INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Since the introduction of the credit-based system in 2006 at the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature (EF) of the University of Social Sciences and Humanities (USSH), the curriculum has undergone significant changes These updates include the development of new courses and requirements aimed at addressing the growing needs in the teaching and learning of English as a Foreign Language (EFL).
The Academic Writing (AW) course is a mandatory requirement for all English majors, taken after completing fundamental language skills courses in the initial semesters This four-credit course consists of 60 periods, equivalent to twelve 5-period class meetings Designed as an intermediate course, AW focuses on enhancing students' writing skills for academic purposes and prepares them for future courses with more rigorous academic writing demands.
The academic English writing course emphasizes essential skills and genres, teaching students to craft effective topic sentences and thesis statements, as well as to outline and organize their paragraphs and essays Participants will learn to connect ideas cohesively and produce various types of writing, including different paragraph styles and essay formats The course utilizes two primary textbooks: "Reason to Write – Strategies for Success in Academic Writing" by Cohen and Miller (2003) and "Writing Academic English" by Oshima and Hogue.
(1991) clearly highlight writing skills and mechanics
Student performance is assessed through written assignments during the course, including a midterm test that contributes 30% and a final test that accounts for 70% of their total score Both tests consist of two sections: one focusing on academic writing theories and the other on paragraph or essay writing Throughout the course, students must complete various compositions that demonstrate their writing and language skills.
Various approaches to language teaching exist, each with distinct focuses and requirements Currently, the most prevalent methods in English Language Teaching (ELT) include Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and Task-Based Learning Additionally, the Lexical Approach has emerged as an alternative method for language instruction.
The Lexical Approach (LA), introduced by Michael Lewis in 1993, emphasizes the importance of vocabulary in English Language Teaching (ELT) over traditional grammar-focused methods This innovative approach challenges previous teaching techniques, such as the grammar-translation method, by prioritizing vocabulary acquisition as the key element in language learning and teaching.
The approach emphasizes grammaticalized lexis over lexicalized grammar, with collocation at its core, defined as the regular co-occurrence of words in a language This concept is considered vital for language learning and effective communication Initially, there were numerous objections to the Lexical Approach (LA) when it was first introduced, but it has gradually integrated into EFL classrooms, demonstrating its effectiveness in language teaching and learning (Lewis, 2000a).
Despite the growing popularity of Los Angeles, communicative language teaching (CLT) remains a dominant approach, emphasizing learner interactions to enhance communicative proficiency and fluency.
Both approaches emphasize the importance of communication, highlighting that effective language learning centers around the learner's ability to communicate fluently Language Acquisition (LA) specifically prioritizes the communication of meaning as a fundamental aspect of language and language learning.
Even though the two approaches are more or less alike in their focus, it appears that CLT does not lay its emphasis on prefabricated chunks There is a belief, in
In language acquisition, lexical words and phrases serve as the primary carriers of meaning, effectively integrating grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation This holistic approach not only enhances learners' understanding but also enables them to apply the language they encounter in real communication.
In Vietnam, and specifically within English as a Foreign (EF) context, the teaching of English prefabricated chunks remains an underexplored approach among educators This is largely due to the predominant focus on developing core language skills—reading, writing, listening, and speaking—during classroom time Additionally, many teachers may not fully recognize the critical role that lexis plays in language acquisition, which motivated the researcher to conduct this study.
Since the 1990s, perspectives on vocabulary teaching and learning have evolved, shifting the focus from grammatical structures to vocabulary and its combinations This change emphasizes the importance of using lexical phrases, or chunks, in language learning Among these lexical chunks, collocations—such as "bitter criticism" and "rekindle friendship"—are considered fundamental to language acquisition.
Collocation has emerged as a critical focus in foreign language teaching and learning, particularly in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Researchers such as Brown (1974), Bahns and Eldaw (1994), and Lewis (1993) have highlighted its importance, agreeing that collocation enhances learners' vocabulary and communicative competence Furthermore, it serves as a key differentiator between native and non-native speakers (Schmitt, 2000; Nation, 2001) The consensus among these studies is that a strong understanding of collocation is essential for EFL learners, advocating for its integration into EFL curricula.
