention to the information, the more knowledge they perceive This means that when learners’ attention of learning is going down, their ability of perception will be reduced One way that educators maximize this effect is to make changes in activities and delivery styles throughout the course of any particular lesson (Williams & Lutes, 2009:3)

The second step in the process of learning is encoding The information after perceived then is encoded for storage in the brain of the learners In the ESL classroom environment, encoding has traditionally been conducted through aural stimuli (Williams & Lutes, 2009:3) However, “dual coding”, using both aural and visual encoding, has been proven to enhance the encoding process of learning (Clark

& Pavio, 1999)

The next step in the process, memory step, is the learners’ ability to recall the information that they have acquired and stored According to Fleming & Levie (1978, Williams & Lutes, 2009:3), there are two principles that are the basis for the process of memory; the first is the principle of organization, if items are well organized, the wanted items will be accessed at the fastest speed; and the second is the principle of repetition, the more an item is repeated, the faster it will be recalled

In learning environment, a good example is that learners have very often asked to repeat what they learn to enhance memory However, Alessi and Trollip (2001, in Williams & Lutes, 2009) conjecture that organized information is more important than repetition, even though it is sometime inconvenient to use, especially when dealing with large amounts of information (Williams & Lutes, 2009:3)

The final step in the process, comprehension, is the major goal of any teaching syllabus Tradition testing techniques are simply ways to elicit recall of information These testing techniques force learners to repeat as many time as possible what they have learned and then to check if the information are stored and can be elicited However, Alessi and Trolip (2001, Williams & Lutes, 2009) have illustrated that this is simply the first step towards comprehension Educators must

build opportunities that allow learners to demonstrate that they can use the information that they have required and facilitate the desired behavior

With its advantages on all of the four steps in the process of learning, especially the second step, Video clip, then, is one of the new tools that have become available for educators to impact the process of learning (Williams & Lutes, 2009:3)

Applying SVCs into education environment is a method of learning that permits learners to hear and to observe the relationships between content and the materials that are being taught Mayer & Sims (1994, in Al-Seghayer, 2001) stated that one of the functions of a multimedia program is to help learners construct referential connections between two forms of mental representation systems: the verbal and the visual one These referential connections are more easily built when both verbal and visual materials are presented simultaneously (Al-Seghayer, 2001:205) Chun & Plass (1996, in Al-Seghayer, 2001) emphasized that associating lexical items with different types of media fosters richness of recall cues and increases the likelihood of retention The rationale is that because words are coded dually in two modes, learners are learned better than those coded only in one mode Dual coding provides more paths for retrieval, and as such, helps learners build two types of recall cues in memory (Al-Seghayer, 2001:204) In such a way, many researchers have claimed that applying video clips into teaching second or foreign languages will increase the ability of vocabulary retention for learners (Al-Seghayer, 2001; Canning-Wilson, 2000; Baltova, 1999; Berwald, 1985, Brunvard, 2005, Griffin, 1980, Hartland & Fallacaro, 2008, Kerridge, 1982, Lee, 2000, Lin, 2010, so

forth …) In this aspect, vocabulary acquisition, Lyman-Hager et al (1993, in

Al-Seghayer, 2001) conducted a study to examine this field and demonstrated that students who worked with the multimedia program showed a better ability to retain vocabulary than those who worked with the non-computerized text (Al-Seghayer, 2001:206) Lomieka (1998, in Al-Seghayer, 2001) investigated the way multimedia

annotations influence the level of comprehension and found that the computerized glossed helped learners in the construction of a situation model and led to the generation of causal inferences (Al-Seghayer, 2001:207) Snyder & Colon (1988) investigated the influences of both audio and visual aids on facilitating second language acquisition and found that the group provided with additional audio-visual aid performed significantly better in vocabulary acquisition (Al-Seghayer, 2001:208-209) According to Canning-Wilson (2000), this learners’ benefit when video clips are applied into teaching second or foreign languages may be due to the visual clues instead of the auditory components (Canning-Wilson, 2000:2)

