An overview of translation theories and its implications for the translation of english vs vietnamese legal texts

1.2 Aim of the study This study is conducted in order to a clearly summarize the major strands of translation theories, b outline the characteristics of legal translation and its nature

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF LAW

GRADUATION THESIS B.A DEGREE IN ENGLISH

Major: Legal English

AN OVERVIEW OF TRANSLATION THEORIES AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TRANSLATION OF ENGLISH VS VIETNAMESE LEGAL TEXTS

Supervisor : PHAM THI THUY DUNG, MA

Student : NGUYEN HONG PHUC

Student ID : 1552202010046

Class : LE40B

Ho Chi Minh City, 2019

HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF LAW

FACULTY OF LEGAL LANGUAGES

Major: Legal English

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Independence – Freedom - Happiness

COMMENTS OF SUPERVISOR Student: NGUYEN HONG PHUC

Student ID: 1552202010046

Class: LE40B

Thesis title: AN OVERVIEW OF TRANSLATION THEORIES AND ITS

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE TRANSLATION OF ENGLISH VS VIETNAMESE

LEGAL TEXTS

1 Thesis objectives:

2 Submission date of thesis:

3 Supervisor:

4 Comments of Supervisor:

5 Score of thesis evaluated by Supervisor:

Contents and objectives of thesis were passed through the Supervisor and

Department

Date … Month … Year 2019 SUPERVISOR’S SIGNATURE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my research supervisor Ms Pham Thi Thuy Dung for the continuous support, for her patience, motivation and enthusiasm Without her assistance and dedicated involvement in every step throughout these past three months, this paper would have never been accomplished

I am hugely indebted to Mr Nguyen Thai Son (lecturer in Department of Legal English) for spending his time answering all my questions, for being ever so kind to show interest in my research and for giving his precious and kind advices regarding to the topic of my study I would like to express my special thanks to my head teacher

Ms Pham Thi Phuong Anh (lecturer in Department of Legal English) for her useful advices and inspirations from the very first days of my university life Besides, allow

me to extend my gratitude to all lecturers whom I have had the opportunity to collaborate with during my four years in this University

In addition, I would also like to thank Ms Ngo Kim Thanh (my colleague) for her immense interest in my topic, for providing me with materials and books that I could not possibly have discovered on my own, for her kind words and suggestions

Getting through my dissertation required more than academic support, and I have many, many people to thank for listening to and, at times, supporting me spiritually during this difficult time I want to express my gratitude and appreciation for their friendship during the time I spent at the Ho Chi Minh City University of Law

Most importantly, none of this could have happened without my family I take this opportunity to express gratitude to my parents and my sister for the unceasing encouragement, support and attention throughout my years of study and through the process of researching and writing this thesis This dissertation stands as a testament to their unconditional love and encouragement

Ho Chi Minh City, 28th May 2019

LSP : Language for Special Purpose

CIDE : Cambridge International Dictionary of English 1997

BLD : Black‟s Law Dictionary 1999

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Functional characteristics of text types to translation methods (Reiss, 1977) 21 Table 2 Differences between ordinary meaning and legal meaning of some

terminologies 31

Table 3 Popular Latin terminologies definition in English and Vietnamese 33

Table 4 Landscape of translation methods 35

Table 5 Translation theories‟ implications for the legal translation 358

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework of the study 17 Figure 2 Overview of translation theories 19

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study 7

1.2 Aim of the study 8

1.3 Research questions 8

1.4 Significance of the study 8

1.5 Scopes of the research 8

1.6 Outline of the thesis 9

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Definition of the key terms 10

2.1.1 Translation – Translation theories 10

2.1.1.1 Translation 10

2.1.1.2 Translation theories 11

2.1.2 Legal translation 11

2.1.3 Legal texts 12

2.2 Previous studies 13

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research questions 16

3.2 Design and context of the study 16

3.3 Research instruments 16

3.4 Conceptual framework 17

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Overview of translation theories 19