EFL learners frequently struggle with collocation errors in both written and spoken English due to insufficient collocational knowledge, as evidenced by various studies (Bahns and Eldaw, 1994; Farghal and Obiedat, 1995; Brashi, 2006; Hsu, 2007; Huang, 2001; Li, 2005; Parastuti, 2005; Sun & Shang, 2010; Darvishi, 2011) Common mistakes include phrases like "expensive price" and "learn knowledge," highlighting a lack of focus on collocations in EFL instruction To address this issue, researchers recommend that educators enhance students' understanding of collocations by increasing awareness through error identification, correction, and the introduction of relevant collocations.
1 The use of an asterisk (*) henceforth is an indication of a collocational error
2 The single form of the word “collocation” refers to the general phenomenon in which words collocate with each other, while the plural form indicates individual cases of collocation
Students at EF often struggle with collocation errors in their written assignments, highlighting the challenges of precise word use in writing (Tran, T H., 2012) Even those with high English proficiency, as noted by Nesselhauf (2003), tend to make more collocation mistakes due to their use of complex vocabulary While they manage common phrases like "do exercise" or "make a cake," they frequently falter with less familiar collocations, such as "*meet a problem" or "*wide knowledge," instead of the correct forms "have/face a problem" and "vast knowledge." These errors not only affect their proficiency level but also their overall mastery of the language.
AIM OF THE STUDY
Many English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students frequently make errors in lexical collocations in their writing This raises the question of the underlying reasons for these mistakes A thorough examination of this issue is necessary to understand the phenomenon and explore its potential causes.
The current study was conducted to address a significant research gap in the teaching of lexical collocations within the Academic Writing (AW) course, which requires high English proficiency and frequent written assignments This investigation aims to explore the teaching practices and learning environments related to lexical collocations among English sophomores at EF, USSH, highlighting the necessity of aligning theoretical frameworks with contemporary pedagogical practices.
THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Collocation has become increasingly important in recent decades, yet it remains largely unintegrated into language teaching, particularly in writing courses Furthermore, there is a notable lack of extensive research focused on collocations, especially lexical collocations.
EF, USSH Also, as above mentioned, there can only be found few studies conducted on the teaching of collocations in writing courses for English majors
Based on extensive teaching experience in prior writing courses, the researcher asserts that instructing students on lexical collocations in academic writing (AW) is both essential and advantageous This approach significantly enhances the language input available to learners, facilitating their ability to convert this input into meaningful intake, ultimately leading to improved fluency in communication (Lewis, 2000a).
The two aforementioned issues led the researcher to generate the following research questions in order to accomplish the earlier stated aim:
(1) What are the current teaching practices of lexical collocations in AW?
(2) What is the current situation of the learning of lexical collocations in AW?
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
With such an aim fulfilled by answering such a research question, the study gained significance in some following aspects
The study offers significant theoretical insights by thoroughly reviewing literature on the theoretical aspects and pedagogical justifications of teaching collocations in language skills classrooms Additionally, it highlights the practical implementation of lexical collocations in Academic Writing at EF, USSH, revealing key findings that enhance understanding of effective teaching strategies.
AW students‟ knowledge of collocation and the lexical collocational errors they made in AW final test papers
The study contributed significantly to the teaching of Academic Writing (AW) by offering recommendations for effectively teaching and learning lexical collocations, which can help students minimize errors in their usage Given the essential role of collocation in language proficiency, it is crucial to integrate collocation instruction into other language skills courses as well.
TERMINOLOGY
This section will clarify the key terms utilized in the study, which centers on lexical collocations, a fundamental aspect of language acquisition (LA) As outlined by Richards and Schmidt, understanding these terms is essential for comprehending the research findings.