Oral skills can also be improved by increasing the availability of spoken language – particularly that of native speakers – in the learning materials When SVCs are used for teaching a second language, learners are able to hear and imitate the sounds that are presented, offering the students better oral skills “in a complementary multi-sensory format in order to introduce new vocabulary and content” (Baltova, 1999:2) Student needs when learning new languages include both recognition of sounds, content relationships, and even the pronunciation of words SVCs introduce these concepts through videos where native speakers use the language in natural speaking conversations

Additionally, learners’ communicative competence is improved with the application of SVCs when these learners are able to view the language in progress; that is to say, viewing the language in use promotes understanding of context Students are able to expand on linguistic competence through SVCs techniques that assist the student in understanding how native English speakers use the language Canning-Wilson (2000) noted that language found in videos could help non-native speakers understand stress patterns Videos allows the learners to see body rhythm and speech rhythm in second language discourse through the use of authentic language and speed of speech in various situations (Canning-Wilson, 2000:3)

Moreover, with SVCs, learners are provided with many opportunities to interact with the environment (Jonassen, 2000) Through the use of multimedia in the classroom, especially in the form of video materials, learners are able to experience native speakers using the language at various levels where they might normally be impeded or constrained from doing so Video materials, then, can help

to overcome obstacles to interaction such as physical location and the lack of opportunities to meet native speakers (Williams & Lutes, 2009: 2)

Another advantage of SVCs is that video materials can focus on information that cannot be readily presented in a traditional classroom because of constraints such as size, location, costs, etc In the ESL classroom, this can be something as simple as access to native speaker language in a natural context (Williams & Lutes, 2009:4) Additionally, video clips in teaching provide the opportunity for educators

to reach students of many different learning preferences, such as sound, visual, or spatial learners Effectiveness of visual aids in language teaching include increased retention of learning, application of materials, content development, and creates the opportunity to use scaffolding techniques in learning methods Since “dual coding” has been proven to enhance encoding by learners, video materials are an effective delivery system because they contain a combination of visual and aural information (Williams & Lutes, 2009:4) Particularly, applying SVCs into teaching second language involves exposing learners simultaneously to the activities of listening, reading, and speaking of the subject content As language learning requires a great deal of listening to words, many visual learners are not considered in the needs of the educational environment SVCs advantageously reach the needs of both visual learners and sound orientated learners

Advantages of using video clips in teaching are beyond the class and the content of the materials Motivation occurs when students are able to focus learning

on application of the learning to an environment in which they are interested, such

as in viewing a video, movie, or interacting with others speaking the language they

are learning Students experience a real feeling of accomplishment when they are able to comprehend material intended for native speakers When they are successful

at dealing with and understanding “the real thing”, they are further motivated to seek out and understand other authentic materials (Stempleski, 1987:5) Berwald (1985) even thought “motivation is most likely the most often mentioned reason for success

in student productions … One of the most frequently noted used of student productions has been skits and role playing” (Belwald, 1985:7) Learners, then, react very favorably to video productions and enjoy participating in their developments

(Belwald, 1985:7)

The biggest advantage of using SVCs in learning second language is that learners can make on themselves their opportunities to communicate with native speakers at any place and at any time they can (Tomalin, 1986; Lonergan, 1984, McGovern, 1983) Students of ESL are afforded the opportunity to observe and participate in a more active learning experience, while maximizing the use of several cognitive skills (Williams & Lutes, 2009:2) This advantage is very important for learners who unfortunately live in areas where there is just a few foreigners living as Bình Dương province When learners’ ability to access to native speakers is unavailable, SVCs will compensate for this lack of availability through access to native speakers in short video clips that can be used for practicing speaking, understanding, and even for short quizzes to check retention of information

In some words, Arthur (1999, in Canning-Wilson, 2000) claimed about the advantages of applying SVCs into teaching second or foreign languages that:

“Video can give students realistic models to imitate for role-play;

can increase awareness of other cultures by teaching appropriateness and suitability; can strengthen audio/visual linguistic perceptions simultaneously; can widen the classroom repertoire and range of activities; can help utilize the latest technology to facilitate language learning; can teach direct observation of the paralinguistic features found in association

with the target language; can be used to help when training students in ESP related scenarios and language; can offer a visual reinforcement of the target language and can lower anxiety when practicing the skill of listening.”