4.1.1 Philological Theories 19

4.1.2 Linguistic Theories 20

4.1.3 Functional Theories 20

4.1.3.1 Text-type Theory 20

4.1.3.2 Translational Action Theory 22

4.1.3.3 Skopos Theory 22

4.1.4 Sociolinguistic Theories 23

4.1.5 Relevance Theory 23

4.2 The nature of legal language 24

4.2.1 The normative nature of legal language 24

4.2.2 The performative nature of legal language 24

4.2.3 The technical nature of legal language 25

4.2.4 The indeterminate nature of legal language 25

4.3 Characteristics of the legal language 26

4.3.1 Lexicon 27

4.3.2 Syntax 27

4.3.3 Pragmatics 28

4.3.4 Style 28

4.4 Difficulties of legal translation 29

4.4.1 Different legal systems 29

4.4.2 Language problems 29

4.4.2.1 Terminology 29

4.4.2.2 Ambiguity 34

4.4.2.3 Long and complex sentences 34

4.5 Translation theories’ implications for dealing with the difficulties of legal translation 35

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 5.1 Conclusion 39

5.2 Limitations of the study 39

5.3 Recommendation for further study 39 REFERENCES ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study

It is clear that English has become a vital and mandatory communication language

in Vietnam since the opening of its doors to the world in 1986 Many English-speaking foreigners from across Asia, Australia, America and Europe started coming to invest in Vietnam, as evidenced by the fact that international conventions, international legal principles and contracts are almost promulgated in English This has motivated the people of Vietnam to learn English to facilitate efficient and effective communication among their counterparts

Along with the development of the demands of learning English, the needs to learn and access to foreign law by organizations and citizens in different countries has increased significantly In addition, the fact that a country has access to the laws of other countries to deal with legal issues involving foreign elements has become a commonplace, and that legal information in other countries is not aimed to organizations and citizens of that country but also to foreign organizations and individuals This means that the translation of legal documents from the mother tongue

of many countries into common languages, especially in English and vice versa, not only has a crucial role in our life but also is essential for organizations and individuals can easily learn, do research as well as analyze legal texts People believe that the legal system of one country is different from the other Law and order of a country are defined and personalized according to the cultural attitudes of the citizens Legal terminologies are vast and complex, and certain terms which exist in one language may not be present in another language; so in that cases, legal translation helps by describing the meaning and the procedure of the legal term, without changing the original meaning of that legal document

Throughout the time, there are a lot of scholars around the world trying to investigate and analyze translation theories in order to find the best way to deal with the issues of the legal translation Therefore, it will raise a question “Which theory is the most appropriate method to produce an accurate translation, especially in legal field?”

For the reason above, I choose the topic “An overview of translation theories and its implications for the translation of English vs Vietnamese legal texts” as

the topic of my graduation thesis

1.2 Aim of the study

This study is conducted in order to (a) clearly summarize the major strands of translation theories, (b) outline the characteristics of legal translation and its nature as well as the difficulties of legal translation, and (c) suggest which translation theories should be applied to translate English – Vietnamese legal documents

1.3 Research questions

This study is done in order to give answers to the following research questions: From identifying (i) what are the translation theories to (ii) finding the main characteristics of legal translation as well as (iii) determining the difficulties when translating legal texts, by doing these, (iv) proposing which mentioned translation theories should be applied to deal with the difficulties of the translation of English – Vietnamese legal texts

1.4 Significance of the study

By the result of this study the researcher hopes to establish an understanding not only on the translation theories but also the legal translation In addition, it will highlight what measures based on translation theories are appropriate to solve the difficulties when translating legal documents The findings which this thesis will reveal, may benefit certain groups and the benefits they may be able to gain are as follow: (a) students who have major in language and law – this group may use this study as a reference to upgrade their knowledge during the learning process; (b) future researchers – the finding of this study will be serving as a good source of accurate and useful information for them to conduct new researches or to test the validity of other related findings

1.5 Scopes of the research

Different translation theories are used in different translation purposes This research will present the key issues of translation theories and legal translation as well

as analyses the application of functional equivalence theory and functional approaches

to legal translation Because of the limited time and access to resources in legal

translation, this research has only mentioned about five important and useful translation theories among the vast number of theories existed At the same time, there are only some common issues arising when translating legal documents will be discussed As for the legal texts, in spite of the diversity of this type of text, legal texts indicated in this study are mainly cited from contracts, documents related to contracts