In 2002, LA defined language teaching as focusing on words and lexical phrases as the fundamental elements of learning, rather than grammar or functions This approach emphasizes the significance of vocabulary in effective language acquisition.
The "lexis-based approach to language teaching," as described by Richards and Rodgers (2001), emphasizes the importance of collocation, which is defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary as a frequent combination of words that occurs more often than by chance A more detailed exploration of this concept will be provided in the subsequent chapter, focusing on the review of related literature.
In addition to those major terms, there were also scattered a number of other technical terms used in the study as follows:
- Delexicalized words: words that still carry some definite meaning even out of context (Lewis, 2000a)
- Corpus: a collection of (both spoken and written) texts (Lewis, 2000a)
- Concordancer: “software that searches for words of phrases in a corpus and displays the selected item or items in a list together with their surrounding context” (Richards & Schmidt, 2002, p 104)
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study focused on the practical teaching of lexical collocations in the Academic Writing (AW) course during the second semester of the 2012-2013 academic year at EF, USSH It aimed to analyze teaching practices and qualitatively assess the lexical collocational errors made by students However, the study's limited sampling strategy and specific research site affected its generalizability Despite these limitations, the findings offer valuable insights and recommendations for enhancing teaching and learning in AW and other language skill courses at EF, USSH, serving as a theoretical and practical foundation for future research.
ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY
This study report comprises five separate chapters
Chapter 1 provides the introduction with background information of the study
Chapter 2 presents a review of relevant and previous literature on collocations and collocations in EFL A detailed review of theoretical issues on collocations, in terms of definition and categorization, is provided Then the background of the important role of collocations, collocations in relation with vocabulary and writing,
The article reviews the teaching of collocations and analyzes errors, establishing a conceptual framework that underpins the research design, data collection, and analysis.
Chapter 3 describes the methodology implemented in the study Included in this chapter are the further expansion of the research questions, a discussion of the sample and sampling, research materials and instruments, and the procedures of data collection and analysis
Chapter 4 reports the analysis and discussion of the collected data, and summarizes the major findings of the study The mass of data captured from all the research instruments was coded and analyzed so as to ascertain facts about the current teaching of lexical collocations in AW at EF, USSH The major findings of the study were reported to form the foundation on which some recommendations were put forward
Chapter 5 reaches the conclusion and offers pedagogical implications with regard to the teaching of lexical collocations in AW and other language skills courses as well as recommendations for future research
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
THEORETICAL ISSUES ON COLLOCATIONS
The concept of collocations has been extensively studied over time, yet opinions on its definition vary among researchers and linguists According to Fontenelle (1998), there is no universally accepted definition of "collocation," leading to differing perspectives and criteria for distinguishing it from other lexical phrases (Youmei & Yun).
According to Nesselhauf (2005), collocation can be defined through two main approaches: the frequency-based approach, which emphasizes the co-occurrence of words based on their frequency, and the phraseology-based approach, which focuses on the significance of word combinations in context.
“the relation between lexical and syntactic patterning in collocations” (Hodne,
The typical followers of the former approach include notable linguists such as Firth (1957), Halliday and Hasan (1976), Palmer (1981), Sinclair (1991), and Lewis (2000a) In contrast, Cowie (1994) notably supported the latter approach Additionally, a combination of both approaches is evident in the works of Deuter et al (2002) and McIntosh.
Francis and Poole‟s (2009) definition of collocation in the Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English (OCD) These authors gave their own definition of collocation as follows
The term "collocation," introduced by Firth in 1957, refers to the habitual combinations of words, emphasizing that the meaning of a word can be understood through its typical associations Firth famously stated, "you shall know a word by the company it keeps," illustrating this concept with the varied uses of the word "ass" in different contexts.
In his analysis, Firth emphasized the significance of collocations, viewing them as a crucial aspect of meaning among his five dimensions: phonetic, lexical, morphological, syntactic, and semantic (Léon, 2007) He defined collocations as statements regarding the predictability of word combinations (Evert, 2009, p 2) However, this exploratory definition is not utilized in the current study, as it poses challenges in determining whether word combinations are habitual or customary.
