The impact of motivation on vocabulary learning m a 60 14 10

The findings of the study indicated a statistically significant difference in the students’ performance in both groups and a change in their attitudes towards the use of games to enhance

UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE

THE IMPACT OF MOTIVATION ON

VOCABULARY LEARNING

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirement for the degree

of Master of Arts (TESOL)

Submitted by TUAN QUOC TRAN

Supervisor

Dr TUNG THANH NGUYEN

Ho Chi Minh City, May 11th, 2011

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I certify that the thesis entitled

THE IMPACT OF MOTIVATION ON VOCABULARY LEARNING

is my own work It has not previously been submitted for any degree or diploma at Universities and Institutions In terms of the Requirements for Theses in Master’s Program issued by the Higher Degree Committee, I once again confirm my authorship for this study

Ho Chi Minh City, May 11th, 2011

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby claim that I, Tuan Quoc Tran, being the candidate for the M.A in TESOL Degree, accept the requirements of the University related to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the library should be accessible for references and research purposes, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the library for the care, loan, or reproduction of theses

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Dr Tung Thanh Nguyen, who spent much time reading my thesis manuscript I am very proud of being his student and admire his wisdom and intellect

He always gave me precious guidance Without him, I could not have finished my writing

Next, I wish to thank Dr Kieuthu Thi Nguyen, Dean of the Department of English Linguistics and Literature at Ho Chi Minh City University of Social Sciences and Humanities, and all the lecturers, who have assisted me during the M.A in TESOL course

Then, my gratitude sends to the present Principal of Con Van Nguyen High School, Mr Quang Minh Tran, for his encouragement and enthusiastic help in letting

me conduct my research there My sincere thanks also go to my colleagues, who gave useful comments on my paper, and all the students, who participated in the experiment

Last but not least, I am indebted to my parents and my wife for their mental and physical support during my study

To have data, the researcher used two instruments: two tests and a questionnaire A pretest was conducted on 80 11th graders of two classes, assigned conveniently by the Principal of Nguyen Van Con High School in Tien Giang Province before the experiment began After eight-week teaching from October 1st to December 1st, 2009, a posttest was delivered to identify students’ progress in lexical learning In addition, a questionnaire was group-administered right after the posttest

to measure their attitudes

Data collected from both the tests and the questionnaire were analyzed quantitatively Specifically, the score means of the two groups in the former were compared via a t-test and the responses to the latter were converted into raw count and percentage The findings of the study indicated a statistically significant difference in the students’ performance in both groups and a change in their attitudes towards the use of games to enhance students’ motivation in vocabulary learning This revealed the feasibility and educational value of games in this process

Therefore, to study lexis efficiently, students should have their motivation enhanced by games and treat them as an essential part of the lesson

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Certificate of originality i

Retention and use of the thesis ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract iv

Table of contents v

List of abbreviations x

List of pictures, tables, and figures xi

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background to the study 1

1.2 Statement of purpose 4

1.3 Significance of the study 5

1.4 Organization of the thesis 5

Chapter 2: A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF MOTIVATION AND GAMES 6

2.1 Motivation in language teaching and learning 6

2.1.1 Concept of motivation 6

2.1.2 Different kinds of motivation 7

2.1.2.1 Intrinsic motivation 8

2.1.2.2 Extrinsic motivation 8

2.2 Games 9

2.2.1 Defining games 9

2.2.2 Types of game used in lexical teaching and learning 10

2.2.2.1 Arranging game 10

2.2.2.2 Matching game 11

2.2.2.3 Information gap game 12

2.2.2.4 Opinion gap game 13

2.2.2.5 Guessing game 14

2.2.2.6 Searching game 15

2.2.3 Games used as an integral part of the lesson 16

2.2.4 Implications for stages to use games 18

2.2.5 How to organize games in class 20

2.2.6 Empirical studies on games 21

2.2.6.1 For students’ performance 22

2.2.6.2 For students’ attitude 23

2.2.6.2.1 Student motivation enhancement 23

2.2.6.2.2 Language practice chances 25

2.2.6.2.3 Cooperative learning 26

2.3 Summary 27

Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 28

3.1 Research site 28

3.2 Participants 28

3.3 Experimental design 30

3.3.1 Experimental group and controlled group 30

3.3.2 Experimental teaching 30

3.4 Kinds of instrument 33

3.4.1 Tests 33

3.4.1.1 Pretest 33

3.4.1.2 Posttest 34

3.4.2 Questionnaire 34

3.5 Analytical framework 35

3.5.1 Pretest and Posttest 35

3.5.2 Questionnaire 37

3.6 Summary 37

Chapter 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 38

4.1 Results of two tests 38

4.1.1 Pretest results 38

4.1.1.1 Experimental group 38

4.1.1.2 Controlled group 39

4.1.1.3 Pretest resemblances 39

4.1.2 Posttest results 41

4.1.2.1 Experimental group 41

4.1.2.2 Controlled group 42

4.1.2.3 Posttest differences 43

4.1.3 Comparison of pre- and post-test results of the two groups 45

4.1.4 Summary 46

4.2 Results of the questionnaire 46

4.2.1 Role of vocabulary in English learning 46

4.2.2 Use of games to enhance students’ motivation in lexical learning 48

4.2.2.1 Students’ preference of games for the stages of lexical learning 49 4.2.2.2 Methods the previous teachers used and approaches students like 50