1.6 Outline of the thesis

Each chapter in this thesis is placed as follows: Chapter 1 of this thesis introduces the readers to the topic, telling them precisely what I am going to do and why it is worth doing Chapter 2 presents the literature review, it clarifies the definition of some key terms related to the thesis statement and identifies some previous studies that already has been completed in my topic area and provides brief analysis of all current information relevant to the topic The methods used to gather the information as well

as describe clearly the conceptual framework for the thesis to answer the research questions are highlighted in Chapter 3 Chapter 4 also known as “the body” of the thesis consists of the findings and discussion of results; in other words, this chapter is considered as the answer for the research questions In the final chapter – Chapter 5 presents the conclusion as well as the research limitations and recommendation for further research

Keywords: translation, translation theories, legal translation, characteristic of legal

language, legal difficulties, English - Vietnamese legal texts

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Definition of the key terms

2.1.1 Translation – Translation theories

2.1.1.1 Translation

The English word "translate" derives from the Latin word „translatio‟, which means “carried across”: in this case, of a text from one language to another Translation is a complicated task, during which the meaning of the source-language text should be conveyed to the target-language readers Since the definition of translation not only describes and interprets the basic properties of translation, but also determines its connotation and extension, it is the core and basic part of translation studies Different theorists state various definitions for translation

Foster (1958: 1) deems translation to be the act of transferring through which the content of a text is transferred from the source language (SL) into the target language (TL) Source language means “the text before translating where the processes

of reading comprehension, analysis and researching are carried out,” and target language means “the text after translating where the processes of composing, rephrasing and editing are carried out” (Abdellah, 2004: 25)

Catford (1965: 20) pointed out that translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language In this definition, the most important thing is equivalent textual material However, it is still ambiguous in terms of the type of equivalence Similar to this definition is that by Savory (1969), he stated that translation is made possible by an equivalent of thought that lies behind its different verbal expressions

Wilss (1982: 3) pointed out that translation is a transfer process, which aims at the transformation of a written SL text into an optimally equivalent TL text, and which requires the syntactic, the semantic and the pragmatic understanding and analytical processing of SL

Hatim and Mason (1997: 1) considered translation as “an act of communication which attempts to relay, across cultural and linguistic boundaries, another act of communication.” Tianmin (2000: 1) who looks at translation as a form of cross-

cultural communication alleged that “translation is simultaneous de-contextualization and re-contextualization, hence is productive rather than reproductive.”

Translation can also be taken into account as “the process of establishing of establishing equivalence between the source language texts and target language texts” (Sa‟edi, 2004: 242), which aims at passing on “an understanding to people in their own language and create the same impact as the original text” (Galibert, 2004: 1)

In conclusion, in different historical periods, the definition of translation has become more complete and more accessible

2.1.1.2 Translation theories

According to Newmark (1981: 19), translation theory is concerned mainly with determining appropriate translation methods for the widest possible range of texts or text-categories It also provides a frame work of principles, restricted rules and hints for translating texts and criticizing translations, a background for problem solving

Likewise, Graham (in Ross, 1981: 23-24 and 26) asserts that any substantial theory of translation assumes some formal inquiry concerning the general principles of accomplishment, the very principles which define an object and specify a method of study A rigorous theory of translation would also include something like a practical evaluation procedure with specific criteria

In other words, translation theory is based on a solid foundation on understanding of how languages work, translation theory recognizes that different languages encode meaning in differing forms, yet guides translators to find appropriate ways of preserving meaning, while using the most appropriate forms of each language Translation theory includes principles for translating figurative language, dealing with lexical mismatches, rhetorical questions, inclusion of cohesion markers, and many other topics crucial to conduct a good translation

2.1.2 Legal translation

Legal translation, like any other type of translation work, is the replacement of the source language with the target language However, legal translation is different because law is culture-dependent Legal translation deals with texts within legal systems, all which vary from country to country The process requires a translator‟s

mastery of both languages, and in-depth knowledge of both legal systems Only then will the translation of legal expressions be accurate and natural

Generally, legal translation is a law-based translation process involving the translation of legal texts used in different legal settings (Al-Nakhalah, 2013: 167) According to Šarčević (1997: 13), legal translation is not merely translating from the source language into the target language but is also “a translation from one legal system into another – from the source legal system into the target legal system.”