In their seminal work, "Cohesion in English," Halliday and Hasan (1976) introduced a novel approach to studying collocations, defining them as a means of textual cohesion They describe collocations as the co-occurrence of lexical items that are typically associated with one another, often found in similar contexts, such as "candle … flame … flicker" and "sky … sunshine … cloud … rain." This understanding of collocation intersects with the concept of lexical or semantic fields, which organize related words and expressions into systems that illustrate their interrelationships (Richards & Schmidt).
In 2002, it was noted that while words within the same semantic field can coexist in specific contexts, the presence of one word does not guarantee the occurrence of another Consequently, this definition is not applicable to the current study.
Working on previous studies, Palmer (1981) advanced the three types of collocational restrictions:
First, some are based wholly on the meaning of the item as in the unlikely
*green cow Secondly, some are based on a range – a word may be used with a whole set of words that have some semantic features in common …
*The rhododendron passed away … Thirdly, some restrictions are collocational in the strictest sense, involving neither meaning nor range, as addled with eggs and brains (p 79)
The phrase "kick the bucket" illustrates the distinction between an idiom and a collocation, as it combines the words "kick" and "bucket" in a way that creates an opaque meaning, unrelated to the individual definitions of the words.
Sinclair (1991) explored the distinction between collocations and idioms, proposing two models for interpreting meanings in language: the open-choice principle and the idiom principle The open-choice principle views texts as a series of slots filled by any word, constrained only by grammaticality, while the idiom principle suggests that word choice influences surrounding words He defined collocation as the occurrence of two or more words in close proximity and idioms as groups of words that create a specific meaning when used together Although there are similarities between collocations and idioms, Sinclair acknowledged that the distinction is not always clear, emphasizing that the individual words in idioms often lack independent meaning, relying instead on their combination to convey meaning.
173) In other words, if individual words occurring in a combination keep their own meanings, it is collocation; whilst if the whole unit constitutes a single unified meaning, it is an idiom
According to Palmer (1981) and Sinclair (1991), the key distinction between collocations and idioms lies in the clarity of meaning within combined word groups While it is clear that collocations and idioms differ, the classification of certain phrases, such as "to be impressive," raises questions about their categorization Although "to be impressive" is not considered an idiom, its status as a collocation remains uncertain Consequently, the definitions provided by Palmer and Sinclair are insufficient for operational use in this study.
In the 1990s, Michael Lewis introduced a language teaching approach called Lexical Approach (LA), emphasizing the importance of collocation Lewis (2000a) defines collocation as the phenomenon where certain words frequently co-occur in natural texts, highlighting three key characteristics: they are readily observable, sound natural, and occur with greater than random frequency For instance, the phrase "heavy traffic" is easily recognized in context, while "crowded traffic" is not However, the concept of "greater than random frequency" remains somewhat ambiguous, making it challenging to identify what constitutes a true collocation.
Cowie (1994) defined collocations as associations of two or more lexemes recognized by their occurrence within specific grammatical constructions Lexemes, or lemmas, are fundamental vocabulary units in a language, as noted by Carter (1987) Furthermore, Carter categorized word combinations into four distinct types, a classification later summarized by Nesselhauf.
- the restriction on substitution can be specified on semantic grounds [i.e you can substitute tea by coffee, water, juice, etc.]
- all elements of the word combination are used in a literal sense
- some substitution is possible, but there are arbitrary limitations on substitution [e.g you can also say do a task, but not make a task]
- at least one element has a non-literal meaning, and at least one element is used in its literal sense; the whole combination is transparent
Figurative idioms (e.g do a U-turn, in the sense of „completely change one’s policy or behaviour‟):
- substitution of the elements is seldom possible
- the combination has a figurative meaning, but preserves a current literal interpretation
Pure idioms (e.g blow the gaff):
- substitution of the elements is impossible
- the combination has a figurative meaning and does not preserve a current literal interpretation (p.14)
Hodne (2009) criticized the classification of "literal" and "figurative" terms for lacking clarity, highlighting the ambiguous boundary between them She used examples like "constitutional monarchy" and "customs agents" to demonstrate the difficulty in determining whether these phrases are free combinations or restricted collocations Additionally, she questioned which element in each combination retains its literal meaning if they are indeed restricted collocations.
