LITERATURE REVIEW
Appendix 1.1: Main development representatives in terms of prototype & categories
The ideas of family resemblance, centrality and gradience
J L Austin The relationships among meanings of words
Crystalizing earlier ideas in lexicography and historical semantics and being a precursor of the contemporary view of polysemy involving family resemblances among meanings
Lotfi Zadeh The technical study of categories with fuzzy boundaries
Conceiving of a theory of fuzzy sets as a generalization of standard set theory
Floyd Lounsbury The generative analysis of kinship categories
Linking between the idea that a generator can generate a category and that a category has central members (and subcategories)
1969 The research on colour categories Establishing empirically the ideas of centrality and gradience
The boundaries of words and their meanings
Research on family things categorization
The importance of the embodiment of concepts and the role that embodiment
Putting together colour research from anthropology and neurophysiology
Roger Brown The study of “basic-level categories”
Brent Berlin and his associates highlight the distinction between "natural" or "first-level" categorization, where children learn to identify and name objects, and higher- and lower-level categorizations, which are considered as "achievements of the imagination."
The fundamental ideas associated with basic-level categorization and basic-level primacy
Demonstrating that embodiment determines some of the most significant properties of human categories
Paul Ekman & his co-workers
The confirmation of ideas as basic-level concepts, basic-level primacy and centrality
Demonstrating that emotional concepts are embodied
Categories as one important issue in cognition
Proposing the generalizations behind studies of particular organized cases in terms of prototypes and basic-level structures
Creating experimental paradigms to assess how individuals rate the representativeness of category members reveals inconsistencies with classical theory, highlighting essential constraints that any comprehensive account of categorization must address.
Establishing research paradigm in cognitive psychology for demonstrating centrality, family resemblance, basic- level categorization, basic-level primacy and reference- point reasoning as well as certain kinds of embodiment
Appendix 1.2: Researches in English in terms of lexicon research direction
Analysis of Homeric language related to colours
Ancient written languages often lacked the precise and consistent color terminology found in modern European languages, typically categorizing colors more in terms of light and dark contrasts rather than specific hues.
Gladstone’s view exploits the distinction between mind and brain responsible for generating perceptual states which differ in psychological salience
Observation for Indian Vedic Poems in Sanskrit, Old Testament in Hebrew, Quran in Arabic and Sagas in Icelandic
Proposing a universal evolutionary sequence in which colour vocabulary evolves in tandem with an assumed biological evolution of the colour sense
Diachronic model of colour language development constructed from the evidence of synchronic colour term application
A diachronic developmental sequence to explain the refinement of colour term reference in a variety of distinct synchronic sources
Mesoamerican colour terms on basis of hue
The presentation of the lexical domain of colour as the empirical locus of linguistic relativity and language determinism
Human colour perception based on original materials of more than 60 North-American Mesoamerican tribes
The Zuni from the American Southwest and native English speakers on colours
There are notable distinctions between the Zuni and English languages regarding the quantity of color terms, as well as the specific ranges that speakers associate with these terms.
Colour alphabet system in Hanunoo tribe in Philippines
Lexical sets related to perceptual categorization
56 categories and the responses by students from Universities of Maryland
The American and Scottish studies in the field of colour terms
The constraints on the types of possible colour lexicons that arise from the structure and function of the visual system, belong to semantic universals in the domain of colour
Lakoff (1987) Possibility to compare colour categories in different languages, as colour categories comprise focal colours
Participants were asked to list as many color terms as they could without a time constraint, allowing them to concentrate fully on this specific task.
Biggam (1997) Linguistic analyses of colour terms is work on Old English colour terms
Detailed contextual studies of a collection of individual tokens can be useful in the overall semantic characterization of a given term Saunders & van
Criticizing the amount of weight given to the study of physiological colour perception as support for the universalism of colour terminology
A revision attempt of Berlin & Kay hypothesis
A series of revisions in response to data collected in “World Colour Survey” as superordinate rules determining the evolution of Basic Colour Terms
Colour language develops in relation to speakers’ needs due to the differences in colour language residing in differences in physiology and intensive literary contexts
Hardin (2005) Distinguishing primary colour terms against secondary ones
Close connection among the basic colour sensory agents and naming these colours
Bias on Berlin & Kay's theory of basic colour terminology
The effectiveness of the Munsell color system in eliciting color terminology and identifying focal hues is called into question, highlighting the de-contextualization of color terms Additionally, universalists have not adequately addressed the limitations inherent in their methodologies.
Appendix 1.3: Researches in English in terms of semantics research direction
Semantic domains of colour categories comprise more central points with more identified features than peripheral ones
Focal points defined as ‘basic colour terms’
Two critical dimensions in defining the meaning of a term: referential range (what a colour term can refer to) and grammatical distribution (how the term can be used)
Appendix 1.4: Researches in English in terms of culture research direction
Authors Information Contributions Weak-points
Cultures that used to be considered as colour-blindness
Color language evolves based on the specific needs of speakers rather than adhering to a universally consistent vision system shared by humans and related animals.
