INTRODUCTION
Rationale of the study
The significance of reading is widely acknowledged by researchers and educators, as it grants individuals access to vast information, enables exploration of the world, and broadens perspectives For university students, mastering the ability to read academic texts is crucial for success both in academia and in everyday life In a second language (L2) context, reading serves as a vital source of input, facilitating language acquisition However, the inherent complexities of the reading process make it one of the most challenging skills to achieve high proficiency in (Grabe, 2002).
Reading comprehension is a complex, constructive activity that goes beyond simply moving one's eyes across the text According to Paul and Elder (2003), effective reading necessitates the development of critical thinking skills, which are essential for analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating the deeper meanings of academic texts Without activating these critical thinking abilities, readers are likely to struggle with comprehension and perform poorly in understanding the material.
Richmond's research highlights significant cultural differences between Asia and the West, particularly in teaching methodologies He notes that Asian students tend to excel in rote memorization, recalling information during quizzes, yet often struggle with applying that knowledge in open-ended scenarios This observation underscores the need for tailored educational approaches that foster critical thinking skills in diverse cultural contexts.
In many Asian countries, the educational approach emphasizes rote learning, where students are expected to absorb information without questioning it (Richmond, 2007) This results in a reliance on low-level cognitive strategies, leading to challenges in tasks that require deeper understanding (Biggs, 1996) Critics like Egege and Kutieleh (2004) argue that the focus on memorization and exam preparation in Asian schools hinders the development of critical thinking skills, as students are not encouraged to evaluate arguments critically.
Vietnamese situation is no exception and Vietnamese students are commonly stereotyped as non-critical rote learning students By way of illustration, Pham, N
H D (2012) described Vietnamese high school students as those who run from one evening class to another, try to put as much knowledge that will be tested as possible into their heads, and forget this knowledge quickly once they have passed the exams
Vietnamese teachers often emphasize traditional methods that prioritize teaching students what to think rather than how to think, which significantly limits their ability to express opinions and develop critical thinking skills (Hamano, 2009) In reading courses, the focus is frequently placed on linguistic elements rather than encouraging deeper comprehension, as noted by Le, V H V (2013), who observed that teachers primarily use texts to extract specific information or teach vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure This approach contributes to the overall poor performance of many Vietnamese students in reading comprehension.
Littlewood (2000) conducted a study across five Asian countries and one administrative region—China, Hong Kong, Japan, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam—and concluded that the limited critical thinking skills observed in Asian students are primarily influenced by their educational environments rather than any inherent traits of the students themselves.
Vietnamese learners prefer to engage actively with their education rather than passively receiving information, as highlighted by Littlewood (2000), who notes that they are not afraid to question their teachers Furthermore, Vandermensbrugghe (2004) indicates that many Vietnamese students excel in critical learning environments, often outperforming their Western counterparts This suggests that with proper training, Vietnamese students are eager to take on the role of active learners, seeking to explore knowledge independently and discover their own answers.
The poor reading comprehension performance of Vietnamese students is largely due to a deficiency in critical thinking skills Therefore, it is essential to integrate critical thinking into reading comprehension instruction within the Vietnamese educational framework Despite this necessity, there has been a lack of research exploring the effectiveness of this combined approach in Vietnam This gap has inspired the development of this study, aimed at evaluating the potential benefits of incorporating critical thinking into reading instruction.
Context of the study
Since the 2007-2008 academic year, the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Ho Chi Minh City has implemented an integrated skills approach to language instruction, enhancing the teaching of listening skills.
Language Skills A courses at EF integrate Reading, Writing, and Grammar over a 15-week period, with students attending 5 classes each week Freshmen are required to complete Language Skills 1A and 2A, while sophomores must take Language Skills 3A and 4A Additionally, Speaking is taught alongside Language Skills B, enhancing the overall language proficiency of students.
This study was implemented in the first semester of the academic year 2012-
2013, in the course of Language Skills 1A with 78 first-year full-time students at the
EF, USSH, whose level of proficiency could be assumed to be at intermediate level
The course syllabus outlines that students will develop essential reading skills by engaging with short English texts ranging from 500 to 1000 words They will learn to make informed choices in multiple-choice exercises related to vocabulary, ideas, and details Furthermore, students will have ample opportunities to practice skimming for general understanding, scanning for specific information, and using context clues to deduce the meanings of unfamiliar words Mastering these reading skills is crucial for students to become proficient readers.
The expected learning outcome is clearly stated in the syllabus:
(See Appendix 1 for the Syllabus of Language Skills 1A)
On completion of the course, students will be able to:
- Update and expand their vocabulary of topics covered in the course
- Apply all the trained skills into doing exercises in order to deal with short reading passages
Guess the meanings of words from contexts
Identify main ideas and supporting details
Predicting the content of a passage
The EF has implemented the Interaction/Mosaic (Reading - Silver Edition) series for first and second-year students, recognizing its effectiveness in enhancing reading skills essential for English majors This textbook stands out not only for its focus on fundamental reading abilities but also for its incorporation of tasks designed to foster critical thinking, a vital skill for academic success As highlighted in the book's Introduction, "strategies for critical thinking are taught explicitly" (Hartmann & Kirn, 2007, p vii), ensuring that students are well-equipped for their educational journeys.
Mosaic Silver Edition – Reading comprises of two kinds of task, one for practicing basic reading skills and the other one for enhancing critical thinking about the texts
This series offers students numerous opportunities to engage actively in their reading development by encouraging them to generate ideas prior to reading, identify key concepts during the reading process, and critically analyze and discuss the main ideas derived from the texts.
The course aims to provide students with basic reading skills for understanding texts, while the textbook focuses on enhancing critical thinking to achieve deeper comprehension This discrepancy between the course's learning outcomes and the textbook's objectives may pose challenges for teachers in their instructional methods.