The problem, nevertheless, was troubleshot with the adoption of Hodne‟s (2009) definition of collocation:
Collocations are specific combinations of words that are syntactically fixed to some extent and are included in collocation dictionaries They typically have a Mutual Information (MI) score greater than 3.0 and a raw frequency (RF) of more than three tokens in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA).
The definition proved to be precise and comprehensive with reliable criteria for determining whether or not a phrase is a collocation However, for the current
The study did not utilize a collocation dictionary, a point that will be addressed later Based on Church and Hanks' (1990) assertion that a 3.0 MI score indicates a significant joining probability of components in word combinations, along with Clear's (1993) criterion of a minimum frequency of three occurrences, the definition of collocation has been revised.
COLLOCATIONS IN EFL
In recent decades, collocations have gained significant attention, particularly following the rise of Linguistic Approaches (LA) in the 1990s As a crucial component of LA, collocations play a vital role in English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education Brown (1974) was a pioneer in advocating for the incorporation of collocations into ESL/EFL curricula, emphasizing that enhanced knowledge of collocations improves learners' oral proficiency, listening comprehension, and reading speed This foundational premise has sparked further research into the essential role of collocations in language teaching and learning.
2.2.1 The significance of Collocations in EFL
Understanding a word goes beyond its pronunciation, meaning, and word family; it also involves grasping its syntactic behavior and the network of associations it forms According to Richards (1985), establishing grammatical and lexical collocations enhances the learning process Nation (1990) further elaborates that knowing a word encompasses its form (spoken and written), position (grammatical patterns and collocations), function (frequency and appropriateness), and meaning (concepts and associations) in both receptive and productive skills This highlights the critical role of collocations in language learning.
Collocation is considered a universal linguistic phenomenon (Duan & Qin, 2012)
Collocations are an integral part of the English language, making it nearly impossible to find spoken or written English devoid of them (Hill, 2000; McIntosh et al., 2009) As Wallace (1982) noted, “words seldom occur in isolation” (p 30), highlighting the tendency of words to group together Given their significant role in language, the importance of collocations in language processing and use has increasingly been recognized.
The concept of "peripheral" status in vocabulary learning highlights the importance of collocations, as noted by Nesselhauf (2005) Lewis (1993) emphasized that mastering a word involves understanding its collocational range and the limitations associated with it Consequently, incorporating collocations into vocabulary instruction is essential; learners must be exposed to the collocations of new words and be equipped to use them correctly in context.
Collocation is essential for learners to effectively grasp and utilize vocabulary, particularly when distinguishing between synonymous words For instance, Lewis (2000) highlights the challenge learners face in differentiating between "injury" and "wound," as their meanings are often not clearly defined in dictionaries The key distinction lies in their "collocational fields," with phrases like "stab wound" and "internal injuries" demonstrating appropriate usage McIntosh et al (2009) further emphasize the importance of understanding collocations in mastering vocabulary.
The meaning of words is heavily influenced by their context, particularly through collocation, which aids in distinguishing the various meanings of polysemous words (Duan & Qin, 2012) Collocations enhance vocabulary retention, as they serve as effective memory aids (Rahimi & Sahragard, 2008) Learning vocabulary in context is more effective, as words linked to specific contexts are easier to remember than those without such associations Lewis (2000b) emphasizes that language learners should focus on studying vocabulary within the "most natural, habitual contexts" rather than relying on direct translations of meanings.