(1967) Ndembu materials and rituals Colour classification in initial cultures
Colour symbols of countries around the world, mainly in ethnology, socialism, psychology, mythology and religion
Colour language in the relationships with human mind, brain and culture
Appendix 1.5: Researches in English in terms of cognition research direction
Colour encyclopedia of tribes in North Pole from collected data on native speakers’ colour vocabularies as well as their ability in discriminating colours
Colour vocabularies are different depending on the pretty much variant colour perception
The effect of codability on recognition (A series of Munsell chips to test colour recall and recognition in English speakers)
The availability of a basic colour term in a given language affected the retention of that colour in recall testing
A set of stimulus materials in a Whorfian-influenced study
Linguistic codability is the ease with which people can name things and the effects of naming on cognition and behavior
The relations between language, mind, biology and culture
Universal prototypes for the definition of colour categories and a universal sequence for the emergence of a colour lexicon
The natural salience of the colour prototypes plays a role in colour category formation
Based on further empirical descriptive work and the introduction of a fuzzy set formalism as well as earlier work by McDaniel & Wooten (McDaniel 1972)
Colour categorization is influenced by human biology, but it extends beyond just biological factors It is shaped by a combination of the natural world, biological aspects, cognitive mechanisms resembling fuzzy set theory, and cultural preferences regarding basic colour categories.
Prototype theory profoundly influencing the field of cognitive psychology
Color categories in human cognition are defined by distinct criteria and prototypes, which represent the most typical examples of each category These prototypes are surrounded by other colors that exhibit decreasing similarity and membership to the central prototype.
Colour sensing system originates from left hemisphere and be transferred to the right through linguistic development causes the close connection between human colour cognition with human languages
Quinion (1996) English colour terms in terms of etymology
A new research direction in colour terms for comparison and contrast among different lexical systems in the world
Conducted with fifty-three adult third- year learners of Spanish, French, and
The study reveals significant effects of context on idiom comprehension, highlighting the strategies second language learners use to interpret multiword phrasal units in both contextualized and decontextualized readings It also identifies cognitive processes that may limit the ability to form accurate idiomatic mappings between target and domain idioms Additionally, the findings suggest that factors such as the degree of opacity between idioms, vocabulary knowledge, graphophonics, syntactic arrangement, and the literal meanings of idioms significantly influence the transfer of idiomatic knowledge.
Relation between colour terms and emotional words
Color terms and emotional words exhibit both similarities and differences across languages, influenced by overlapping phenomena that shape their semantic impacts.
Appendix 1.6: Researches in Vietnamese in terms of lexicon research direction
Authors Research subjects Contributions Limitation
Tố Hữu’s one hundred and sixty poems from 1937 to 1971
Colour metaphors are deep and thoughtful as well as natural in accordance with modernization and realism, which clearly reflects his inner beauty and sensitive soul
The subjective language users determine metaphors
Nguyễn Khuyến’s three hundred and seventy four poems and sixty-seven parallel sentences
The ratio of the most dominant colours; especially blue colour creates the natural beauty of Northern rural area
Polysemy of colour words in Nguyễn Bính’s poems Distinctive artistic style
Basic colour terms or colour supplementary lexicons in Vietnamese language, particularly the working capacity of Vietnamese sub-colour words
Fundamental features on basic colour terms and sub-terms in Vietnamese language, especially on xanh and đỏ terms
(2006) Tô Hoài’s poems Creativeness in creating many layers of white, yellow and red colour terms
Descriptive meaning of Vietnamese colour terminologies in literary
The way to form descriptive meaning for colour words and presents some English
No deep comparison on colour terminologies between English and
Appendix 1.7: Researches in Vietnamese in terms of semantics research direction
Authors Research subjects Contributions Limitation
Colour terminology in combination with “face” words in normal or reverse orders
The reverse orders (colour + face) express human beings’ emotions and affections
Six hundred Vietnamese folk songs by Vũ Ngọc Phan (1997)
Colour terms mainly carry literal or specific meanings with less figurative meaning implication
Semantic features of current modern Vietnamese adjective
Semantic structure analysis of this group in researching colour adjectives
Semantic structure among Vietnamese adjectives and those in Russian
(2003) red, green, purple, pink, grey, black, white in English idioms
Each colour lexicon consists of private connections
Colour combinations carry a common meaning when in combination
Colour combination in one idiom consists some logic values
Features of format, semantic structure of colour terms in Vietnamese language in poetic works
Semantic structure of colour terms in English and in Chinese
Differences and similarities between Vietnamese and Chinese linguistic systems
Colour idioms in English and Vietnamese
Recognizing the errors in English learning that Vietnamese students face
Some idioms with red, yellow, blue, black, white terminologies in two languages
Vietnamese phrases containing đen/trắng adjectives
Vietnamese and English native speakers exhibit distinct semantic meanings that align with their cultural contexts, particularly in areas such as form, color perception, and the use of potential sememes This variation is also evident in phrases where one language employs an adjective that may have a different connotation or usage in the other language.
Hiền (2015) xanh and đỏ colour terms in Vietnamese
This article explores the foundational theories of semantics proposed by linguistics researchers globally, focusing on the significant semantic features of Vietnamese and English idioms related to love, marriage, and family.