1.2.2 Perceptions of the teachers and students of a reading comprehension class
In informal interviews conducted with six teachers responsible for the Language Skills 1A course during the 2012-2013 academic year, it was revealed that none of the educators prioritize activities aimed at enhancing students' critical thinking skills.
Many teachers reported insufficient time to implement all suggested activities from the book, leading them to focus primarily on basic reading skills and vocabulary They often engaged students in tasks like selecting correct answers, marking True/False statements, and summarizing information, but rarely encouraged them to apply reading to real-life situations, evaluate texts, or create original content Although a couple of teachers occasionally incorporated critical thinking tasks, these were spontaneous and lacked a clear understanding of their impact on students' critical thinking and reading comprehension This lack of purpose negatively affected the effectiveness of such tasks Furthermore, interviews revealed that most reading instructors predominantly used lower-level thinking verbs like "telling," "defining," and "describing," while higher-level processes such as "synthesizing" and "evaluating" were rarely addressed Consequently, the focus of reading classes remained primarily on word-level meanings, with limited opportunities for student discussion.
Informal interviews with ten sophomore students in the EF revealed that students occasionally disagreed with their teachers' answers in reading classes, yet lacked the opportunity to discuss these differences Six students indicated that they felt it was unnecessary to seek clarification from their teacher or peers, as group discussions were not facilitated.
In EFL classrooms, it is crucial for teachers to align the difficulty of questions and activities with students' current competence levels, as highlighted by Brown (2007) A survey revealed that 40% of students felt demotivated due to overly simplistic tasks, indicating the importance of maintaining an appropriate challenge to foster engagement and motivation in reading classes.
In a sense, if teachers just keep asking their students simple questions which are easily extracted from the texts, they will gradually lose their students’ interest and motivation
The Language Skills 1A syllabus emphasizes basic reading skills such as skimming, scanning, and identifying main and supporting ideas, but it lacks a focus on critical thinking This approach aligns with only the Remembering and Understanding levels of the revised Bloom’s taxonomy, which will be explored in Chapter 2 of this thesis Ghabanchi, Modhaddam, and Malekzadeh (2011) argue that relying solely on these cognitive levels is insufficient for enhancing learners' proficiency They contend that effective learning should encourage students to gain new insights and rethink their perspectives Therefore, students should engage actively in reading classes, sharing ideas to foster deeper understanding and enrich their learning experiences.
Aim of the study
This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching critical thinking skills on students' reading comprehension It focuses on two key objectives: measuring students' academic achievement and exploring their attitudes towards reading instruction.
Research questions
To achieve the aim set out above, the present study is guided by the following questions:
1 To what extent can teaching critical thinking skills improve reading comprehension of EF students?
2 What are students’ attitudes towards the integration of critical thinking skills in reading comprehension instruction?
Significance of the study
Despite a wealth of literature highlighting the link between reading and critical thinking (Aloqaili, 2012), there is a scarcity of research focused on the impact of teaching critical thinking skills on reading comprehension in Vietnam This empirical study aims to investigate this effectiveness, offering insights into the benefits of this educational approach within the Vietnamese context.
The research findings offer valuable insights for teachers regarding the connection between critical thinking and reading comprehension, potentially improving their reading instruction methods at the tertiary level Additionally, these findings may influence the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature to revise its Language Skills A Syllabus accordingly.
Organization of the study
This thesis is structured into five chapters: Chapter 1 introduces the study's rationale, context, aims, research questions, and significance Chapter 2 reviews relevant literature to establish the conceptual framework, while Chapter 3 outlines the methodology used in the research.
4 discusses the findings through data analysis Chapter 5 presents the implication of the study as well as suggestions and recommendations for further research
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical concepts
Reading comprehension is essential for academic success, particularly for English majors, but it is a complex concept that varies across contexts At its core, reading involves more than just recognizing words; it requires the ability to understand and interpret text Jensen and Petty (1980) describe reading as a process where words are visually perceived and then articulated, yet this definition fails to capture the cognitive engagement necessary for true comprehension Effective reading goes beyond mere word identification; it involves critical thinking and mental involvement with the material, highlighting the importance of understanding and processing information rather than simply naming words.
Successful comprehension requires a thoughtful interaction of a reader with a text According to Smith (1973, p 2), “reading is an act of communication in which information is transferred from a transmitter to a receiver” Although writers
Reading comprehension is a dynamic process that involves both extracting and constructing meaning through interaction with written language (Snow, 2002) As McNeil (1992) notes, readers interpret texts to form their own understanding, while Shanahan (2005) emphasizes that reading is about understanding and interpreting information within a text These perspectives highlight the essential two-way interaction between reader and author, where effective readers not only decode words but also engage actively in a dialogue with the text, ultimately shaping their mental representation of its meaning.
In the 1970s, ESL reading theory was significantly influenced by psycholinguistics, merging cognitive psychology with linguistics, particularly through Goodman’s (1967) model of reading Goodman describes reading as a "psycholinguistic guessing game," where readers utilize their general knowledge to predict subsequent text, thereby reducing reliance on the written material Coady (1979, as cited in Zainal, 2003) further develops this foundational psycholinguistic model, proposing a version specifically designed for second language reading comprehension.
Figure 2.1: Coady’s model of L2 reading comprehension (Zainal, 2003, p 111)
Coady’s model outlines three key components of reading: conceptual abilities, background knowledge, and process strategies, which interact during the reading process This highlights the significant role that a reader's background knowledge and experiences play in text comprehension Numerous researchers agree that reading is an active process of meaning construction, where readers engage with their experiences and knowledge to interpret the text Throughout this process, readers form and test hypotheses, utilizing their language knowledge to derive meaning Essentially, the author conveys ideas through words, and readers retranslate those words based on their own experiences to construct personal interpretations Comprehension is an active, dynamic process that requires readers to connect their acquired knowledge with the text, emphasizing that without activating their knowledge and integrating their life experiences, true understanding cannot occur.