(Canning-Wilson, 2000:4) However, because watching video is a passive activity, it needs to be used as part of an active learning strategy in order to be an effective tool, particularly in holding the attention of learners (Houston, 2000; Sherman, 2004) As Keller & Suzuki (2004) warned, overusing this innovative device may lose learners’ appeal as learners become more accustomed to the device

2.1.2 Effectiveness of Applying SVCs in Language Teaching Studies

Al-Seghayer (2001) conducted a study that evaluated “which of the image modalities – dynamic video or still picture – is more effective in aiding vocabulary acquisition” (Al-Seghayer, 2001:1) This study was conducted with 30 ESL students, and the participants were introduced to a hypermedia-learning program, designed by the researcher for reading comprehension (Al-Seghayer, 2001:1) The study measured three specific conditions, which included “printed text definition alone, printed text definition coupled with still pictures, and printed text definition coupled with video clips” (Al-Seghayer, 2001:1) Results from the study demonstrated that a video clip is more effective in teaching unknown vocabulary words than a still picture (Al-Seghayer, 2001:1) Al-Seghayer (2001) found that Paivio’s dual coding theory (1986) was relevant to the results, as it demonstrates that “when both verbal and visual materials are presented, learners can construct referential connections between these two forms of mental representation, and thus learn more effectively.” Additionally, respondents from the study remarked, “My curiosity pushes me to watch the video to the end because I wanted to know what is going to happen” (Al-Seghayer, 2001:1)

Thompson & Paivio (1994) selected participants for 3 experiments, 169, 76, and 24, respectively, consisting of “undergraduate students from the University of Western Ontario.” Participants in Experiment one completed tasks where “free recall was tested under three learning conditions: standard intentional, intentional with a rehearsal-inhibiting distracter task, or incidental with the distracter task” (Thompson & Paivio, 1994:383) These authors conducted the second experiment using “two additional groups: In one, two copies of the same picture were shown simultaneously; in the other, two different pictures of the same concept were shown” (Thompson & Paivio, 1994:1) The study demonstrated that in all conditions of Experiment 1, participants were more successful in learning – whether distracted or not – by picture information with sound Experiment two, again demonstrated that respondents had a stronger recall using pictures with sound Finally, in Experiment

3, longer viewing times were given to stimuli, which still resulted in overall scores highest for items viewed with pictures and sounds together This study was developed using slides rather than video; however, the evidence was used for demonstrating the consistency with the dual coding theory These studies successfully demonstrated that the use of both stimuli was more effective than a single stimulus

Mayer & Anderson (1992, in Mayer & Sims, 1994) developed a list to address the responses for each of the problems asked of students for the study They used the responses to evaluate the problem solving of respondents based on the answers given Each result demonstrated scores based on both “high and low visual learners in the each treatment group.” These authors claimed “As predicted by dual-coding theory, there was a contiguity effect in which students who received concurrent presentation performed better on the problem-solving test than did students who received successive presentation or no instruction.” Additionally, the observation was validated by the statistical results developed for the equations and

demonstrated further relationships with the scores as compared to those of the control group

Furthermore, Mayer and Sims (1994) found that contiguity was directly effective to learners with higher spatial learning versus those of lower spatial ability Students needing learning programs that are spatial orientated are specifically in need of special learning curriculums that focus on these needs, and may not respond

as well to learning environments of visual and sound as well as other learners Significant relationships were built between the “enhancement view, high-spatial ability students who received concurrent presentation of animation and narration” generating “approximately 50% more creative solutions on transfer problems than did high-spatial ability students who received successive presentation or no instruction” (Mayer & Sims, 1994) Low spatial learners did not benefit well from the usage of these curriculum materials as compared to high spatial learners