The findings enhance the understanding of idiom meanings, which are shaped by metaphor, metonymy, and cultural context In Vietnamese, the meanings of idioms are influenced by synonym and antonym relationships Furthermore, many English and Vietnamese idioms can be directly explained through their figurative and transferred senses.
Lexicon formation on basic colour terms and their derivations in idioms, mostly as well as data from literary works
English language uses compounding and inflecting methods whereas Vietnamese language uses repeating method
Basic colour terms with more meanings imply a variety and power in meaning transformation away from the original meaning
Basic colour cognition in English and Vietnamese systems imploy distinctive cultural national features
The focus on original meaning, inflected meaning, transformed meaning and iconic meaning without researching inflected and specific colour terms in English and Vietnamese
Appendix 1.8: Researches in Vietnamese in terms of culture research direction
Authors Research subjects Contributions Limitations
Connection between flower and plant objects and colours in Vietnamese and English idioms
Similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese cultural features related to natural world
Linguistic and cultural impacts on colour words
A brief but general listing or summary on linguistic and cultural knowledge connected to colour terms
Colours as one universal symbol in some cultural and religious rituals in the world, under the semiotic viewpoint
Connections between these word-class features (primary and secondary colour words) and typical cultural national characteristics
The article highlights the absence of a discussion on the diverse color words found in idioms, lacking a comparison between English and Vietnamese idioms regarding their similarities and differences It emphasizes the need to explore the linguistic, cultural, and cognitive influences that shape the usage of color lexicon in both languages.
OBJECT REFERENTS OF BASIC COLOUR TERMS IN ENGLISH AND
Table 2.1: Objects referents of black colour term in English data
Frequency % Examples from literary works
The path had been steadily ascending, despite the towering cliffs surrounding it, leading to a narrow ledge where the turbulent Shivering Flood roared below, flanked by steep rock walls that soared into a pitch-black sky devoid of stars or moonlight.
Marriages that initially seemed destined for happiness can sometimes end in sadness, while those that appeared bleak may unexpectedly flourish into joy and comfort This contrast highlights the unpredictable nature of relationships.
3 A beauty, with a white face and a mane as black as night He will soon be here, no doubt (Thomas Hardy - The Return of the Native)
4 "But somebody saw you at Throope Corner leading it home a beauty, with a white face and a mane as black as night." (Thomas Hardy - The Return of the Native)
5 Miss Moorsom’s eyes stared black as night, searching the space before her (Joseph
In a moment of quiet reflection, I felt the final echoes of emotion in that house, remembering the girl with heavy hair and vacant, night-black eyes, who sat silently in the shadows, gazing into the walled garden filled with the warm, fragrant scent of trapped flowers.
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
The diverse perspectives on our world lead to varied interpretations of color, highlighting the unique cognitive and cultural values of each nation Color terms should be examined not only for their everyday meanings but also through deeper cognitive lenses to uncover their connections with human cognition and corresponding prototypes.
In the world, the issue of colour terms has been studied from various research aspects as follows:
The significance of culture in the study of color terminologies has been highlighted, suggesting that color terms should not be examined in isolation Notable research by Geiger (1869), Conklin (1955), Lakoff (1987), and Kay & Maffi supports this cultural perspective in understanding color vocabulary.
(1999) have influenced this current dissertation since cultural element used to be ignored in considering the connection between colour terminologies and their usage
In Vietnamese, Trịnh Thị Minh Hương (1999) paid more attention to lexical aspect, mainly towards one colour term or some basic colour terms in Vietnamese language
Kửvecses (1986) and Lucy (1992) established the foundational principles for understanding colour prototypes through semantic features In Vietnam, researchers such as Hoàng Văn Hành (1982), Nguyễn Hoàng Phương Linh (2014), and Lê Phương Thảo (2018) have explored the semantic values and meanings of colour terms, comparing their significance in both Vietnamese and English contexts.
Chevalier and Gheerbrant (1997) and Wierzbicka (2006) highlight the significance of culture in the global system of color symbolism Nguyễn Khánh Hà (1995) further emphasizes the link between specific linguistic expressions and their corresponding cultural national traits, underscoring the interplay between language and culture in shaping meaning.
In respect of cognitive viewpoint, this research direction has been increasingly popular and widely applied Rivers (1897), Brown and Lenneberg
Research by Berlin and Kay (1969), Heider (1971, 1972), and Rosch (1973, 1974, 1975) highlights that color categories in cognition are best understood through prototypes, which serve as the most prominent examples within a category, surrounded by less similar objects Studies by Trần Thị Lan (2001), Lê Văn Thanh (2014), and Hoàng Tuyết Minh and Nguyễn Văn Quang (2015) explore the relationship between these color prototypes and everyday objects, emphasizing their relevance to the cultural and cognitive frameworks of Vietnamese and English communities, particularly in terms of similarities and differences.