2.1.2 The relationship between reading comprehension and critical thinking skills
Psycholinguistics emphasizes that reading's primary objective is meaning construction, which emerges from the interplay between the reader's background knowledge and the text, rather than being solely contained within the text itself (Coady, 1979 as cited in Zainal, 2003).
Thinking is a crucial component of the reading process, even though it cannot be externally observed Thorndike (1917) suggests that reading mirrors the thinking process, encompassing various cognitive activities such as learning, reflection, judgment, analysis, synthesis, problem-solving, selection, inference, and critical evaluation of the material.
According to Dechant (1991), the interpretation of a text resides in the reader's mind and the context within their brain, highlighting that reading necessitates higher-order thinking This emphasizes the close connection between reading and cognitive processes.
Many educators continue to evaluate reading comprehension based primarily on students' ability to recall specific details from texts, as highlighted by Allington (2012) This approach often leads to the misconception that students are proficient readers simply because they can answer factual questions However, true understanding of a text transcends mere recall; it involves engaging with the author's message, which is conveyed from a different context in both space and time (Davis).
Effective reading involves logical, active, and thoughtful procedures that encourage learners to think critically about the material, leading to the reconstruction of knowledge Good readers must assess the value of a text and engage with its primary ideas, as critical thinking is essential for deeper comprehension and broader application of knowledge By integrating critical thinking into the reading process, individuals create a mental representation of the text, enhancing their overall understanding Therefore, exploring the relationship between critical thinking and reading comprehension is crucial for improving literacy skills.
2.1.3 Critical thinking and the revised Bloom’s taxonomy
Critical thinking, a concept that has garnered significant attention from researchers and educators for decades, was initially termed "reflective thought" by John Dewey, a prominent 20th-century American educator Dewey, often referred to as the father of critical thinking, defines reflective thought as the "active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge" based on the supporting grounds and potential conclusions He emphasizes the necessity of an active thinking process, contrasting it with passive information reception, and advocates for a thorough mental engagement with the subject at hand.
1933, p 3) Dewey also emphasizes the necessity for education to go beyond the teaching of subject matter and to address the teaching of thinking
The extensive literature on critical thinking from the last century reveals a significant lack of consensus on its definition Emily Lai (2011) addresses this issue in her report, highlighting three primary academic disciplines—philosophy, psychology, and education—where critical thinking has evolved Each discipline offers a unique perspective: philosophers focus on the characteristics of an ideal critical thinker and the criteria for sound reasoning, while cognitive psychologists emphasize the actions and behaviors associated with critical thinking, detailing specific skills and procedures that critical thinkers utilize.
Unlike the philosophical and the psychological strands, the educational approach is based on “years of classroom experience and observations of student learning” (Sternberg, 1986, as cited in Lai, 2011, p 8)
In 1956, Bloom and a team of psychologists introduced Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives, a widely referenced framework in education This taxonomy encompasses three learning domains: affective, psychomotor, and cognitive The affective domain focuses on objectives related to changes in interest, attitudes, values, and the development of appreciations and adjustments.
The psychomotor domain focuses on physical movement and coordination, while the affective domain addresses emotions, and the cognitive domain emphasizes mental skills, including knowledge recall and intellectual development (Bloom et al., 1956) Krathwohl (2002) notes that the cognitive domain serves as a framework for defining expected learning outcomes from instruction This cognitive domain will be utilized in designing the instructional approach for a study aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of teaching critical thinking skills in a reading class.
Bloom's taxonomy outlines a cognitive domain comprised of six essential thinking processes and learning outcomes that should be developed in educational environments (Bloom et al., 1956) This hierarchy progresses from the most basic level, Knowledge, through Comprehension, Application, and Analysis, culminating in the highest level, Evaluation The upper three categories—Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation—represent the most complex cognitive skills.
Critical thinking encompasses synthesis and evaluation, as outlined by Kennedy, Fisher, and Ennis (1991) This hierarchical model of the cognitive domain has gained widespread acceptance as a framework for developing educational questions (Oliver et al., 2004).
Figure 2.2: The Cognitive Domain of Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, 1956)
Review of previous studies
Research on reading comprehension in Vietnam primarily addresses issues related to reading classes and materials, offering practical solutions to enhance the learning experience (Cai, N D A., 1999; Lam, Q T M, 2005; Le, T H L., 2011; Le, V L., 2006; Nguyen, D C D., 2002; Nguyen, T C., 2005; Nguyen, T K., 1999).
T S T, 2004; Phan, X T., 1999, Tran, T T M., 2011, Ung, T U., 2007) Some researches focus on teaching methodology in reading comprehension such as the effect of the Communicative approach (Ngo, Q A D, 2000), discourse analysis- centered approach (Ho, T M V., 2006), extensive reading (Le, V H V., 2013) and phrase reading (Le, H V., 2012) However, none of them has ever measured the effectiveness of teaching critical thinking skills on reading comprehension though the intimate relationship between reading and critical thinking has been recognized
Numerous studies have explored the link between critical thinking skills and reading comprehension In a notable L1 context study, Commeyras (1990) validated this interdependent relationship by analyzing a transcript from a critical thinking reading lesson Her examination highlighted the critical thinking dispositions and abilities demonstrated by students as they engaged with their teacher's questions regarding the texts The findings from the transcript analysis provided compelling evidence that participants employed critical thinking during their reading process.
Research has shown that the relationship between critical thinking ability and reading comprehension also exist in an L2 setting In 2012, Hosseini, Khodaei &
Sarfallah's study investigated the connection between critical thinking skills, reading comprehension, and the use of reading strategies in a sample of 70 Iranian university students specializing in English Translation and English Literature.