Mayer and Sims (1994) pinpointed that “Although students with high-spatial ability scored higher than did students with low-spatial ability in both experiments, the main effect for spatial ability failed to reach statistical significance in Experiment two.” In this way, it becomes apparent that essential learning skills can benefit from different types of learning, particularly through implementation of SVCs learning; however, it does not define that all learning should occur exclusively

in this method other than other methods These authors clearly defined that educational value is directly related to the learning needs of the students

Hartland, Biddle & Fallacaro (2008) explored learning techniques, specifically Paivio’s Dual Coding theory Similar to the studies of English, distance learning can be difficult for students due to the inability of the students to have hands-on instruction with the materials in a way that demonstrates the use of the materials by instructors or other students The study conducted by Hartland, Biddle,

& Fallacaro (2008) demonstrated that Dual Coding theory is successful when using audiovisual teachings that engage the students in the materials and demonstrate the

effective use from the course objectives Educators are able to demonstrate and highlight key aspects of learning through multimedia methods that address the needs

of the diverse learners in distance learning programs by providing multiple forms of learning This is true of other learning environments where instructors are unable to engage students with specific imagery or use of the materials taught within the course Foreign languages can be difficult due unavailability of native speakers of the language, and due to the need for students to interact with native speakers of the language to accomplish pronunciation success and build relationships with the materials

Lee (2000) evaluated Interactive Multimedia as a form of learning in second language learners to establish if the potentials for application were directly effective

in classrooms based on communication effective activities found in audio-visual resources While Lee (2000) studied these methods for ESL students, the demonstration was designed to successfully understand how this type of learning material is able to provide extended learning to students in need of strong communication skills in a language other than their primary language Using a control and experimental groups, Lee (2000) applied audio-visual learning methods

of simulated interactive multimedia designs to engage students in learning English These methods were applied to students whose starting scores on English were similar, and the hypothesis tested was that learning would be similar between both groups (Lee, 2000) During the study Lee (2000) discovered that the null hypothesis was indeed inaccurate and that the learners using interactive multimedia scored higher on testing following using the new course materials Lee (2000) affirmed

“The study concluded that ESL instruction with the simulated interactive multimedia design was more effective than the one devoid of any interactive multimedia support”

Bennett & Maniar (2007) state that video is particularly successful when this media is used for “grabbing students’ attention and motivate them to learn,” “when

it is necessary to expose students to things they would not otherwise have the opportunity to see,” or “when it is necessary to ‘humanize’ a topic.” (Bennett & Maniar, 2007:1) However, Bennett and Maniar (2007) do not feel that the use of video for face-to-face lectures is appropriate for higher education, stating “videoed lectures may hinder the development of students as independent learners,” and that many aspects and enthusiasm of the lecturer is lost in the video presentation, which does not create the same impression on viewers (Bennett & Maniar, 2007:2) While ultimately Bennett & Maniar (2007) felt that the preferences of the viewers determined the true success of the video lecture, they did not feel that this was the best way to instill the appropriate learning atmosphere for most types of learning

In 2008, Hui-Ying researched foreign language success using “sitcom-based instruction in a spoken English practice class, including analysis of students’ weaknesses, instructional goals, teaching materials, teaching approaches, cyclical learning activities, and evaluations” (Hui-Ying, 2008:iv) The primary objective was

to determine if the seven contextual factors influenced the success in learning,

including “Friends as a prompt, recurring viewings, learner-centered activities,

teacher’s mediation, motivation enhancement, language comprehension, and learner autonomy” (Hui-Ying, 2008:iv) While the primary results demonstrated the effectiveness of sitcom-based learning, defined as the use of situation comedies – particularly the American sitcom “Friends” created in 1994 – to inspire relationship with language contexts using a cultural basis that requires understanding and successful translation Similar to SVCs, the goals of sitcom-based learning is to provide learners with the ability to see the language in use and hear the pronunciation of the words