Researchers focusing on specific color terms in a single language offer valuable insights into the linguistic and cognitive systems of that native community However, there is a need for broader research on basic color terms through the lens of prototype theory This approach aims to explore the basic color prototypes in both English and Vietnamese, providing cultural and cognitive explanations to enhance understanding of the similarities and differences between these two linguistic systems.
This dissertation presents reliable insights into the prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, along with a clear explanation of the cultural and cognitive traits of both communities The study's findings serve as a valuable resource for English and Vietnamese learners, enabling them to accurately translate or interpret these color prototypes from cultural and cognitive perspectives Additionally, native speakers can better grasp the similarities and differences between the two languages, enhancing their understanding of the prototypes, class classifications, and sub-classifications of basic color terms for appropriate daily usage.
Aims and Objectives
This dissertation seeks to analyze and compare the cognitive and cultural aspects of color terms in English and Vietnamese, focusing on the prototypes for black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey.
This study aims to highlight the similarities and differences between the prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese from cognitive and cultural perspectives To achieve a comprehensive understanding, specific objectives are outlined for analysis.
- To classify object referents functioning as colour-term referents of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data into 06 classes and categories
- To identify the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data based on prototype theory
- To point out the similarities and the differences of the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data from cognitive and cultural perspectives.
Research questions
In order to achieve the aims of the study, this dissertation sets out the following research questions:
- What are the classes and the categories of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data?
- What are the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data?
- What are the similarities and the differences of the prototypes of basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese data from cognitive and cultural perspectives?
Scope of the study
This dissertation utilizes a multifaceted approach that incorporates prototypes, categories, and cognitive and cultural elements to analyze basic color terms A prototype is identified as the most prominent feature associated with a set of object referents for a specific color term, while a category groups these referents based on shared characteristics with the prototype Furthermore, cognitive and cultural factors play a crucial role in elucidating the similarities and differences in the prototypes of basic color terms between English and Vietnamese.
With regard to research subjects, a basic colour term, based on Berlin and Kay’s
In 1969, linguistic criteria identified a single root adjective as an independent lexical unit that encapsulates the mental and psychological dimensions of human consciousness and our perception of the world This article focuses on the foundational research by Berlin and Kay, which outlines 11 basic color terms in the English language: white, black, red, yellow, blue, green, brown, purple, pink, grey, and orange Similarly, the corresponding basic color terms in Vietnamese include trắng, đen, đỏ, vàng, xanh da trời (or xanh dương), xanh lá cây, nâu, tím, hồng, xám, and cam.
The terms for blue (xanh da trời, xanh dương) and green (xanh lá cây) are deemed inappropriate as basic color terms due to their lack of status as independent lexical words in Vietnamese Initial data collection revealed that the examples for brown (nâu), purple (tím), pink (hồng), and orange (cam) were insufficient, with counts of 17, 4, 2, and 1, respectively To ensure reliability, each basic color term should have at least 10 examples; however, the low counts for purple, pink, and orange hinder reliable conclusions about their prototypes The study's primary goal is to compare the prototypes of color terms in English and Vietnamese, but the pairs brown/nâu, purple/tím, pink/hồng, and orange/cam do not fulfill the criteria for inclusion in this research Thus, these color terms are excluded from further analysis.
This dissertation focuses on the official research color terms in English—white, black, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey—and their Vietnamese counterparts: trắng, đen, đỏ, vàng, xanh, and xám The consistent sequence of these basic color terms is maintained throughout the presentation layout in all chapters of the dissertation.
The study identifies prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese by analyzing comparative idioms structured as "+ basic color term + as + object referent X." This comparative approach highlights the similarities and differences in color terminology between the two languages.
Comparative idioms derived from English and Vietnamese literary works reveal significant insights into the referents associated with basic color terms This analysis provides a basis for identifying and explaining prototypes by examining the percentage of object referents across varying levels of salience.
In regard to data criteria, the data of this dissertation is collected and analyzed based on:
- Basic colour terms in English (black, white, red, yellow, green, blue grey) and basic colour terms in Vietnamese (đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, xám) are the research
- Comparative idioms comprise as + basic colour term + as + object referent X structure in the scope of the study in English and Vietnamese data
A basic color term in English or Vietnamese is defined by its prototype, which represents the most typical and salient example within a color category This prototype is identified as the most central figure, characterized by its highest occurrence percentage among all members in that category Essentially, the object that is most frequently associated with a basic color term is recognized as its prototype, serving as the most obvious and representative example.
The process of comparing basic colour terms in English and Vietnamese is guided by Wierzbicka’s (1996) hypothesis, which explores the symbolic meanings associated with these colour terms.
According to Wierzbicka (2005), individuals interpret meanings based on their perceptions, suggesting that the understanding of color terms is subjective Essentially, a specific color term embodies the thoughts and intentions of those who use it (Wierzbicka, 1996).
This dissertation classifies basic color terms in English and Vietnamese into six categories: Flora, Fauna, Inanimate Nature, Food and Beverage, Man-made Objects, and Body and Bodily Products.