A study conducted in 2012 found a significant positive correlation between the critical thinking abilities and reading strategy use among Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) readers, utilizing the TOEFL reading comprehension test, a critical thinking ability test, and a Reading Strategy Inventory Similarly, Nevin Akkaya's research involving 420 students from the Department of Turkish Language Teaching at Dokuz Eylul University also indicated a moderate relationship between reading strategy use and critical thinking skills.
Ahmadi's study investigated the relationship between reading and critical thinking among 63 female intermediate English learners at a private language institute The results revealed that high critical thinkers significantly outperformed their low critical thinking counterparts in both familiar and unfamiliar texts.
Recent studies have demonstrated a significant positive correlation between critical thinking and reading comprehension Fahim and Sa’eepour (2012) further explored the teachability of critical thinking skills within a reading comprehension context, involving 60 intermediate female EFL learners at an English Institute in Karaj, Iran The experimental group participated in eight classroom sessions that incorporated debate as a critical thinking activity However, the analysis of data from both a critical thinking appraisal and a reading comprehension test revealed no significant differences between the experimental and control groups.
The study found that while there was no significant improvement in critical thinking abilities among the 23 groups on the posttest, the use of debate as a critical thinking activity in reading instruction within an EFL context did lead to enhanced reading comprehension skills.
The significance of teaching critical thinking skills to students is widely acknowledged, yet there remains a lack of agreement on the most effective teaching methods (Monseley et al., 2005) To address this issue, Marin and Halpern (2011) conducted an empirical study that demonstrated the effectiveness of explicit instruction in enhancing critical thinking skills Their findings indicate that "the more explicit the teaching of thinking is, the greater impact it will have on students" (Marin & Halpern, 2011, p 2) Consequently, the current researcher intends to implement the explicit teaching method for critical thinking skills in the experimental group of her study.
This study addresses the limited research on the impact of teaching critical thinking skills on reading comprehension, particularly within the Vietnamese context The researcher aims to determine if enhancing critical thinking can improve students' reading abilities Utilizing the revised Bloom’s taxonomy to design classroom activities and assessments, the study seeks to achieve better reading performance outcomes compared to previous findings by Fahim and Sa’eepour (2012) In her experimental approach, the researcher systematically introduced each cognitive level to guide students' improvement in reading activities.
24 approach, the researcher hoped to confirm the positive effect that was suggested by Marin and Halpern (2011).
The conceptual framework of the thesis
In her study, Emily Lai (2011) identifies three main academic disciplines—philosophy, psychology, and education—that have shaped critical thinking While the philosophical approach focuses on the ideal critical thinker, it offers limited practical applications for classroom activities and assessments To create a framework for applying critical thinking skills in reading comprehension, the researcher turned to psychological and educational methods, utilizing the revised Bloom’s taxonomy to set class objectives However, Ennis (1985) criticized the educational approach for its lack of clarity, noting that Bloom's taxonomy often leaves teachers uncertain about what to teach and assess In response, cognitive psychologists have enhanced the taxonomy by associating specific verbs with each cognitive level, prompting the researcher to adopt these verbs from Dalton and Smith to better guide classroom activity design.
(1986) in designing classroom activities The list proposed by Dalton and Smith
(1986, p.36) was chosen in designing the conceptual framework of this study because this list is tailor-made specifically to a reading class
Table 2.4: The conceptual framework of the study
Cognitive thinking level (Anderson et al., 2001, p.66)
1 Remembering tell, list, describe, define, relate, locate, find, state, name, identify, recall, recognize
2 Understanding explain, clarify, illustrate, categorize, predict, restate, translate, paraphrase, interpret, infer
3 Applying solve, show, use, illustrate, construct, complete, examine, classify
4 Analyzing analyze, distinguish, examine, compare, contrast, investigate
5 Evaluating appraise, argue, defend, judge, support, value, evaluate, critique,comment
6 Creating create, invent, compose, plan, construct, design, imagine, propose, devise, formulate
This conceptual framework will be employed in designing classroom activities (see Appendix 3 for more details), designing the pretest and posttest as well as designing the questionnaire of the study.
Summary of the chapter
The chapter begins with the theoretical concepts related to the present study
In this section, the definitions of reading comprehension, the relationship between critical thinking and reading comprehension are mentioned and the revised Bloom’s
This chapter introduces a taxonomy and discusses empirical studies on the integration of critical thinking skills into reading comprehension instruction It concludes with a conceptual framework developed from the reviewed literature, setting the stage for the methodology that will be detailed in the next chapter.
METHODOLOGY
Research site
The research was conducted at the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature (EF) at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Ho Chi Minh City (USSH), which focuses on English Linguistics, Language Teaching, Translation-Interpreting, and American-British Culture and Literature Students dedicate their initial two years to strengthening their English language skills through foundational courses before diving into specialized subjects At the time of the study, the faculty comprised around 1,000 students, including 284 freshmen.
Participants
The study focused on first-year full-time students at EF, USSH, who are assumed to possess an intermediate level of proficiency after passing their entrance examination As intermediate learners, they are cognitively advanced and capable of engaging in higher-order thinking processes, which enhances their learning experience (Ghabanchi, Modhaddam, & Malekzadeh, 2011).
A recent survey indicated that the majority of participants aimed to learn English to enhance their career prospects, viewing the language as a vital tool for securing better job opportunities in the future.
28 extrinsic motivations could become successful learners (Murray, 2013) On the other hand, Vietnamese students often adopt the passive classroom attitudes and become
"Obedient listeners" in the classroom can negatively impact their academic success, but as highlighted in the Introduction, these students are open to changing their roles when motivated These two factors serve as a solid foundation for this study.