4.2.2.3 Characteristics of games and their influence on lexical learning 52

4.2.2.3.1 Characteristics of games 52

4.2.2.3.2 Influence of games on lexical learning 52

4.2.2.3.2.1 Student motivation enhancement 52

4.2.2.3.2.2 Language practice chances 54

4.2.2.3.2.3 Cooperative learning 55

4.2.3 Possible difficulties of game introduction 56

4.2.4 Frequency of the use of games 58

4.2.5 Summary 58

4.3 Discussion of findings 59

4.3.1 Students’ performance before and after the treatment of games 59

4.3.2 Students’ attitude towards the use of games in lexical learning 60

4.3.2.1 Positive aspects 60

4.3.2.2 Negative aspects 61

4.3.2.3 Summary 62

4.4 Summary 62

Chapter 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 63

5.1 Conclusion 63

5.2 Recommendations for lexical teaching and learning 65

5.2.1 For teachers 65

5.2.1.1 How to choose and adapt games for teaching and learning lexis 65

5.2.1.2 Guidelines for setting up and using games in stages of the lesson 68

5.2.2 For students 70

5.3 Limitations of the study 71

5.4 Suggestions for further research orientation 72

5.5 Summary 72

References 73

Appendices 79

Appendix 1 Pretest 79

Appendix 2 Posttest 83

Appendix 3 Classes 114 and 118 88

Appendix 4 Questionnaire for students (in English) 89

Appendix 5 Questionnaire for students (in Vietnamese) 93

Appendix 6 Critical values of t 97

Appendix 7 Sample lesson plan 11 98

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations

ASEM Asia-Europe Meeting

CG Controlled Group

d.f degree(s) of freedom

EG Experimental Group

ETS Educational Testing Service

IELTS International English Language Testing System

M.A Master of Arts

MOET Ministry of Education and Training

NE Number of students in the Experimental Group

NC Number of students in the Controlled Group SEA South East Asia

SD Standard Deviation

Sig (2-tailed) Significance (two-tailed)

SPSS Statistic Package for the Social Sciences

TESOL Teach English to Speakers of Other Languages TOEFL Test of English as a Foreign Language

TOEIC Test of English for International Communication WTO World Trade Organization

LIST OF PICTURES, TABLES, AND FIGURES

Pictures

Picture 2.3.1 Place the instructions in the correct order 10

Picture 2.3.2 Match objects with their correct names 11

Picture 2.3.3a Describe and draw a picture 12

Picture 2.3.3b Complete the drawing 13

Picture 2.3.4 Find out suitable jobs appropriate for these pictures 14

Picture 2.3.5 Guess pictures via the description 14

Picture 2.3.6 Search items for each question in the picture 16

Tables Table 2.3.6 Find someone who can/can’t 15

Table 3.2 Information on students’ gender, age, living place, and family background 29

Table 3.3.2 Games used in the experimental teaching 31

Table 4.1.1.1 Pretest score data of the experimental group 38

Table 4.1.1.2 Pretest score data of the controlled group 39

Table 4.1.1.3 Result of the t-testpre 41

Table 4.1.2.1 Posttest score data of the experimental group 42

Table 4.1.2.2 Posttest score data of the controlled group 42

Table 4.1.2.3 Result of the t-testpost 44

Table 4.2.2.3.2.1 Games enhancing students’ motivation in lexical learning 53

Table 4.2.2.3.2.2 Games creating chances for language practice 54

Table 4.2.3 Possible difficulties of game introduction 56

Figures

Figure 3.5.1a Formulas of mean and standard deviation 36

Figure 3.5.1b Formula of the independent t-test 36

Figure 4.1.1.3 Pretest’s score distribution 40

Figure 4.1.2.3 Posttest’s score distribution 43

Figure 4.1.3.1 Changes in pre- and post-test means of the two groups 45

Figure 4.2.1a Importance of vocabulary in English learning 46

Figure 4.2.1b Students’ opinions on vocabulary assistance 47

Figure 4.2.1c Students’ current lexical knowledge before the experiment 47

Figure 4.2.1d Students’ desires of their vocabulary improvement 48

Figure 4.2.2.1a Stages of a lesson in which students liked learning lexis with games 49

Figure 4.2.2.1b Students’ opinion on using games to enhance their motivation in lexical learning 49

Figure 4.2.2.1c Students’ opinions on the application of game in lexical learning 50

Figure 4.2.2.2a Methods that the previous teachers used in lexical teaching 51

Figure 4.2.2.2b Approaches students like 51

Figure 4.2.2.3.1 Games’ characteristics of enjoyment, fun, and relaxation 52

Figure 4.2.2.3.2.1 Games promoting cooperative learning 55

Figure 4.2.4 Frequency of game use 58

Figure 5.2.1.2a Illustration on the use of game in the pre-reading stage 69

Figure 5.2.1.2b Illustration on the use of game in the while-reading stage 70

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

In its socio-cultural setting, Vietnam is quickly shifting itself for its growth One of its changes is to make administrative formalities become simple in order to attract foreign investment Notably, the government has been implementing the ‘One Door’ policy throughout the nation with the hope that it can save time and expenditure for people in asking for investment licenses Therefore, over the last ten years, the number of investors coming to Vietnam mostly from developed countries has increased dramatically and this “has facilitated the economic development of the country” (Do, 2006, p 2)

Once the economy of a country grows, its status is improved Since the late 1990s, Vietnam has widened its relationship with many countries in the world and actively participated in many international organizations Remarkably, it became a member of the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1995 and the Asia-Europe Meeting (ASEM) in 1996 In 1998, it joined in the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and has recently become a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO)

To maintain its development and status in the international arena, Vietnam really needs a labor force good at both foreign language skills and specialist knowledge One of the most important skills for them, as stated by the State President Nguyen (2009, p 1), is “the proficiency in English” because it can open new opportunities to meet various demands