Hui-Ying (2008) found that students reflected the advantages of sitcom-based instruction as including the following:

1 More fun, interesting, lively, hilarious, and relaxing

2 Easy way of learning through authentic contexts

3 Simple colloquial dialogues related to daily life conversation

4 Audio and visual images facilitate memorization of words

5 Developing awareness of autonomy

6 Suitable for listening and oral training

(Hui-Ying, 2008:69) The same students listed disadvantages of the sitcom-based learning, as compared to textbooks, as including:

1 Fewer vocabularies and examples

2 Passive learning without a given quiz on words

3 Only vocabulary and colloquial English

4 Messy relationships ruin American images

5 Ineffective learning without awareness of learner autonomy

6 No systematic structured patterns

(Hui-Ying, 2008:69) While the study examined a number of factors that are directly related to the success of the sitcom-based learning established by Hui-Ying (2008), it is also reasonable to believe that the same interaction strategies can be developed using SVCs in student classrooms Additionally, as some of the disadvantages experienced

in the Hui-Ying (2008) study were directly related to concerns over cultural reality

of the sitcom, it is reasonable to believe that the SVCs selected can demonstrate more truth to the cultural life experienced in other English speaking countries, particularly those specifically available in the SVCs experience or on websites such

as YouTube

Davis (2004) developed storyboarding intervention models called Video Activated Communication, in order to teach parenting models that increase communication in the home and establishes the baseline for how communications can be the most successful in the household “A Video Activated Communication storyboard is a pictorial of real-time video, stills, and slow-motion snippets shown in

the order they will appear in the finished family feedback video.” (Davis, 2004:1) Overall, Davis (2004) established that Video Activated Communication storyboard method effectively demonstrated the behaviors of the family as compared to the behaviors that should be occurring Additionally, Davis (2004) stressed the importance of developing curriculums and learning materials that keep up with the changing technology and establish new learning methods that meet the needs of a changing society Every learner is a product of the various tools and technologies at their disposal, and in this way utilizing technologies to enhance learning environments are successful methods for reaching the diverse learner base

Brunvard (2005) developed a study to evaluate how the availability of scaffolds impacts what teachers are able to learn and notice from video A control group and experimental group were used where one group used interactive materials including hyperlinks and video learning materials while the other group was given only “static text summaries and introductory teacher commentary” (Brunvard, 2005:xii) The study demonstrated that video and interactive techniques created better learning environments for the teachers in presenting the material for the educators to use with students Videos were used for demonstrating the use of the scaffolding in the class, and in this way, the educators were able to repeat the activities successfully in the classroom Additionally, Brunvard (2005) demonstrated

“integrating the teacher commentary within images of classroom practice instead of placing the commentary before those images was more likely to prompt pre-service teachers to include comments about teaching strategies in their treatment notes” (Brunvard, 2005:114) In this way, the viewers were relating to the material in extended learning responses

Katchen (2004) stated that technological developments establish a means for building stronger educational materials for all students in English learning environments Katchen (2004) established base parameters for using video of any date – including older videos from ABC News reports and digitalizing of older

videos to be delivered in segments in the classroom While the study that Katchen (2004) conducted with the class did not demonstrate that students were in the habit

of reviewing the digitalized videos after classroom use, it was established that the students did appear to develop further understanding and retention of the materials when the video opportunities were made available

2.2 RELATED LEARNING THEORIES

2.2.1 Paivio’s Dual Coding

The Dual Coding Theory was originally developed as a memory aid from more than 2500 years ago (Paivio & Thompson, 2009) Specifically, the dual coding theory, as developed further by Paivio, supports the theory of “pictures over words

as memory aids” and defines learning as memory function that includes “two systems, one verbal, and one visual.” Paivio & Thompson, (2009) further argues that the power of visual aids supports memory more effectively than the written word and may create stronger relationships between content and memory – including relationships between images and words Memory is necessary for building strong language connections, these are developed in childhood by the introduction of an object and the word associated with it, and this is productive in increasing understanding of concepts when learning second languages