YA, Mylonas D, Paramei GV, 2018) From this foundation, a detailed description of the subject of sub-classification within these 06 categories is another main concentration in this dissertation
For the purpose of comparing and contrasting, this research applies Theoretical Contrastive Analysis which looks for the realization of a universal category X in both
The concept of 'X' serves as the prototype for a fundamental color term, highlighting the color categories found in both language A (English) and language B (Vietnamese).
Figure 0.1: Theoretical CAs (Adapted from Fisiak et al 1978: 10)
To establish comparative criteria for prototypes of basic colour terms, it is essential to first analyze the frequency of appearance associated with specific object referents linked to each basic colour term Subsequently, a semantic comparison of these prototypes should be conducted between English and Vietnamese data Finally, an examination of the cognitive and cultural characteristics of these prototypes in both languages will provide deeper insights into their meanings and usage.
Methodology of the study
This thesis employs a mixed-method approach, integrating qualitative and quantitative methods to analyze the prototypes of basic color terms By comparing these prototypes across two languages, the study aims to uncover the similarities and differences in basic color terms within the respective cultures.
The quantitative method, particularly the linguistic statistical approach utilizing the SPSS tool, yields reliable results, while the qualitative method, especially the descriptive approach, elucidates the unique characteristics of color terms such as black (đen), white (trắng), red (đỏ), yellow (vàng), green (xanh), and grey (xám) Additionally, the contrastive method examines the similarities and differences in the cognitive systems of English and Vietnamese regarding color terms, thereby uncovering insights into the distinctive cultural features reflected in the linguistic data of both nations.
Significance of the study
This dissertation examines the key representative features of object referents for the finalized prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese It also explores the cultural and cognitive traits of both language systems, establishing a foundation for future studies on basic color terms and their prototypes in English and Vietnamese.
This study offers valuable insights into the prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, reinforcing existing research in cognitive linguistics and highlighting unique cultural and cognitive traits Furthermore, it provides a clear understanding of the cultural characteristics and cognitive processes of both English and Vietnamese speakers, illuminating the similarities and differences between these two linguistic systems.
This study provides valuable insights for English and Vietnamese teachers and learners by clarifying the prototypes of color terms such as black/đen, white/trắng, and others, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of teaching and learning Additionally, it raises awareness among native speakers of both languages regarding the potential differences and similarities in color perceptions Understanding the cultural and national distinctive features associated with these color prototypes enables readers to appreciate underlying messages in literary works and idiomatic expressions Ultimately, these findings promote a deeper understanding of cognitive characteristics shaped by culture, aiding in the avoidance of cultural shocks between the two communities.
Structure of the study
Apart from Introduction and Conclusion, Development part is divided into:
Chapter 1, Literature Review, provides an overview of previous studies on color and color terms, highlighting existing gaps that this research aims to address It explores prototype theory, including naming theory, categories, cognition, and culture, while also examining the cultural features of English and Vietnamese and the relationship between language, culture, and cognition The chapter further presents basic color terms, focusing on their physical features and linguistic criteria in both English and Vietnamese Finally, it outlines the theoretical framework that serves as the foundation of this dissertation.
Chapter 2, the Methodology Chapter, outlines the selection of quantitative and qualitative methods, along with a comparative-contrastive analysis approach It details the procedures for data collection and analysis to enhance the research process effectively.
Chapter 3 provides an in-depth analysis of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, focusing on idioms related to black (đen), white (trắng), red (đỏ), yellow (vàng), green/blue (xanh), and grey (xám) found in literary works It presents a six-class classification of these color terms, along with sub-classifications, setting the stage for further exploration of prototype identification and comparison in the subsequent chapter.
Chapter 4 delves into the comparison of prototypes for basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, highlighting both their similarities and differences rooted in cognitive and cultural values This analysis enhances our understanding of the English and Vietnamese nations through their respective prototypes for the colors black/đen, white/trắng, red/đỏ, yellow/vàng, green/blue/xanh, and grey/xám.
LITERATURE REVIEW
REVIEW ON PREVIOUS STUDIES
The exploration of color terminology throughout history and different cultures began in the latter half of the 19th century, marked by a universalist viewpoint on color discussions during that era (Biggam, 2012) Researchers have approached color terms from multiple angles, contributing to a diverse understanding of their significance.
The discussion surrounding color terminology gained prominence following Berlin and Kay's landmark study in 1969 Subsequent research, both prior to and following this pivotal study, has explored various dimensions of color terms The historical analysis of basic color terms can be categorized into four primary research directions.
Research on lexicon reveals a scarcity of color terms in Homeric works, as noted by Gladstone (1858), and similar observations in Indian Vedic poems, the Old Testament, the Quran, and Icelandic sagas (Geiger, 1869) Both scholars proposed a universal evolutionary sequence suggesting that color vocabulary evolves alongside the biological evolution of color perception, concluding that full color vision developed recently in human history Gladstone emphasized the distinction between mind and brain in generating perceptual states with varying psychological significance, while Kay and Maffi (1999) highlighted how psychological differences in perceived colors can overshadow cultural influences, as argued by Berlin and Kay (1969) and Rosch (1972).