Last but not least, collocations help promote learners‟ communicative competence
Collocational knowledge is essential for fluency in language, as highlighted by Nation (2001), who emphasized that effective communication relies on understanding collocations (p 318) Students with this knowledge can express themselves clearly, while those lacking it often resort to longer, more complex expressions, known as circumlocution (McIntosh et al., 2009; Hill, 2000) Fillmore (1979) noted that familiarity with fixed expressions enhances learners' fluency, a sentiment echoed by Nesselhauf (2005), who stated that collocations are vital for language acquisition According to Hill (2000), learners gain fluency by acquiring chunks of language for quick retrieval (p 55) Furthermore, collocations play a crucial role in differentiating native speakers from non-native speakers (Schmitt, 2000; Nation, 2001; Brashi, 2006; Nesselhauf, 2005; Bazzaz & Samad, 2011) To achieve a native-like proficiency, learners must develop a strong understanding and usage of collocations, underscoring their importance for mastering the English language.
Collocation plays a crucial role in learning the English language, as it enhances learners' comprehension and effective use of words According to Brown (1974), words used together help to define and limit each other, highlighting the importance of collocation in language mastery Hill (2000) further emphasizes that collocation is essential for creating and understanding naturally occurring text, making it a key component for learners aiming to use English properly.
Collocation is crucial for successful language acquisition and production, as it significantly impacts vocabulary learning Understanding collocations enhances one's ability to acquire new words effectively.
21 collocation ought to be taken into consideration in the course of teaching vocabulary to EFL learners
Vocabulary teaching and learning is central to Language Acquisition (LA), as emphasized by Lewis (1993), who argued that vocabulary should take precedence over grammar in language education He stated, “language is grammaticalised lexis, not lexicalised grammar” (p 95), underscoring the importance of focusing on vocabulary development This approach prioritizes enhancing learners' proficiency in words and their combinations, ultimately fostering a deeper understanding of language.
Vocabulary has always been a challenging task to learners, according to McCarten
(2007), because of its large size and various types Also, Schmitt (2000) stated that
Mastering a word requires comprehensive lexical knowledge, including its meaning, pronunciation, spelling, grammatical structures, and collocations (Nation, 1990) Effective vocabulary instruction demands that teachers address these various aspects According to Harmer (1991), vocabulary learning encompasses word meaning, usage, formation, and grammar, with collocation being a crucial component of word use.
Collocation plays a crucial role in both teaching and learning vocabulary, making it essential for effective vocabulary instruction Understanding collocations offers numerous benefits to learners, enhancing their overall grasp of language.
Writing poses significant challenges for EFL learners, often instilling fear more than any other English skill Even experienced writers encounter difficulties in the writing process (Celce-Murcia & Olshtain, 2000) Selecting appropriate collocations is essential for students, as it enhances the naturalness of their speech and writing, making it sound more like that of native speakers.
22 when basic intelligibility does not seem to be at issue” (McIntosh et al.,
Numerous empirical studies have investigated the use of collocations in English learners' writings, highlighting the contributions of various authors such as Nesselhauf (2003), Li (2005), Hsu (2007), Sun and Shang (2010), Bazzaz and Samad (2011), Darvishi (2011), and Oskuee, Pustchi, and Salehpour (2012), as well as Tran (2012) This section will delve deeper into these significant studies.
Nesselhauf (2003) explored verb-noun collocations among advanced German-speaking learners of English through their free written production The study identified errors in collocations and examined the impact of native language on these learners' usage Findings indicated that native language significantly influenced collocation production Additionally, the research emphasized the importance of teaching collocations, raising learners' awareness, selecting suitable collocations for instruction, and recommending effective teaching strategies.
ERROR ANALYSIS
The distinction between "mistake" and "error" is crucial for clarity, as highlighted by Corder (1967) He defines "mistakes" as "slips of the tongue (or pen)," while "errors" reflect the learner's current understanding of the language This differentiation allows learners to identify and correct their mistakes, enhancing their language acquisition process.