First, English proficiency creates employment chances for most learners Possessing one of such certificates as TOEFL, IELTS, and TOEIC, which are widely recognized by international schools, students can have great advantages in finding jobs because “almost all jobs require a certificate in English” (Nunan, 2003, as cited

in Phan, 2005, p 7) Likewise, in job interviews, those candidates who are proficient

in English have a great advantage for looking for good jobs This contributes to a considerable increase in their income as “foreign companies and factories offer high salaries to employees with good English language competence” (Do, 2006, p 4) On the contrary, it is a disadvantage for someone weak at it “Some students may fail in their jobs if they do not master the English language” (Tran, Rhodeback, Dao, & To,

2000, p 2) and the failure is usually “the consequence for those who do not have sufficient competence in English, so they feel excluded from positions” (Phan, 2005,

p 7)

Second, English proficiency facilitates students in getting higher education in other countries It is a prerequisite for seeking a study tour in developed countries having the modern education Actually, for many recent years, there has been an influx of Vietnamese students into English-speaking countries for study purposes

According to a publication from the Institute of International Education entitled ‘Open Doors’, there were 975 Vietnamese students enrolling in degree programs in the United States in the academic year 1996-1997 as international students The number increased over 24% to 1,210 students in 1997-1998

However, not all students are successful in their English learning because

“their basic English knowledge still remains problematic and does not meet real demands” (Nguyen, 2009, p 1) A recent survey jointly conducted by the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) and the Educational Testing Service (ETS) has showed that “only around 50 percent of the students can meet the requirements in English … and very few of them are capable of using English proficiently in their studies and daily communication” (Nguyen, 2009, p 1)

One of the main reasons for this problem is the lack of adequate vocabulary Students with limited lexis often meet with difficulties in their development of language skills Even when they are at a higher level of English, they still have some problems in expressing their thinking due to the shortage of word stock “According

to the findings from a recent study at university, over three quarters of graduate students cannot communicate verbally in English because of inadequate vocabulary” (Bui, 2006, p 2) Therefore, it can be said that lexical knowledge can directly affect the success of English learning in which “students with affluent vocabulary tend to have advantages in enhancing their language skills” (Nguyen, 2006, p 2)

Although vocabulary is very important to the success of English learning, a majority of the students have not learnt it effectively yet due to the lack of motivation

in the learning process Especially, they do not really feel interested in what they are learning in class This can be seen in the way teachers and students teach and learn vocabulary respectively Instead of helping students learn and remember new words via some exciting forms of communication like games or quizzes, teachers only supply them new words taken from reading texts by “directly translating them into the mother tongue” (Le, 2005, p 14) They even introduce vocabulary to their learners in

a bilingual wordlist in both English and Vietnamese without putting them in the frequent language practice or in a relation to other words in phrases or sentences

Influenced by their teachers’ teaching style, students accordingly learn a wordlist by heart by “writing them on a piece of paper” (Nguyen & Khuat, 2003, p 1)

or by repeating them many times until they are memorized Words in the same entry

are also learnt in this way, so only some students with good memory can remember them As a result, they find that “learning vocabulary in lists does not satisfy them, and they think the cause for this is just their bad memorization” (Gnoinska, 1998, as cited in Nguyen & Khuat, 2003, p 3).Such mechanical learning surely causes them a feeling of boredom and indigestibleness and has a negative influence on their lexical learning To put it another way, it does not bring about interest for them in their learning process

To overcome this problem, the researcher begins to look for and apply appropriate techniques to enhance students’ motivation so that they can learn lexis effectively One of them is the use of games Up to now, there have been many studies

on using games in teaching and learning vocabulary such as those by Huynh (2007), Leman (1998), Nguyen (2006), Nguyen and Khuat (2003), and Uberman (1998) However, these researchers have not studied and emphasized the use of games to enhance students’ motivation in vocabulary learning yet As such, it is necessary to consider that issue as its main point of focus in the research process

1.2 Statement of purpose

Thus the study aims at investigating the effectiveness of students’ motivation enhanced by games in their vocabulary learning To achieve this, it tries to find out the answer to the following main research question:

To what extent can games enhance students’ motivation in vocabulary learning?

To answer this main research question, an understanding of students’ lexical performance after the treatment of games as well as their effect on the learner attitude

in vocabulary learning is necessary That is the reason why the two following questions should be addressed before the main question can be answered

sub-1 What is students’ lexical performance under the treatment of games – a factor enhancing their motivation?

2 What is their attitude towards the use of games in lexical learning?

To clarify the second sub-question, it is necessary to answer the two questions below:

2.1 What do students think about the influence of games on their lexical learning in terms of motivation enhancement, language practice chances, and cooperative learning?

2.2 What are the possible difficulties of game introduction?

1.3 Significance of the study

This study provides teachers with knowledge of some kinds of game and gives them fundamental instructions in dealing with teaching vocabulary in terms of the enhancement of student motivation It also supplies guidelines for students to enhance their motivation in learning lexis effectively through games Thus it contributes to their improvement of vocabulary performance and learning attitude Hopefully, this research orientation will help students improve their lexical knowledge considerably and change their attitude towards vocabulary learning

1.4 Organization of the thesis

The study is organized in five chapters Chapter 1 is an introduction to the study It includes background to the study, statement of purpose, significance of the study, and organization of the thesis Chapter 2 is a literature review It deals with students’ motivation enhanced by games Therefore, beside the theory of motivation

in terms of definition and classification, the theoretical framework of games is shaped

It involves definition, kinds of game used in class, implications for stages to use games, and empirical research concerning games in lexical teaching and learning Chapter 3 is about research methodology It justifies the research methodology in terms of the research site, participants, experimental design, kinds of instrument, and analytical framework Chapter 4 presents data analysis and discussion of findings It reports the results of the tests and questionnaire before the findings are withdrawn Chapter 5 makes a conclusion, gives recommendations and limitations, and suggests further research orientation

a theoretical framework of motivation including its definition and classification Following it are games, an important factor for student motivation enhancement in vocabulary learning Their theory consists of definition, types used in lexical teaching and learning, the treatment as an integral part of the lesson, implications for the use in different stages, way of organizing games in class, and empirical studies related to the influence of games on students’ performance and attitude in lexicallearning.