Disadvantages of Dual Coding theory exist when the content cannot be displayed visually, as can occur with abstract concepts, or might occur with abstract vocabulary words Rieber and Kini, (1991); Sadoski, Geotz, and Avila, (1995); and Sadoski, Paivio, & Geotz, (1991) found that abstract ideas are not often stored as images in the mind, but rather as specific words, making the translation between image and words more difficult to demonstrate memory connections through imagery (cited in Dual Coding Theory, 2009) When dual-coding theory is applied, a

system of verbal and imagery processing is used (Paivio, 1979, 1986; Simpson, 1997)

2.2.2 Interactive Learning Techniques

Learning techniques take on various forms, including those of Dual Coding theory but also embracing a number of recent studies that explore interactive learning environments that enable students to interact directly with the content For instance, some schools around the world have developed programs where students learning foreign languages are able to interact with students in other countries using webcams and other technologies Specific types of interaction are believed to increase the productive learning environments through use of the language and direct contact with the students from the culture being studied, particularly where these learning techniques increase awareness of the use of the language Additionally, some classrooms have begun to use this type of technology to increase awareness of cultural differences even in courses where language learning is not the primary objective Collaboration between students can be a productive learning atmosphere for many different subjects of learning

Sabry & Khalad (2009) reviewed a number of important aspects of interactive learning Similar to the needs overcome through SVCs techniques, interactive learning environments are essential to reaching learning needs for many subjects Defining the various needs, Sabry & Khalad (2009) state three needs of learning atmospheres embracing interactive learning The first category is

“Learner,” defined as containing “knowledge and considerations about the student, including individual differences (e.g gender, culture, prior knowledge, age, etc.) and preferred learning styles of learning (e.g sequential, global, active, etc.)” (Sabry & Khalad, 2009:1) The second category of needs is “Technology” and is defined as containing, “knowledge and considerations about the media through which information and knowledge contents can be delivered and multimedia representation

to accommodate different types of interactions, teaching and learning styles” (Sabry

& Khalad, 2009:1) The final category is “Pedagogy” and “contains pedagogical knowledge, methods and styles of teaching relevant to each subject matter, aims and objectives, and learners’ differences” (Sabry & Khalad, 2009:1)

Sabry and Khalad (2009) stated that access and flexibility of technology increases the ability to reach students, effectively given students avenues for learning that are most suited to the particular needs they themselves have, rather than the needs of the entire class Additionally, it is essential for schools to remain vigilant in adaptive responses to changes in technology in order to maintain the learning environment for students Finally, Sabry and Khalad (2009) state “the wider the range of included strategies, the more effective, and efficient the teaching and learning will be” (Sabry & Khalad, 2009:1)

2.2.3 Theory of Multiple Representations

Gfeller, Niess & Lederman (1999) and Huang & Liaw (2004) defined the theory of multiple representations, as a cognitive-based theory defined by the many different representations as defined by the learner (Gfeller, Niess & Lederman, 1999; Huang & Liaw, 2004, in Cicciarelli, 2008) Additionally, the concepts developed include that each item learned will hold many different needs in each individual, defined differently through innate needs or previous experience by each

individual (Gfeller et al., 1999 in Cicciarelli, 2008)

Language learners experience similar relationships between words and concepts, developing multiple representations for new words based on previous experience with the word and previous knowledge of the concept This theory applies to the needs of SVCs, as a predetermining aspect of video selection, selecting the best videos will allow students learning new languages to build new relationships with word concepts

2.2.4 Cognitive Flexibility Theory

The cognitive theory is an important theory in educational history and has further been used in a number of studies to define relationships between materials and learning Interaction between content and students is a critical aspect of the learning process, such as is the goal of SVCs techniques, to present new interactions between learning materials and students This retention aspect is defined by

“conceptual knowledge” in relationship with known situation, then related to new situations” (Cicciarelli, 2008) Huang & Liaw (2004) particularly found that this method of education creating stronger retention and faster recall of the course curriculum (Huang & Liaw, 2004 in Cicciarelli, 2008)