Gladstone's influential perspective led to the creation of a diachronic model for the development of color language, based on evidence from synchronic applications of color terms This model posits that the refinement of color term references across various synchronic sources reflects an evolutionary process experienced by all races, as noted by Magnus (Biggam, 2012: 13).
Biologic-psychological theories highlight universal aspects of color coding knowledge and the lexical domain of color, focusing on linguistic relativity and language determinism Research on Mesoamerican color terms, conducted by Klineberg in 1935, primarily examined hue without considering intensity or saturation In contrast, Jackendoff's 1952 study on human color perception utilized original materials from over 60 North American Mesoamerican tribes, offering a broader perspective on color understanding.
The study by Lenneberg and Robert (1953) supports the linguistic relativity hypothesis, originally intended as a research tool It found that Zuni speakers from the American Southwest struggled more with recalling colors from a set of 320 color chips, compared to English speakers who have specific terms for those colors This significant difference in color recall abilities provides compelling evidence for the linguistic relativity hypothesis, highlighting how language influences perception.
The research on color categorization, initially focused on the Hanunoo tribe in the Philippines, highlights the complexities of lexical color systems (Conklin, 1955) Subsequent studies involving participants from the University of Maryland and the University of Illinois, as well as comparisons between American and Scottish populations, revealed a lack of significant agreement across 56 color categories (Battig and Montague, 1965; Brown, 1978).
Research on color lexicons highlights the connection between the visual system's structure and function, focusing on semantic universals McDaniel (1972, 1974) emphasized the importance of perception in shaping language, suggesting that the characteristics of the visual system influence the formation of color categories across different languages.
A significant study on color terminology was conducted by Lakoff in 1987, demonstrating the ability to compare color categories that include focal colors across various languages.
In a unique research approach, participants aged 17 to 70 were invited to list as many color terms as they could without a time constraint This study aimed to explore the maximum number of color terms individuals can recall, contributing to the understanding of color memory (Taft and Sivik, 1997).
A linguistic analysis of Old English color terms, such as grey and blue, reveals that collocations, referents, and contrasts provide insights into the nuances of color vocabulary This underscores the importance of detailed contextual studies of individual tokens for achieving a comprehensive semantic characterization of specific terms (Biggam, 1997).
Besides the support towards colour terminology universalism, criticism related to an autonomous neuro-physiological colour pathway is revealed in the study of physiological colour perception (Saunders and van Brakel, 1997)
The Berlin and Kay hypothesis, articulated through the "World Colour Survey," outlines the evolution of Basic Colour Terms, starting with black and white to differentiate between these two colors It further categorizes colors into warm and cool tones, distinguishing warm primaries like red and yellow from cool primaries such as green and blue, with red specifically identified as a distinct term This hierarchical structure is based on extensive data collected from a vast majority of languages included in the World Colour Survey (Kay and Maffi, 1999).
The development of colour language is influenced by the physiological differences and diverse literary contexts of speakers, reflecting their unique needs Basic colour terms vary among native speakers across regions due to human characteristics in colour cognition and the influence of multicultural development This intricate relationship between language and thought has made colour a significant area of study, highlighting both biological and linguistic factors Consequently, variations in colour cognition lead to diverse colour terms, showcasing culture-specific phenomena across different languages (Surridge, Osorio and Mundy, 2003; Kay and Reiger, 2006).
The article explores the relationship between primary and secondary color terms, highlighting the distinctions made by native community members based on specific criteria It emphasizes the strong link between basic color sensory agents and the naming of these colors, as noted by Hardin (2005).
Berlin and Kay's theory of basic color terminology reflects an ethnocentric bias rooted in Western scientific and philosophical traditions Critics argue against the translation method used for color terms across 78 languages Additionally, the effectiveness of the Munsell color system in eliciting color terminology, identifying focal hues, and addressing methodological limitations has been called into question (Saunders, 2014).
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Previous research on color terms in English and Vietnamese has paved the way for this dissertation, highlighting the connection between language, cognition, and culture as fundamental elements of behavior and reasoning within communities Cognitive semantics reinforces the significance of prototype theory and natural categorization in understanding lexical semantics, particularly regarding basic color terms in both languages This theoretical framework introduces essential color terms and comparative idioms from English and Vietnamese, serving as the primary data source for subsequent analysis.
Human knowledge evolves through continuous stages: strengthening, connecting, comparing, abstracting, and reflecting This knowledge reflects the cognitive heritage of humanity, shaped by bodily experiences and the objective world The interaction between our species-specific bodies and the environment influences our cognitive processes, emphasizing the importance of embodied experiences Understanding the connections between mind, body, and language is crucial, as these links are formed through our interactions with both the physical and cultural world Additionally, the relationship between the body and mind is influenced by social factors, as the characteristics of certain categories arise from human biological capacities and experiences in physical and social contexts.
The three typical views on cognition is presented in details as follows:
Cognition is traditionally viewed as the organization of an agent’s sensorimotor experiences and interactions with the environment, as defined by Piaget (1936) However, a more nuanced understanding emphasizes the importance of cultural context in cognitive development, suggesting that individual growth is deeply rooted in sociocultural processes Vygotsky (as cited in Lindblom & Ziemke, 2007) posits that cognitive abilities are shaped through social interactions, transforming primitive humans into culturally aware individuals.