2.1 Motivation in language teaching and learning

Motivation is one of the most important elements in language learning It makes learners interested in what they are studying in the classroom Maintaining high motivation is one of the best ways for students to obtain their goals successfully Once as each individual is motivated, he/she is willing to invest his/her effort in classroom activities enthusiastically To know about this term, let us examine its definitions first

2.1.1 Concept of motivation

The term motivation was firstly mentioned in the Need Hierarchy Theory in Maslow’s study in 1954 It included “deficiency needs and growth needs” (Maslow,

1950, p 5) Then, it continued to be researched by Vroom (1964, p 3), who defined it

as “a combination of expectancy with instrumentality and the value of obtaining goal”

Some years later, it was clarified by Gardner and Lampert (1972) via integrative and instrumental orientation and by Deci (1975) with intrinsic and extrinsic distinction

Until 1981, Kleinginna and Kleinginna had a clear definition of this notion They considered it “an internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need or want) that serves to energize behavior and give it direction” (p 98) In addition, Gardner (1985, p 10) treated it as “an extent to which each individual works or strives

to learn a language because of a desire to do so and a satisfaction experienced in this activity”

Besides, Crookes and Schmidt (1991) stated that motivation is a multi-factorial entity including reason for learning, aspiration to attain the learning aim, positive attitude towards the learning situation, and effortful behavior

Thanks to these factors, learners can overcome their difficulties and obtain the aim actively Nunan (1999, p 232) indicates that this is “the result in the motivated students who tend to make great effort to achieve the learning goal favorably”

In short, different as its definitions are, the term motivation has an important

common point in the fact that it is a desire that prompts somebody to pursue a course

of action with interest and enthusiasm Therefore, a student having a need towards an end is regarded as a motivated person and someone with no impetus to gain a learning goal is characterized as an unmotivated one

Apparently, motivation is an important factor in language learning It encourages learners to achieve their aim actively To know more about it, let us clarify its classification in the following section

2.1.2 Different kinds of motivation

Although motivation is divided into different types, this study only presents the intrinsic and extrinsic distinction The first one comes from inside while the second one is from outside The following sub-sections will make an elaboration upon this distinction

2.1.2.1 Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is “an activity with an internal reward People seem to engage in the activities for their own sake but do not lead to an extrinsic incentive” (Dornyei, 2000, p 275) In language learning, it encourages learners to actively participate in classroom tasks with an enjoyment and curiosity in finding answers to a matter Students having intrinsically motivated behaviors tend to do the work with an interest and a desire of their conscious knowledge improvement This brings about

“certain internally rewarding consequences, namely, feelings of competence and determination” (Brown, 2000, p 164) rather than about the external awards

self-In addition, intrinsic motivation encourages students to make a great effort in their learning Students who are highly intrinsically motivated are often willing to encounter and overcome difficulties to study better “They tend to invest their most time and energy in their learning process responsibly” (Csizér & DÖrnyei, 2005, p 35) Therefore, their actions are not affected by a pressure outside but a need of the knowledge satisfaction They are internally motivated to do something because this brings them a pleasure Inferentially, what they are learning is morally significant

2.1.2.2 Extrinsic motivation

Contrary to intrinsic motivation, extrinsic one is an element affecting students’ learning from outside When students are extrinsically motivated, they engage in learning “purely for the sake of attaining a reward or for avoiding some punishment, such as grades, stickers, or teacher approval” (Lepper, 1998, p 132) They also take part in tasks because “they feel motivated thanks to an exciting teaching technique” (Nunan, 1999, p 13) that the teacher uses in class Therefore, what they do in class is not simply “to pursue an external reward from someone else, but to show their interest

in the lesson due to the way of activity organized” (Brown, 2000, p 162)

In reality, not all teachers always have great performances to attract students’ interest in their lessons Especially, in traditional settings where the teacher dominates

in class, students tend to be demotivated and “fail in collaboration of language

learning” (Ur, 1996, p 276) To help them learn the target language better, it is time their motivation needed enhancing so that they could achieve their goal successfully via an exciting teaching technique Thus in this study, games are used as a useful element to foster students’ motivation in lexical learning externally Details on them are presented right below

In addition, “game-based activities can increase language practice such as describing, predicting, simplifying, and asking for feedback through tasks of filling in questionnaires and guessing unknown information” (McDonough, 1993, p 564)

Specifically, a language game can be characterized in accordance with certain criteria It contains “an element of cooperation necessary for its completeness” (Toth,

1998, p 25) This guarantees a valuable learning experience in which students can use and revise language in a meaningful way A game also includes “a score given at its end, a result, and a winner” (Lewis, 2000, p 164)

Moreover, a game is considered as “a welcome break from the usual routine of the language class” It contributes to “the enhancement of student motivation, the effort of learning, and language practice in various skills” (Nguyen & Khuat, 2003, p 4) when they are used in the classroom

Therefore, it can be seen that games are a set of the factors presented above However, this study pays much attention to three aspects of games They are the enhancement of student motivation, the increase of language practice chances, and the cooperative learning