In high school, students primarily focused on reading short paragraphs, with little emphasis on effective reading strategies They developed a habit of using dictionaries to understand new words, yet many teachers, particularly in rural areas, failed to equip them with useful reading techniques Consequently, when these students entered university reading comprehension classes, they often approached reading by focusing on individual words, preparing for lessons by looking up unfamiliar terms in advance.
This study was conducted in two Language Skills 1A classes at the EF, USSH during the first semester of the 2012-2013 academic year Freshmen were organized into seven classes according to their national university entrance examination scores The focus was on two classes, 12C and 12D, which represented the average proficiency level among students.
The 2012 cohort of university students participated in the study, demonstrating a balanced level of language proficiency Furthermore, both classes exhibited homogeneity in their foreign language learning experiences, as all students began learning English in school from Grade.
6, could be assumed to have a reading ability at an intermediate level Hence, the
29 subjects of this study are similar not only in their educational background but in their language proficiency as well
Despite the introduction of a credit-based system by the EF, new freshmen are restricted from selecting their preferred classes and are instead assigned to specific courses This limitation arises from the absence of elective courses in their first semester and concerns that the new undergraduates may feel overwhelmed by the system To alleviate this confusion, the Faculty manages the course registration process for these students Consequently, the researcher collaborated with the academic assistant of the EF to organize the schedules for classes 12C and 12D, facilitating a convenient setup for conducting random assignments in her study.
The researcher disbanded the two classes 12C and 12D and re-assigned these
A total of 78 students were randomly assigned into two distinct classes using the Research Randomizer software This random assignment ensures that each participant has an equal opportunity to be placed in either group, effectively isolating the effects of the intervention (Dimitrov & Rumrill, 2003, p 160) By employing this method, the study effectively controls potential threats to both internal and external validity, enhancing the reliability of the results.
The researcher utilized a random assignment method to designate newly-formed classes for treatment, effectively eliminating any unintended biases in selecting the experimental group Consequently, class 12C was established as the control group, while class 12D received the treatment as the experimental group This random design ensured that all conditions remained consistent between both groups, apart from the treatment applied to the experimental group.
In this study, the experimental group received a treatment focused on high-level thinking skills, while the control group was taught using conventional methods that emphasized low-level comprehension questions By controlling for all variables that could affect the results, the researcher aimed to confidently attribute any observed learning gains to the new reading instruction implemented in the treatment group.
The background profiles of the participants in the two groups are presented in Table 3.1
Table 3.1: Demographic data of the subjects
Experimental group (Class 12D) Raw count Percentage Raw count Percentage
Average score of English in the entrance exam 2011
Table 3.1 compares key characteristics such as gender, age, and English scores from the university entrance exam for two groups of students While the groups are not identical, they exhibit notable similarities Overall, the data indicates a general homogeneity in the background information of both groups, particularly regarding their English proficiency.
Research instruments
To achieve the study's objectives, two research instruments—tests and a questionnaire—were utilized for data collection The pretest and posttest were administered to assess the similarities and differences between the two groups before and after the treatment aimed at enhancing reading comprehension Additionally, a questionnaire was distributed to gauge the experimental students' attitudes towards the innovative teaching methods employed Detailed descriptions of these instruments follow.
The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of teaching critical thinking skills on students' reading comprehension To assess reading comprehension, a reading test comprising a pretest and a posttest was utilized, both designed with identical structure, difficulty level, length, and time constraints Each test included two sections with a total of 32 multiple-choice questions to be completed within 75 minutes The test design involved two key stages: selecting appropriate reading texts and conducting a pilot test.
The pretest and posttest featured two passages adapted from TOEFL iBT reading materials, specifically from "TOEFL iBT Insider Reading" by LinguaForum (2006) and "Ivy’s Reading TOEFL iBT" by Myounghee et al.
In 2007, researchers designed their tests based on the TOEFL source, leveraging its reliability and international recognition The TOEFL test is acknowledged by over 8,500 institutions across more than 130 countries, making it a trusted benchmark for assessing English language proficiency.
The TOEFL iBT reading test is well-aligned with the Interactions 2 – Reading textbook, which provides effective strategies and activities for test preparation (Hartmann & Kirn, 2007) Additionally, the length of each passage, approximately 700 words, meets the requirements outlined in the Syllabus for the Language Skills 1A course.
The researcher carefully selected reading texts for the tests, focusing on topics that would not challenge students but rather align with their general knowledge and background To ensure consistency and avoid topic-related variables affecting test results, four passages from the Social Sciences were chosen for both the pretest and posttest The difficulty of these texts was assessed using the Oxford Text Checker program, which evaluates the percentage of words from the Oxford 3000 list, a compilation of the most commonly used English words derived from the British National Corpus and the Oxford Corpus Collection.
The text is classified as intermediate level if 90% to 100% of its words are found in the Oxford 3000 list A significant advantage of this program is its ability to highlight words not included in the Oxford 3000, allowing researchers to easily substitute them with more familiar alternatives To maintain consistent difficulty across all four texts and align with the students' proficiency level, the researcher ensured that all passages used in the pretest and posttest adhered to the 90% threshold.
The TOEFL texts often lack real-world context, making it challenging to envision the scenarios in which they were written In contrast, Applying and Creating test items are better suited for authentic texts intended for real audiences Luebke and Lorié (2013) argue that such items cannot be effectively designed in a multiple-choice format Consequently, the pretest and posttest, which followed the TOEFL's multiple-choice approach, focused solely on assessing students' abilities in Remembering, Understanding, Analyzing, and Evaluating, resulting in a structure of 10 questions each for Remembering and Understanding.
The study focuses on assessing students' reading comprehension performance through 8 analyzing questions and 4 evaluating questions While the tests do not encompass all cognitive skills, this limitation is not a significant concern, as the primary aim is to evaluate reading comprehension rather than critical thinking abilities.