The human mind is intrinsically linked to the body, as our thoughts and cognition emerge from continuous bodily activities and interactions with the environment This interconnectedness highlights that human experience is shaped by both physical actions and social interactions, leading to an embodied understanding of the mind (Johnson & Rohrer, 2007: 18-23).
Cognition, a fundamental human ability, enables our experiences to be integrated into our conceptual system by introducing concepts and guiding information processing (Barsalou, 1999) It is deeply rooted in our bodily experiences and sensorimotor systems, emerging from our interactions with both physical and socio-cultural environments (Violi, 2008) Perception encompasses two emotive phases—feeling and perception—alongside a reasoning phase involving symbols and definitions, while cognition involves the processes of receiving, storing, and transforming information into knowledge (Lý Toàn Thắng, 2008).
Cognition, encompassing both physical processes of information management and socio-cultural influences, shapes how humans perceive the world, with language playing a crucial role It is essential to understand cognition not merely as an internal, symbolic activity but as a dynamic interaction between individuals and their environment This dissertation focuses on the cognitive perspective of the term "cognition," exploring how the interplay of cognitive processes and cultural factors forms the foundational basis for diverse interpretations of color terms.
In researching cultural-national characteristics of languages, nomination feature of different languages is highly recommended (Nguyễn Đức Tồn, 2010:
160) In the realm of colour terminology, traditional research has primarily been concerned with Nomination (Naming)
The naming process is fundamentally linked to linguistic concepts, serving to identify and categorize objects and phenomena Kolshansky defines nomination as the association of a linguistic symbol with a concept, emphasizing that this signifies the most distinctive features of the denotatum, including its characteristics and processes Vietnamese linguists further elaborate on this concept, with the 'Từ điển tiếng Việt' stating that nomination involves naming subjects or phenomena, while 'Từ điển chuyên ngành' describes it as the creation of linguistic units that delineate segments of reality to convey equivalent concepts Hoàng Phê highlights the essential lexical function of this process, and Hà Quang Năng connects nomination to cognitive awareness, asserting that the depth of our understanding of the world enhances the effectiveness of our naming endeavors.
Nomination addresses the question of how to express a particular concept by seeking its names, starting from a prior idea, object, quality, or activity This process begins with the formation of a referent's concept, which serves as a cognitive category that differentiates it from other classes of objects Despite variations in language, the fundamental concepts are similar across speakers due to the shared cognitive abilities of human beings that shape concept formation.
The naming process involves identifying the unique characteristics and connections of each subject in the physical world, forming a sophisticated system within a nation When encountering a new entity, familiar features can be recognized, and only the most distinctive traits are selected for naming to differentiate it from others V G Gac (1976) emphasizes that the act of naming is closely tied to classification, as natural languages express a specific entity based on its unique features, relying on distinct linguistic expressions inherent to national languages (Nguyễn Đức Tồn, 2016: 57).
Nomination, the act of assigning names to objects, involves two key participants: the nominator, who names, and the referent, which is the object being named For effective naming, the nominator must observe and recognize the distinctive characteristics of the object to accurately represent its essence (Hoàng Thị Huệ, 2019) This process is inherently cognitive, relying on comparisons and perceptions to identify unique features Naming requires an understanding of the object's distinguishing traits, linking the meaning of a word to its referent Words not only denote entities or phenomena but also reflect our perspectives on them, leading to diverse expressions of the same concept (Humboldt, 1956: 85).
Various factors contribute to the differences in concepts across language communities, including the objective reality, the level of knowledge about referents, and the overarching system of notions within each language Different language speakers possess unique perspectives of the world, leading to distinct conceptualizations While these perspectives may not align perfectly, they can often be connected and partially mapped onto one another, highlighting the complexity of cross-linguistic understanding.
Nomination regulations stipulate that names must be meaningful and connected to their essence, emphasizing general and abstract qualities The nomination process should focus on selecting the most representative characteristics and distinctive values, enabling clear distinctions among different entities through defined classes and categories Further details on the selection of representative features and the classification of these categories will be elaborated in relation to the concepts of Culture, Prototype Theory, and Category.
Culture is defined as a complex whole that encompasses knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, laws, customs, and the habits acquired by social members (Tylor, 1903) It represents a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, facilitating communication and the development of knowledge and attitudes among people (Krober and Klukhohn, 1952) The core of culture consists of traditional ideas and their associated values, which are essential for human groups Schmitt (1999) further emphasizes that culture includes the knowledge, feelings, and actions necessary for individuals to navigate and succeed in their environment.
The connection between culture and language is highlighted, with culture defined in an anthropological context as the unique way of life and environment of native inhabitants within specific geographical boundaries, which is expressed through a singular language.