2.2.2 Types of game used in lexical teaching and learning

According to Fluegelman (1981) and Romp (1997), games can be split into two types: competitive and cooperative games For the first one, the players compete with each other to gain a goal as quickly as possible However, for the second one, they work together to find out the answer to a common problem

Meanwhile, Cruickhank (1997) calls cooperative and competitive games with two other names: academic and non-academic ones He claims that the former is primarily introduced into the classroom environment whereas the latter is mainly used

in other fierce contests outside the class

Although games are divided into two types, only the cooperative one is used in this study The following are its six particular games used in class

2.2.2.1 Arranging game

Arranging game is also called ‘sequencing or ordering’ one, in which the players “must acquire information or act on it in order to arrange items in a specific order” (Hadfield, 1990, p vi) Items in the game are put in an order according to a particular norm that depends on its requirements They may be events in a narrative or directions for operating a device The following game is an example in which players have to place instructions in a correct order so that machines can work properly

Picture 2.3.1 Place the instructions in the correct order (Hamel, 2009, p 7)

2.2.2.2 Matching game

Matching game is based on “a transfer of information or fitting together principles It involves matching cards or pictures with their corresponding activities” (Hadfield, 1990, p vi) and even connects a word with its suitable definition Another form of this kind of game is implemented via a picture board in which each pair of students is delivered a card containing several names of the objects stated in the board The students have to match each object with its correct name they have in their own cards The game below is an example

Picture 2.3.2 Match objects with their correct names (Hamel, 2009, p 17)

A suit, a dress, a pair of

jeans, a hat, a handbag

A tie, a blouse, a short, gloves,

a jacket

A shirt, a skirt, a sandal, a scarf,

a suit

A jacket, a pullover, a tie, a

hat, a blouse

A t-shirt, a sweatshirt, a pair of shoes, a short, gloves

A pair of trousers, a boot, a pair

of slippers, a dress, a sandal

2.2.2.3 Information gap game

Information gap game is usually based on the information gap principle and played via pairs or groups of student In this activity, students with different pieces of information share items with each other to “complete a task” (Harmer, 1991, p 95) When playing this game, (1) a student tries to find out some information known by the other via questions; (2) he/she tells information to others; or (3) they both have

different information and share with each other Its two representatives are Describe

and draw and Complete it

In Describe and draw game, a player describes a picture to the others who are

not allowed to see it Spontaneously, they have to draw its details they catch from the description Of course, they may ask questions for clarification of unclear points and discuss any difficulties among themselves A further talk can take place when pictures, both the origin and its versions, are compared with each other In particular, looking at the picture below, a student can describe it whereas the others draw what they hear from his/her depiction

Picture 2.3.3a Describe and draw a picture (Byrne, 1987, p 26)

In Complete it game, each player has a picture that omits some significant

details The players have to ask the speaker for some information so that they can add omitted details to complete their own pictures Of course, these participants are not allowed to see the pictures of the others until they have finished their new version

They then compare their pictures with the origin While playing games, they use given words as cues related to the details of the picture to ask each other For example, in the following game, they can use some given words such as ‘bird, mountain, river, smoke chimney, window, curtain, door, and tree’ in order to locate where those things appear in the picture In this game, a player describes picture A while the others listen and complete picture B If there is something making them confused, they can ask about it again

Picture 2.3.3b Complete the drawing (Watcyn-Jones, 1995, p 111)

2.2.2.4 Opinion gap game

Opinion gap game is a useful activity for students to work in pairs and groups

In this activity, “a player gains common points if he persuades others to agree with

A

B

him about something” (Byrne, 1991, p 101) For example, in the game Find the right

jobs, a player tries to convince the others by logical explanations based on real objects

or pictures Therefore, with the same thing, he/she can refer to different jobs provided that his/her arguments sound appropriate for the object he/she has This can be illustrated in the following game in which players link each occupation with a particular thing on the board

Picture 2.3.4 Find out suitable jobs appropriate for these pictures (Hamel, 2009, p 56)

2.2.2.5 Guessing game

Unlike the opinion gap game, the guessing one is conducted by players basing themselves on particular cues provided by a player through questions Thus it is useful for small or large groups where the player tries to “describe something to his/her neighbors without naming it until their guess” (Willis, 1981, p 104) More importantly, it is good for “practicing and reviewing a wide range of vocabulary” (Byrne, 1991, p 40) The game below is an example for this

Picture 2.3.5 Guess pictures via the description (Hamel, 2009, p 72)

2.2.2.6 Searching game

Searching game is a familiar variant of the information gap principle To play

it, players have to search essential information possessed by others to fill in the grid Thus they are themselves “both givers and collectors of information” (Hadfield, 1990,

p vi) and bring real life activities into the classroom where new words are used

frequently in communication The game Find someone who can … below is an

example

drive speak two

languages type

play an instrument swim Tony

to answer 13 questions kept secret on the board Each time an item is chosen and opened by the players before it is answered

In short, the description of the six kinds of cooperative game above is to help readers have a general recognition about them This will be discussed in the following two sections presenting games as an integral part of the lesson and stages for using them

Picture 2.3.6 Search items for each question in the picture (Hamel, 2009, p 57)

2.2.3 Games used as an integral part of the lesson

Using games in lexical teaching is necessary They should be treated as “an integral part of the language teaching program” (Lee, 1979, p 3) and supported by many researchers