Before the main study, pilot tests were conducted with ten third-year students enrolled in the associate’s degree program at EF These students participated in the pilot study during the previous semester to ensure the effectiveness of the tests.
In their junior year, these students had to take the same reading course, i.e same
The participants in this study were first-year English majors who followed the same syllabus and textbook, making them a comparable sample Data gathered from the pilot study helped identify ambiguities and ensured adequate time was allocated for the test.
The questionnaire served as a crucial data source for this study, administered to students in the experimental class during the final session after their posttest It was created in both English and Vietnamese, but only the Vietnamese version was provided to ensure students fully understood all questions.
The questionnaire utilized a Likert scale, which is widely recognized in educational research for effectively capturing respondents' views, opinions, and attitudes on language-related issues (Brown, 2001, p 41).
The questionnaire was designed to assess students' attitudes towards experimental teaching, focusing on their perceptions of the usefulness of reading texts through the lens of revised Bloom’s taxonomy, as outlined in question 1 with its nine sub-questions derived from Nguyen, C D (2008) Additionally, question 2 examined students' views on the effectiveness of the 13 most commonly used course activities, while question 3 identified which activities students found challenging, providing valuable insights despite not directly addressing the primary research questions.
The researcher designed a questionnaire to gather insights for future employment of reading activities based on a 15-week experiment From a variety of activities, 13 were selected for questions 2 and 3, categorized into cognitive levels: one Remembering, four Understanding, two Applying, two Analyzing, two Evaluating, and two Creating activities Initially, the plan was to include two representative activities for each cognitive level; however, only one Remembering activity was used consistently across all reading texts, along with four Understanding activities repeated in every class This repetition necessitated an assessment of students' attitudes towards these frequently used activities Consequently, the distribution of Remembering and Understanding activities varied compared to others Additionally, question 4 sought to gauge students' enjoyment of the experimental teaching approach.
Data collection procedure
The researcher conducted an experiment over 15 sessions from September to December 2012, which involved three phases of data collection Initially, students were randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group and took a pretest to measure their baseline performance.
The study involved a three-phase process to assess reading comprehension Initially, the experimental group received a specific treatment, while the control group continued with traditional reading instruction Following this, both groups completed a reading comprehension posttest, allowing for a comparison of results between the two conditions Additionally, a 15-minute questionnaire was administered to the experimental group to gather further insights.
Data analysis procedure
3.5.1 Analysis of the pretest and posttest
To evaluate the effectiveness of the experimental intervention, pretests and posttests were administered to both the experimental and control groups at the start and conclusion of the study The scores were analyzed using SPSS 11.5 for Windows, employing Paired Samples T-tests to assess improvements within each group Additionally, independent samples T-tests were conducted to compare the posttest scores of the two groups, providing insights into the impact of the pedagogical intervention.
After administering the posttest, a questionnaire was distributed to 39 students in the experimental group, with results analyzed and presented in tables and figures The findings were then further examined alongside insights gathered from interviews conducted with four students from the same group.
Summary of the chapter
Chapter 3 has presented the methodology used in the research to investigate the employment of critical thinking skills and to investigate their attitudes towards the strategies The investigation of these issues was based on the information from the pretest, posttest and the questionnaire These sources of data will be analyzed and discussed in the next chapter
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Statistical analysis on the students’ reading comprehension
4.1.1 Test of normal distribution of the data
To ensure uniformity in reading comprehension among students prior to the experiment, an Independent samples T-test was conducted to analyze and compare the means and standard deviations of the pretest scores between the two groups Before performing this T-test, it was essential to verify the normal distribution of pretest scores for both groups.
A Shapiro-Wilk test conducted on the pretest scores revealed that both the control and experimental groups exhibited approximately normal distribution The control group had a skewness of -0.117 (SE: 0.378) and a kurtosis of 0.137 (SE: 0.741), while the experimental group showed a skewness of -0.118 (SE: 0.378) and a kurtosis of -0.797 (SE: 0.741) For further details, refer to Appendix 10.
Figure 4.1 presents a boxplot illustrating the total scores of two groups on the pretest, revealing that the boxes and whiskers are nearly symmetrical around the median lines, suggesting a nearly normal distribution Notably, there is one outlier in the control group, identified as student number 67, leading to their exclusion from the study Consequently, the control group is reduced to 38 students.
The experimental gro The control group
Figure 4.1: A boxplot of the pretest total scores 4.1.2 Comparison between the pretest scores of the two groups
After the normal distribution of the pretest scores of the two groups was ensured, the T-test for independent samples was carried out As presented in Chapter
3, both of the pretest and posttest of this study consist of 32 questions to test up
The study assessed the reading comprehension abilities of 40 students, focusing on their skills in remembering, understanding, analyzing, and evaluating To evaluate the impact of teaching critical thinking skills on reading comprehension, Independent samples T-tests were used to analyze the total pretest scores and scores for each type of cognitive question A comprehensive statistical overview of the pretest scores for both the experimental and control groups is presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Summary data of the pretest scores
The analysis of Table 4.1 reveals that the experimental and control groups had mean scores of 20.44 and 21.11, respectively With a significance value of 423, which exceeds the 05 threshold, there is no statistically significant difference in reading comprehension competence between the two groups prior to the treatment Additionally, the significance values for each of the four parts of the pretest are also above 05, indicating no substantial disparity in scores These findings confirm that the reading comprehension abilities of both groups were similar at the start, creating an ideal condition for the experimental study.
4.1.3 Comparison between the pretest and posttest scores of each group and posttest scores of the two groups
On the final day of the experiment, students took a posttest formatted identically to the pretest, with scores analyzed using the SPSS program Paired samples T-Tests were conducted to assess gains in each group by comparing pretest and posttest scores To evaluate the impact of the pedagogical intervention, Independent samples T-tests compared posttest scores between the two groups Additionally, a Pearson correlation test examined the relationship between posttest scores of low and high reading level groups within the experimental group.