37 necessary; but they do not know if they have committed an error (Gass & Selinker,
Errors in language learning indicate knowledge gaps, as noted by Ellis (2003), who differentiates them from mistakes, which are temporary lapses in performance While errors stem from a lack of understanding, mistakes occur when learners fail to execute what they already know.
Errors in language learning reflect a learner's knowledge gaps and play a crucial role in the acquisition process, particularly from a mentalist perspective (Ellis, 1999) Corder (1967) identifies three key significance of errors: first, they provide teachers with insights into learners' progress; second, they serve as valuable data for researchers studying language acquisition; and third, they act as essential learning tools for the learners themselves.
Error analysis plays a crucial role in understanding second language learning, as it examines the errors made by learners to gain insights into their learning strategies and challenges (Gass & Selinker, 2008; Richards & Schmidt, 2002) The process involves several key steps: collecting learner language, identifying and classifying errors, and evaluating their seriousness (Corder, 1974) Gass and Selinker (2008) expanded this process to include quantifying errors and analyzing their sources, emphasizing the importance of understanding the frequency and types of errors for targeted pedagogical intervention Ultimately, both Corder's and Gass and Selinker's frameworks converge on the goal of remedial teaching, highlighting the significance of addressing learners' errors in the educational process.
38 procedure developed by Gass and Selinker (2008) would be adopted in the current study
Error analysis offers significant benefits, particularly in understanding lexical collocational errors This study focuses on two key reasons for analyzing these errors Firstly, it provides insights into learners' current grasp of lexical collocations, enabling researchers to assess their collocational knowledge and performance through the errors made Secondly, this understanding aids language teachers in determining which lexical collocations should be prioritized in teaching and learning.
THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The study examines collocation, defined by Hodne (2009) as a restricted lexeme combination that is syntactically fixed to some extent For a word combination to qualify as a collocation, it must be listed in the collocation dictionary, have a mutual information (MI) score exceeding 3.0, and occur at least three times in the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) This definition is instrumental in identifying collocations, as it relies on specific criteria related to MI scores and frequency in COCA.
The study focuses on classroom teaching practices of lexical collocations in Academic Writing (AW), guided by Ur's (1991) framework of presenting, practicing, and testing While the research does not delve deeply into these components, it emphasizes word study as a means to understand teaching practices Specifically, the investigation centers on three sub-components: classroom instructions, teaching materials (including two coursebooks), and course assessment, all aimed at addressing the first research question regarding effective instructional strategies in teaching lexical collocations.
39 coursebook contents, and course assessment criteria to have a comprehension of the teaching practices of lexcial collocations in AW
This article examines the learning of lexical collocations among AW students, emphasizing the importance of understanding the learning context in teaching practices Key insights can be gathered through three sub-components: first, students' perceptions of lexical collocations reveal their comprehension of the topic; second, analyzing errors in their written language production highlights common mistakes; and third, identifying the sources of these errors, or the coping strategies employed by students, provides valuable information on how they address challenges related to lexical collocations.
The aforementioned components established the conceptual framework of the study, which could be summarized as follows:
Figure 2.1: Synthesis of Issues Related to the Teaching of Lexical Collocations in
The framework played a crucial role in the study by guiding the design and implementation of research instruments, including interview questions and questionnaires, as well as the error analysis (refer to part 3.3.2) Specifically, the interview questions targeted classroom instruction and assessment in Academic Writing (AW), while the questionnaire focused on students' perceptions of collocations and their strategies for addressing challenges related to lexical collocations Additionally, the error analysis was conducted following the operational definitions, categorizing errors and investigating their underlying causes.
- Present in COCA o MI ≥ 3.0 o FREQ ≥3
SUMMARY
The literature review highlights the crucial role of collocations in language learning and production, emphasizing the need for effective teaching methods It indicates a lack of empirical studies focused on English majors' written use of lexical collocations at USSH and the absence of research exploring learners' perceptions of their collocational errors Consequently, this study aims to investigate the current state of teaching lexical collocations in this context.