For instance, according to Doff (1988, pp 209-219) and Jones (1993, p v), most game-based activities generating a lot of excitement are regarded as important

components in language teaching and learning They agree that although games tend

to be noisy and make students lapse into the use of their first language, they are valuable for vocabulary teaching and learning Therefore, “most authors agree that even if games result only in entertaining students, they are still worth paying attention

to and implementing them in the classroom since they motivate learners, promote communicative competence, and generate fluency” (Uberman, 1998, p 20)

Regardless of what language students use, if they are sufficiently stimulated by

a game-based activity, the application of games will have a positive effect in lexical teaching and learning More importantly, “learning lexis through games can encourage the operation of certain psychological and intellectual factors which can facilitate communication heightening self-esteem, motivation and spontaneity, reinforcing learning, and building confidence” (Huang, 1996, as cited in Nguyen & Khuat, 2003, p 3)

Besides, as claimed by Hadfield (1990), games are not just time-filling activities but have a great value in language teaching and learning In particular, Lee (1995) states that most vocabulary games make learners use the language instead of thinking about learning the correct forms Therefore, he officially suggests that

“games should not be regarded as marginal activities filling in odd moments when the teacher and his/her class have nothing better to do” (p 3)

More apparently, “games should not just be regarded as an extra activity” (Doff, 1988, p 212) They ought to be at the heart of this process because they help students sustain their motivation and learn English effectively The teacher can also use games for the language practice rather than for the entertainment only “Games should be regarded as an integral part of the curriculum and should not just be an amusing diversion on a Monday morning or Friday afternoon” (Pullara, 2006, p 1)

Thus “if it is accepted that games can provide students with intensive and meaningful practice of language, they must be regarded as central to a teacher's repertoire and they are not for using solely on wet days and at the end of term” (Wright, Betteridge, & Buckby, 1984, p 1) Accordingly, Rixon (1994, as cited in

Uberman, 1998, p 2) strongly recommends that games should be used at all stages of the lesson provided that they are carefully chosen For example, at first, games may provide students with a good model to make words’ meanings clear Next, they elicit good imitation of new language and appropriate responses and later they give them a chance to use the language freely

It can be said that the benefits games bring to the lexical teaching and learning process cannot be denied Hence they need treating as a significant activity in vocabulary teaching However, in order to achieve the most from learning lexis, it is essential that games must be well chosen before instructed in different stages of the lesson This will be presented in the section below

2.2.4 Implications for stages to use games

Most teachers know that boredom and anxiety are considered the enemies of language learning Therefore, finding an amusing and challenging environment for students to learn the target language effectively is necessary To meet this requirement, games are implicated to be held via three stages of the lesson and their feasibility is confirmed by Harmer (1991, p 101) that “games can be used at any stage

of a class.”

For the pre-stage, games are used as warm-up or “ice-breaking activities for checking what students remember about the previous lesson” (Amato, 1988, p 147) This helps students recall new words they have learnt in advance before they start learning new materials In this stage, games on matching, arranging, or guessing can

be applied

First, the matching game is a popular activity in language classroom It is used

to check students’ understanding of lexis Its common forms that can be introduced into are word brick, word formation, word matching, and SEA countries Via these activities, students can review vocabulary of previous lessons and even brainstorm lexical items for a new learning topic Hence these games are good for the earliest step of the lesson

Second, it is with the arranging game that students can select and classify words according to a particular topic Some of its popular versions are describe and arrange, category, odd one out, and jumbled letter These games help students recognize words and their meanings when they decide to arrange them into a particular order More importantly, they can “retain new words in a pleasant and entertaining way” (Uberman, 1998, p 20) before the new lesson begins Hence they have a good chance to learn and capture new words easily

Third, the guessing game is used as a lead-in activity It helps students guess or predict words related to a learning topic in a new lesson This activity is appropriate for “arousing learner interest” (Ur, 1996, p 280) and “brainstorming lexical items” (Davies, 2000, p 93) related to the text Consequently, it is suitable for the first stage

of the lesson because it creates a need for students to read and find essential information in a text

For the while-stage, the teacher checks students’ comprehension via two games

of information gap and searching

The former is introduced to help students exchange information to complete a task based on a valuable text Remarkably, this kind of game creates a real need of communication for “seeking information” (Davies, 2000, p 43) Therefore, it stimulates cooperation among players Through this game, their vocabulary is manipulated in practice frequently

Unlike information gap game, searching one is used to increase students’ ability on information searching and understanding It helps them gain needed items

as fast as possible For example, to play the game Find someone who … the players

have to carry out an interview so that they can get necessary items In this case, they are both suppliers and collectors of information Via interaction, they can “use new words in their communication naturally” (Nunan, 1999, p 47)

For the post-stage, some games opinion gap, or even searching, and guessing can be instructed in class They help students express their own thinking on a learning

topic by using new words presented and practiced in the two previous stages Therefore, students have a good chance to reuse vocabulary in their further practice and, more importantly, “to improve their lexical knowledge” (ibid, p 48)

To sum up, the introduction of games in three stages of the lesson is essential and feasible It creates chances for students to improve their lexical knowledge through the frequent language use

2.2.5 How to organize games in class

To intensify the effectiveness of games in the enhancement of student motivation in lexical learning, it is necessary for games to be organized in pairs and groups due to the following four reasons

First, playing games through pairs and groups, students can learn from each other In an English class, there may be both weak and strong students The division

of class into groups with different levels is essential because “students can help each other via sharing ideas and knowledge” (Doff, 1988, p 141) It is not strange to hear that students sometimes learn English from their classmates better than they learn it from their teacher For instance, in class, a student does not understand the teacher’s explanation, but with the help of his/her classmates, he/she can take the matter more easily (Tudor, 1996, p 51) Consequently, playing games in pairs and groups facilitates their improvement of lexical knowledge through the cooperative learning