Vietnamese researchers view culture as an organic system of material and spiritual values that develop through interactions between humans and their natural and social environments (Trần Ngọc Thêm, 2000) National culture is seen as a product of a nation's worldview and ideological system, reflecting the spiritual life and accumulated experiences of its people In essence, humans create culture through their cognitive connections with nature and society (Phạm Đức Dương, 2000: 15) Additionally, the historical context is crucial in understanding culture as a collection of values that evolve uniquely over time, with material and spiritual elements intertwined and coexisting for parallel development (Nguyễn Đức Tồn, 2015).
Theoretical framework of dissertation
For the purpose of obtaining the goals of this study, the theoretical framework to conduct the dissertation is formulated on the following foundation:
Basic color terms are defined by comparing their features to representative natural objects or by directly identifying the objects that inspire these terms In English, the primary color terms include black, white, red, yellow, green, blue, and grey, while in Vietnamese, they are đen, trắng, đỏ, vàng, xanh, and xám.
The study examines comparative idioms structured as + basic colour term + as + object referent X, utilizing data from literary works, idiom dictionaries, and online resources in both English and Vietnamese This analysis aims to identify the object referent X linked with basic colour terms, revealing a variety of object referents that embody the unique national characteristics and values of each culture Consequently, the findings reflect the distinctive beauty of the natural world, as well as the physical and mental attributes that characterize the national spirit of both English and Vietnamese societies (Hoàng Văn Hành, 1976).
A category is defined as a collection of object referents that share similar attributes based on family resemblance According to prototype theory, color categories do not exist objectively in the world but are represented in our cognition through prototypes, which are the clearest examples of each category These categories encompass object referents that vary in similarity to the prototype, resulting in a hierarchy of membership Specifically, a basic color term category includes all object referents associated with that term, distinct from comparative idioms that native speakers typically use In this dissertation, a basic color term category is characterized as the collection of object referents linked to a single basic color term.
A prototype represents the most central features of category members, serving as the clearest example with the highest percentage of membership as judged by native speakers This classification relies on the most representative examples, with decreasing similarity to the prototype resulting in a lower degree of membership According to prototype theory, a colour prototype is the best example of a colour category, aiding in the exploration of basic colour prototypes in both English and Vietnamese Consequently, a basic colour term prototype is identified from a list of object referents associated with that term, based on the criterion of the highest appearance percentage among native speakers.
This article examines the comparative criteria for prototypes of basic color terms and categories in English and Vietnamese It focuses on the percentage of accuracy in identifying these prototypes and classifies them into six categories: Flora, Fauna, Inanimate Nature Objects, Food and Beverages, Man-made Products, and Body and Bodily Products.
Explanatory tools for understanding the similarities and differences between prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese are grounded in cultural and cognitive elements These elements play a crucial role in elucidating how both languages perceive color in relation to familiar objects, highlighting unique cultural perspectives The cultural aspect, representing the core values of a community, enhances our comprehension of how English and Vietnamese speakers select representative objects for basic color terms Ultimately, the distinct ways of thinking inherent in each culture, shaped by the interplay of language, culture, and cognition, clarify the similarities and differences in their approaches to color terminology.
This dissertation aims to elucidate the prototypes of basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, highlighting the unique cognitive and cultural characteristics of each language The analysis is structured within a comprehensive theoretical framework.
Figure 1.3: Theoretical framework of dissertation
English data: as + color term + as + object referent Vietnamese data: màu + như + đối tượng so sánh chuẩn
06-Class classification Category sub-classification
Prototypes of basic color terms
Summary
This dissertation focuses on empirical studies of color terms from multiple research perspectives, including lexical, semantic, cultural, and cognitive aspects in both English and Vietnamese It identifies a gap in the existing literature, specifically the lack of research exploring the prototypes of basic color terms through cognitive and cultural lenses This gap highlights the need for a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences in color term identification between English and Vietnamese.
This dissertation uniquely combines prototype theory, which defines basic color term prototypes by identifying the most salient object referents, with a six-class color classification system that includes Flora, Fauna, Inanimate Nature, Man-made Objects, Food and Beverage, and Body and Bodily Products By exploring the shared attributes of these object referents and incorporating cognitive and cultural characteristics, this study provides a comprehensive analysis of the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese prototypes of basic color terms.
This chapter establishes the theoretical foundation of key elements in mainline research, focusing on naming theory, prototype theory, categories, cognition, and culture It delves into prototype theory, covering definitions, developmental stages, and categorization, while also exploring the multi-faceted perspectives and historical development of categories Furthermore, it examines the roles of cognition and culture, highlighting their definitions from various viewpoints and emphasizing the unique cultural characteristics of English and Vietnamese.
This article explores the similarities and differences between the English language and the relationship between language, cognition, and culture It clarifies the intricate and interdependent connections among these elements, providing a comprehensive understanding of their interplay.
This section examines specific basic color terms in English and Vietnamese, highlighting their linguistic and physical characteristics It also provides an overview of comparative idioms, including definitions, research findings, and the unique national values they reflect Additionally, the relationship between language, culture, and cognition is explored to enhance understanding of these concepts.
This literature review is structured within a theoretical framework for enhanced clarity The insights gained from this framework will be further explored and detailed in the subsequent chapters, which will focus on describing and comparing contrasting elements.