With regard to the improvement of each group, Paired samples T-tests were used to perform the score comparison of the pretest and the posttest
Table 4.2: Comparison of the control group’s performance on the pretest and posttest
Mean N Std Deviation Std Error Mean
N Mean difference Sig (2-tailed) Pretest Total Score Posttest Total Score 38 -1.92 000
Table 4.3: Comparison of the experimental group’s performance on the pretest and posttest
N Mean difference Sig (2-tailed) Pretest Total Score Posttest Total Score 39 -4.64 000
In Paired Samples T-tests, mean differences are determined by subtracting pretest scores from posttest scores, with a negative result indicating that posttest means are higher than pretest means.
The results from the Paired Samples T-tests, as presented in Tables 4.2 and 4.3, reveal significant improvements in both groups, with Sig (2-tailed) values below 05 The control group experienced an increase in mean scores from 21.11 to 23.03 out of 34, resulting in a mean difference of 1.92 In contrast, the experimental group saw a more substantial score increase of 4.64.
In order to compare the improvement of the two groups after the course, Independent samples T-test determined the statistical difference between their posttest scores
Table 4.4: Statistics for the students’ performance on the posttest
The results presented in Table 4.4 reveal that the experimental group achieved a higher posttest mean score of 25.08 out of 34, compared to the control group's score of 23.03 out of 34 This difference yields a significant Sig (2-tailed) value of 001, which is well below the 05 threshold Consequently, these findings clearly indicate a significant difference in posttest mean scores between the two groups.
In conclusion, both groups demonstrated notable advancements in reading comprehension following a 15-week course; however, students who received instruction in critical thinking skills exhibited greater improvement compared to those who did not.
To analyze student achievement in various cognitive-typed questions, Paired Samples T-tests and Independent Samples T-tests were utilized to evaluate the scores for each question type.
Results from Paired samples T-tests confirmed a significant gain of both control and experimental groups as can be seen in Tables 4.5 and 4.6
Table 4.5: Comparison of the control group’s performance on the Remembering questions of the pretest and posttest
N Mean Sig (2-tailed) Pretest Remembering Posttest Remembering 38 -.82 006
Table 4.6: Comparison of the experimental group’s performance on the
Remembering questions of the pretest and posttest
N Mean Sig (2-tailed) Pretest Remembering Posttest Remembering 39 -.87 001
The Paired samples T-test revealed Sig (2-tailed) values of 006 for the control group and 001 for the experimental group, indicating that both groups performed well in the posttest However, the Independent samples T-test showed no significant differences in posttest scores, with a Sig value of 743, which is significantly higher than the 05 threshold, as shown in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7: Statistics for the students’ performance on the Remembering questions of the posttest
Group N Mean Std Deviation Sig (2-tailed)
So, it can be concluded that the experimental group performed as well as the control group when dealing with Remembering questions in the posttest
The analysis of Understanding questions, as shown in Tables 4.8 and 4.9, reveals significant differences in reading performance before and after the course The Paired Samples T-test results indicate notable Sig (2-tailed) values of 045 and 000 for both groups, demonstrating that both groups experienced improvement in their reading performance post-course.
Table 4.8: Comparison of the control group’s performance on the Understanding questions of the pretest and posttest
N Mean Sig (2- tailed) Pretest Understanding Posttest Understanding 38 -.45 045
Table 4.9: Comparison of the experimental group’s performance on the
Understanding questions of the pretest and posttest
N Mean Sig (2-tailed) Pretest Understanding Posttest Understanding 39 -1.64 000
The result of the Independent samples T-test on the Understanding questions of the pretest and posttest is presented in Table 4.10
Table 4.10: Statistics for the students’ performance on the Understanding questions of the posttest
The posttest results revealed a statistically significant difference in Understanding scores between the experimental and control groups, with a Sig value of 002, well below the 05 threshold This indicates that the experimental group outperformed the control group in answering Understanding questions following the course.
A Paired samples T-test was conducted to assess the treatment's effectiveness The results revealed that the control group showed no significant improvement, with a significance value of 279, exceeding the standard threshold of 05 In contrast, the experimental group demonstrated substantial improvement, evidenced by a significance value of 000.
Table 4.11: Comparison of the control group’s performance on the Analyzing questions of the pretest and posttest
Table 4.12: Comparison of the experimental group’s performance on the
Analyzing questions of the pretest and posttest
Statistical analysis of questionnaire results
To evaluate student attitudes towards the integration of critical thinking skills in reading comprehension instruction, a questionnaire was administered to the experimental group after their posttest The responses were categorized into three main areas: (1) perceived usefulness of the treatment, (2) effectiveness and difficulty level of classroom activities, and (3) overall student attitudes towards the instruction Data analysis was conducted using the SPSS program, with detailed statistical findings presented in subsequent sections Additionally, insights from interviews with four students in the experimental group will further enrich the discussion of the data.
4.2.1 Statistical analysis of students’ viewpoint on the usefulness of the treatment
The results from the nine Likert-scale questions 1.1 to 1.9 of the questionnaire showed the students’ viewpoint on the usefulness of teaching critical thinking skills
Table 4.17: Students’ viewpoint on the usefulness of the treatment
Not at all Little Moderately Much Very much Mean
1.1 It enhances your background knowledge and supports easier later recall
1.2 It gives you a deeper and better understanding of the reading texts
1.3 It helps you apply the information from the reading texts to real-life situations
1.4 It encourages you to analyze the reading texts rationally
1.5 It gives you a chance to evaluate what you have read
1.6 It helps you use the information you have read to write a narrative, descriptive or argumentative paragraph
1.7 It fosters student-student interaction in
1.8 It increases your interest in reading
1.9 It changes your manner of reading
Table 4.17 illustrates that students recognize the value of integrating critical thinking skills into reading comprehension classes, with positive attitudes reflected in scores ranging from 3.13 to 4.10, all exceeding the average of 3 This indicates a strong awareness among students regarding the benefits of teaching critical thinking skills, as they believe it significantly enhances their abilities across various aspects.