Second, playing games in small groups can help “students feel secure in their learning” (Doff, 1988, p 141) Instead of being nervous from the teacher’s tight observation, games bring comfort to them when they work with each other For shy students who are not familiar with manipulating vocabulary in their practice, working

in groups makes them more relaxed and self-confident in trying to put their English language in communication This is confirmed by Davies (2000, p 13) that “game-based activities in pairs and groups are good for building confidence Especially for shy learners, they offer a less threatening environment” where they feel safe and comfortable with their learning

Third, the diversity of activities is another advantage of organizing cooperative games It must be said that thanks to various tasks, students feel interested in language learning “The more different games are used, the more motivated students become Accordingly, games contribute to the break up of the boring lesson, the stimulation of student curiosity, and the promotion of their involvement in the tasks” (Byrne, 1987,

p 31) As a result, they increase the students’ vocabulary practice More remarkably, they “encourage student cooperation” (Harmer, 1991, p 244) in the classroom environment and, from that, enhance their motivation If so, using various games in English teaching and learning is a beneficial feature that needs sustaining

Finally, games held in pairs and groups are good for checking students' progress The teacher can do this while teaching in class, but students do not know that As walking round the class and listening to them, the teacher can take notes of their common mistakes and discover whether they understand the lesson or not Through games, he/she has “more opportunities to pay attention to a particular student

… who needs special help” (Harmer, 2007, p 44) From that, he/she can evaluate and adjust games more appropriately for learners’ level and different stages of the lesson

In summary, games implemented via pair and group work can bring about considerable benefits for lexical learning They create a good chance for students to learn from each other in solving a common problem As a result, shy students feel safe and comfortable instead of being worried about their learning due to the teacher’s tight control Besides, the diversity of games contributes to the increase of student motivation and participation in language learning Especially, the teacher can evaluate their progress in lexical learning when they work with each other This can be seen through empirical studies in the following section

2.2.6 Empirical studies on games

Although games have a great influence on vocabulary learning in different ways, the study only pays much attention to their impact on learners’ performance and

attitude in learning lexis

2.2.6.1 For students’ performance

Currently, there are several empirical studies that highly appreciate the positive effect of games on students’ lexical performance Particularly, in the study of The Effects of Utilizing Games in Teaching Vocabulary to Lower School Students, Leman (1998) saw the effectiveness of games in teaching lexis for 2nd graders In his research, various kinds of lexical game were introduced into the experimental group (EG) Meanwhile, in the controlled group (CG), new words were taught in traditional ways At the end of the experiment, participants in both groups were evaluated via a test, which mainly focused on vocabulary in a form of gap filling and a short paragraph writing The result was that the first group lexically performed much better than the second one

Similarly, in the study of The Use of Games for Vocabulary Presentation and Revision, Uberman (1998) found that using language games in presenting and revising lexis was more effective than learning it in the traditional method To clarify this, she let her students do a test containing a translation from the first language to the second one, a match of sixteen idioms with their definitions after the end of the experimental teaching The result of the test revealed that the average score of the EG was much higher than that of the CG This indicated that games contributed to the improvement of the students’ lexical performance

Besides, the positive effect of games on lexical learning could be seen in the study of The Effectiveness of Learning Vocabulary through Games carried out by Nguyen and Khuat (2003) These two researchers used different games to review students’ lexical knowledge In particular, to check learners’ vocabulary on parts of

body, they used the game Simon says in which some following statements were used

“Simon says: put your hands on your head”, “Simon says: stand straight up”, “Simon says: close your eyes …” (ibid., p 7) The result showed that 19/20 students did exactly what the game required For checking students’ understanding of the reading

passage, they used the game Advertisement poster, which talked about the vacation in

the United States In this game, the students were asked to produce another piece of

advertisement by basing themselves on the available one Surprisingly, they could use similar words and structures to create a short and interesting one

Likewise, the researchers of the two other studies The Use of Games in Teaching Vocabulary (Nguyen, 2006) and Using Games to Motivate Students in Learning Vocabulary at Tien Giang High School for Gifted Students (Huynh, 2007) came to a similar result after the end of their experimental teaching They found out a statistically significant difference between the posttest scores of the EG and the CG,

in which the result of the former was higher than that of the latter

Therefore, it can be said that games empirically contribute to the considerable improvement of the students’ lexical performance

2.2.6.2 For students’ attitude

Apart from their important contribution to students’ progress in lexical performance, games have positive effects on their attitudes towards vocabulary learning in terms of student motivation enhancement, language practice chances, and cooperative learning

2.2.6.2.1 Student motivation enhancement

Games contribute to the enhancement of student motivation in lexical learning

in terms of the creativeness of an enjoyable atmosphere, the maintenance of motivation, the reduction of anxiety, and the shortening of distance between the teacher and students

First, games create a relaxing atmosphere where fun and enjoyment are offered As indicated by Nguyen and Khuat (2003, p 1), “games bring relaxation and amusement to students” These elements make learning easier because “they have the opportunity to use language in a non-stressful way” (Uberman, 1998, as cited in Chen,

2005, p 1) Therefore, in Nguyen and Khuat’s research in 2003, most of the learners (17/20) enjoyed playing games in groups They especially liked such games as hangman, animal squares, and advertisement poster and collaborated with each other quite actively in these games They said that they loved the relaxing and motivating

atmosphere that games brought about the classroom The result was that 19/20 of them put forth ideas without fear of their weaknesses or errors exposed to the teacher They added that in such a wonderful environment, games gave them an ideal condition for learning lexis effectively