In addition, students presented with cognitive learning curriculums were more able to relate basic concepts to more complex ideas, building a solid foundation in understanding of core concepts developed for the classes Jonassen (2003) states that students learning from cognitive approaches are more aptly able to develop essential problem solving skills and are able to apply previous learning to the problem solving needs of later assignments (Jonassen, 2003 in Cicciarelli, 2008) Finally, structured learning environments often restrict critical thinking experiments and present problems where content is not expressly concrete in nature

Cognitive learning techniques are found in SVCs techniques in that the new material is presented through learning from English speaking natives, presented in a visual form, and provides unique experiences as referenced from the video itself – both in context of materials presented and through the particular activities on the video SVCs embraces a number of theories based on theoretical progress made since the 1700s including the studies by Progressivism and Naturalist theorist that recommended interaction and study of the world around a student to develop the most successful learning environments

2.2.5 Bruner's Three-Form Theory

Bruner (1990) stated that individuals see the world through three different ways; action, icons, and symbols” (Bruner, 1990 in Cicciarelli, 2008) Similar to theories on learning styles, this method addresses various needs of learners and the content presented SVCs approach learning by providing learners with the opportunity to “see and hear” the use of the language during an active presentation Unlike the other related theories, Bruner’s Three-Form theory does not interactive with the memory or retention aspects as associated by many theories that address the needs of education as including the conscious interaction with materials and concepts but rather the unconscious interaction As a method for scaffolding, Bruner’s theory is used through such methods as introduction to a concept using icons and symbols and then addressing the active aspects of the concepts through student involvement in the materials

Icons or mental images, according to Bruner, were used for presenting a path, summary, or pattern (Bruner, 1990 in Cicciarelli, 2008) SVCs techniques create mental relationships or mental images that will associate the words in spoken form with the words in written form, creating a stronger bond between the words and the meanings In this way, it becomes obvious that creating symbolism is much like creating the relationships needed for retention of concepts both abstract and concrete Vacca and Vacca (1998) discussed Bruner's work on scaffolding and categories They said that when instructors help students recognize what they know and what is new, they can then help them build new categories of information and learning (Vacca and Vacca, 1998 in Cicciarelli, 2008) Video learning can increase pronunciation, demonstrating where students need more practice and where they are already proficient Student interaction with the content is both on a subconscious and conscious level of learning

2.3 ORAL SKILL ASSESSMENT THROUGH TESTING

Speaking is probably the most difficult skill to test It involves a combination

of skills that may have no correlation with each other, and which do not lend themselves well to objective testing The biggest problem for evaluating speaking skills is that the language teachers and the language testers need to transform subjective qualitative observations into objective quantitative measures The oral communication field needs a clear-cut method of evaluation as can be found in discrete language skill classes such as listening comprehension (Nakamura & Valens, 2001) Accurate assessment of limited-English speaking learners requires a total description of the communication skills, linguistic structures, and functional usage of the learner’s language within all social sections (Silverman, Noa & Russel, 1977:123) Therefore, the first step in designing performance assessments for oral skills is to set up the selection of criteria for evaluating learners’ speaking ability

Kitao & Kitao (1996) reported that “there are not yet good answers to questions about the criteria for testing oral skills and weighing of these factors” (Kitao & Kitao; 1996:1) Silverman, Noa & Russel (1977) suggested using four

criteria to evaluate speaking skills, they are vocabulary, grammar, semantics and

phonology Applebaum & Taborek (1986) introduced five criteria for evaluating oral

skills They are fluency, pronunciation, linguistic skills, communicative success and

listening comprehension The two authors advised in their Developing Oral Placement Tests for Community-Based Language Programs (1986) as follows:

- Fluency: The tester should observe how smoothly the candidate’s

speech flows and should note the number of awkward pauses that interfere with comprehensibility Fillers should be natural and not an interference to communication

- Pronunciation: The rater should observe errors in the production of

English speech sounds The rater should also consider the degree to