In a study on Remembering questions, no significant differences were found between the control and experimental groups based on posttest results However, notably, 50.3% of respondents felt that the treatment provided them with enhanced background knowledge.
55 that the usefulness of the treatment was not empirically proved, it was recognized through the positive responses of the students to the sub-question 1.1
The experimental students showed significant improvement in their posttest scores for Understanding and Analyzing questions, with mean values of 4.03 and 3.33, respectively This indicates that students found the treatment beneficial, as they demonstrated greater confidence in their performance in Understanding questions compared to Analyzing questions.
A limitation of this study was the inability to assess the Applying and Creating skills, as detailed in Chapter 3 Nevertheless, the questionnaire provided insights into the experimental students' perceptions of the treatment's effectiveness in enhancing these skills The findings from sub-questions 1.3 and 1.6 indicate that over half of the students found the treatment to be useful or very useful, while the majority of the remaining participants expressed a neutral stance.
According to Table 4.17, only 30.7% of respondents found the treatment useful for enhancing their Evaluating ability Among the experimental group, 7.7% reported no benefits from the treatment, while 15.4% indicated minimal improvement in their Evaluating skills This aligns with test results showing no significant differences in posttest scores between the two groups in the Evaluating category (refer to Section 4.1.3.5).
Receiving the highest mean values (4.10) among the items in Table 4.17 is the usefulness of teaching critical thinking skills in fostering interaction among
The experiment involved 56 students and primarily focused on group activities that facilitated discussions on effectively applying solutions from reading texts to their own challenges This collaborative approach encouraged students to develop creative solutions to the problems presented in the texts, which aligned with the researcher's expectations, as indicated by the results of item 1.7.
More than half of the students reported increased interest in reading and a change in their reading habits To gather in-depth insights, the researcher interviewed four randomly selected students from the experimental group One student mentioned that the instructional methods encouraged him to take notes and create mind maps, which enhanced his understanding of the texts Another student expressed enjoyment in identifying patterns within the reading materials, such as cause-effect and compare-contrast, and indicated her intention to continue using these strategies.
As such, the analysis of the data above supported the contention that the students were highly aware of the usefulness of the treatment
4.2.2 Statistical analysis of students’ viewpoint on the effectiveness and level of difficulty of the activities used in class
To provide valuable recommendations for future employment of the 13 activities listed in the questionnaire, it is essential to understand students' perspectives on their effectiveness Additionally, their opinions on the difficulty level of these activities must also be considered.
57 activities Questions 2 and 3 of the questionnaire with 11 sub-questions for each explored these two issues in great detail
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 shows a breakdown of the students’ perspective on the effectiveness and difficulty level of Remembering activities employed in the treatment
Figure 4.3: Students’ evaluation of the effectiveness of Remembering activities
Figure 4.4: Students’ evaluation of the level of difficulty of Remembering activities
Figures 4.3 and 4.4 indicate that all students responded positively to sub-questions 2.1 and 3.1 regarding the effectiveness and difficulty of Remembering activities used in class, confirming that these activities were perceived as both easy and highly effective for enhancing their reading skills.
Difficult Neither difficult nor easy
Tables 4.18 and 4.19 provide insights into students' awareness regarding the effectiveness and difficulty levels of common comprehension activities, such as skimming, scanning, understanding pronoun references, and inferring vocabulary meanings.
Table 4.18: Students’ evaluation of the effectiveness of Understanding activities
Classroom activities Not at all Little Moderately Much Very much Mean
2.2 Skimming for topics and main ideas 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 6 15.4% 21 53.8% 12 30.8% 4.15
2.5 Guessing meaning of vocabulary from context
Table 4.19: Students’ evaluation of the level of difficulty of Understanding activities
Classroom activities Very difficult Difficult
3.2 Skimming for topics and main ideas 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 11 28.2% 13 33.3% 15 38.5% 4.10
3.5 Guessing meaning of vocabulary from context
The data indicates that students experienced minimal difficulty with skimming and scanning, as reflected by mean scores of 4.10 and 4.59 for Questions 3.2 and 3.3, respectively Furthermore, approximately 85% of students found the teacher's practice activities effective in enhancing these skills Initially, students were surprised to learn that the topic sentence is often found at the beginning or end of a paragraph, which aids in quickly grasping the main idea Although the four interviewed students admitted they were unfamiliar with skimming and scanning prior to the study due to a lack of practice in high school, they quickly adapted to these skills at the intermediate level after instruction.
Students in the experimental group unanimously considered pronoun reference test items to be "easy" (43.6%) or "very easy" (56.4%) Interviews revealed that their familiarity with this activity, stemming from exposure since high school, contributed to their confidence and ease during a brief review in the reading course.
In the questionnaire, students found vocabulary questions that required guessing word meanings from context to be the most challenging of the four types of understanding activities, although none reported these activities as "very difficult." Data from Tables 4.18 and 4.19 indicated that nine students faced challenges with this type of task.
In a recent assessment, 39 students (23.1%) found vocabulary activities to be "difficult," while 13 students (33.3%) considered them "easy." The majority, comprising 43.6%, felt that with a little effort, the tasks were "neither difficult nor easy." Throughout the course, students were equipped with effective strategies to identify context clues, leading to a significant improvement; despite initial challenges, 76.9% reported that they could successfully engage with the vocabulary tasks.