Second, games can maintain students’ motivation in vocabulary learning In particular, they “bring fun to classroom” (Nguyen & Khuat, 2003, p 9) and prompt students to learn lexis better In her study, Nguyen (2006, p 35) sustained the

students’ motivation by using the game Brainstorm round a word In this game, each

group was given a topic, and working independently in a limited time The result revealed that 18 students in the EG worked quite better than 20 ones in the CG This proves that games were really effective for the enhancement of student motivation because they created a good chance for them to learn new words conveniently Thus it can be said that games were among the factors that are able to sustain students’ motivation in lexical learning

Third, games can reduce students’ anxiety in vocabulary learning In her

research, Lee (1995, as cited in Nguyen, 2006, p 36) used the game Draw a word to

lower her students’ fear This game was used as a warm-up activity To play it, words were written on small pieces of paper that were folded up and then put in a box The teacher divided the class of 20 students into 5 groups and appointed a timekeeper

When the timekeeper said Let’s begin, the representative started to draw a picture

about the word and the group members tried to guess which word the picture referred

to in a limited time Then, the next group took their turn The process continued until the end The result unveiled that 18/20 students in 5 groups could predict the words exactly and, more importantly, they felt more confident in playing the game and wanted to play more

Finally, games can shorten the distance between the teacher and students When introduced into the classroom, games often bring them pleasant feelings They attract their attention to lexical learning and contribute to the improvement of their rapport rather than their avoidance from each other For the two questions “How can

your classmates help you learn through the game?” and “Is your relationship improved when you play games with each other?”, Nguyen and Khuat (2003, p 7) found that all 20 students agreed that their teacher and friends helped them a lot in vocabulary learning Among them, 12 students said that their friendship was quite good and there was no barrier in their relation when they worked with each other Thus it can be seen that games could create a continuous connection and build a good rapport between them They provided students with a less threatening learning environment From that, the gap between the teacher and students was not a big challenge as they worked with each other

In short, games are very useful because they create a pleasant climate in class and enhance students’ motivation in learning lexis Therefore, they feel confident rather than anxious about their learning More importantly, the distance between them and their teacher can be shortened

2.2.6.2.2 Language practice chances

Aside from the enhancement of motivation, games provide students with many opportunities for effective language practice in terms of the increase of their talking time, the promotion of the frequent language use, and the active participation of the shy students in classroom activities

First, games encourage students to spend more time discussing with each other When playing them in class, players use English as a means of communication This contributes to the increase of student-talking time in class In the study conducted by Nguyen and Khuat in 2003, a great number of the students (17/20) agreed that games stimulated them to talk with each other Even shy students could positively participate

in classroom activities though the degree for using it might be different They also added that playing games was very exciting Many students wanted to have more time

to play games thanks to their fun helpful for their learning

Second, games prompt students to use the target language frequently They bring a real context into the classroom environment and serve as “excellently

communicative activities” (Saricoban & Metin, 2000, p 56) This fosters “students’ negotiating ability” (McFarlane, Sparrowhawk, & Heald, 2002, p 13) and, more importantly, they can use English actively even when “reluctantly talking to each

other” (Lewis, 2000, p 1) In her study, Nguyen (2006, p 43) used the game Say it

another way to stimulate her students to express an idea in different ways in English

The result showed that all the students (18/18) could use their foreign language frequently in their communication

Finally, games urge students to participate in classroom activities actively In

an English class, they are considered as a motivational factor that can “add diversion

to the regular classroom activities… and introduce new ideas” (Amato, 1988, p 147) They attract students’ engagement in these tasks enthusiastically because they are

“amusing and motivating” (Ersoz, 2000, p 1) They can arouse curiosity from the students who desire to find the answer to the problem that they give out In an exciting atmosphere, students, especially shy ones, can eagerly take part in and work with other members effectively This was reported in Nguyen and Khuat’s study in 2003

In their research, many games were used, but those that students liked best were word

guessing, word puzzle, and advertisement The result revealed that 17/20 learners,

including the quiet ones, were willing to join these games quite actively The researchers said that they enjoyed the relaxing atmosphere that games brought about the classroom Consequently, the students engaged themselves in games enjoyably

In short, games can bring about chances for learners to practice the target language frequently

2.2.6.2.3 Cooperative learning

The cooperation among learners can be seen when they work with each other

in the same groups or teams This cooperation is to solve a common problem they are facing It “provides a valuable impetus to a purposeful use of language, creates a meaningful context for communication, and makes learners intensively concentrate on their vocabulary learning” (Prasad, 2003, p 5) Notably, students “feel more responsible for their learning by assisting one another” (ibid, p 6) Thus games give

them a chance to share learning experiences in dealing with challenges In her study, Huynh (2007, p 56) stated that the cooperation in games among students was so great The result of the classroom observation showed that there were 29/30 students

in the EG well collaborating with their partners in dealing with the issue of the game These students expressed that learning lexis with games was a wonderful experience They confirmed that they had opportunities to practice their vocabulary in communication and, more importantly, cooperated with each other to find out the solution to the issue that games gave out Evidently, games really became a positive factor urging students to work with each other cooperatively

In conclusion, games have great effects on students’ performance and attitude

As for the latter, they contribute to the enhancement of learner motivation in vocabulary learning, the creativeness of chances for using the target language frequently, and the facilitation for cooperative learning

2.3 Summary

So far, Chapter 2 has addressed motivation with an overview of its definition and classification Following this part are games that were introduced to enhance students’ motivation The section includes their definition and types used in lexical teaching and learning Then games are treated as an integral component of the lesson before implications for stages and organization are set out The chapter also indicates some empirical studies on games affecting students’ performance and attitude