Legal translation is a special type of Language for Special Purpose (LSP) translation involving cross linguistic communication in the legal context Legal translation takes time to produce, as it is not the easiest form of translation work It requires the highest degree of accuracy It is important for the client to work with a professional language services provider that has legal translation expertise as well as years of experience in the subject

Wilss (1994: 38) stated: “Many aspects of translation, in particular in the field

of LSP, transcend cultural boundaries and are, in some sense, universal Simplifying somewhat, translation can be depicted as a domain of socio-culturally determined linguistic behavior with both cultural-specific and universal components.”

Tiersma suggested that legal language should have been called an argot, a dialect, a register, a style and even a separate language In fact, it is best described with the relative new term sublanguage, a sublanguage that has its own specialized grammar, a limited subject matter, contain lexical, syntactic and semantic restrictions and allow deviant rules of grammar that are not acceptable in the standard language Nevertheless, we describe it, legal language is a complex collection of linguistic habits that have developed over many centuries and that jurists have learned to use quite strategically (1999: 142)

2.1.3 Legal texts

A legal text is something very different from ordinary speech It is any piece of writing that carries an obligation or allows certain actions or things, makes a binding promise, or sets out penalties to be imposed in case of violation This is especially true

of authoritative legal texts: those that create, modify, or terminate the rights and obligations of individuals or institutions Such texts are what J.L Austin (1962) might

have called “written performatives” Lawyers often refer to them as operative or dispositive

Authoritative legal texts come in a variety of genres They include documents such as: constitutions, contracts, deeds, orders/judgments/decrees, pleadings, statutes, wills Each genre of legal text tends to have its own stereotypical format, is generally written in legal language (or "legalese"), and usually contains one or more legal speech acts that are meant to carry out its intended functions Thus, a contract almost always contains one or more promises, a will contains verbs that transfer property at death, and a deed transfers property during the lifetime of its maker (Tiersma 2003)

In this thesis, the legal text which will be mentioned is „contract‟ A contract is basically an agreement between two parties creating a legal obligation for both of them

to perform specific acts Each party is legally bound to perform the specified duties such as rendering a payment or delivering goods A contract may be used for various transactions, including the sale of land or goods, or the provision of services They may be either oral or written, though courts prefer that agreements be put in writing

2.2 Previous studies

People who want to be master in legal translation have to face several challenges One of these challenges is that the references are too limited Although there are many scholars who have dedicated their time and effort to study translation theories as well as legal translation, the combination between the translation theories and legal translation has received little attention

On the one hand, there are many books from a lot of scholars who wrote about translation theories A case in point is that the book “Translation Theories: Strategies and Basic Theoretical Issues” (2011) by Prof A B As-Safi considers translation as an indispensable activity there emerged diverse theories and theoretical reflections to guide it This diversity stems from the diverse perspectives and approaches to translation with corollary of a plethora of definitions, types and theories scanned in the first three chapters of Part One Historically, translation theories began with the Romans, but they have undergone four periods as proposed by George Steiner and surveyed in Chapter Two Particularly in Chapter Three, it furnishes a plethora of ancient and recent translation theories, from which the students and others specialized

or interested in translation will benefit For another example, the book “An introduction into translation theories” (2012) by Vietnamese author – PhD Luu Trong Tuan is an expedition through translation theories His work provides diverse views on the nature of translation as well as presented the different translation theories which have contributed to the growth of translation

On the other hand, there are also many research works and journal about legal translation as well as the difficulties when translating legal texts mainly because the translation of law has played an integral part in the interaction among nations in history and is playing a greater role in our increasingly interconnected world today For instance, “Translating Law” (2007) is the outcome of ten years of research as well

as the author‟s firsthand knowledge as an interpreter and translator Deborah Cao clearly defines, illustrates and discusses ways of bridging bias within the interdisciplinary dialogue involving broad but complex discursive communities like law and linguistics in the translation of legal documents in “various languages and legal cultures” This book not only examines legal translation from an interdisciplinary perspective, covers theoretical and practical grounds and linguistic as well as legal issues but also analyses legal translation competence and various types of legal texts including contracts, statutes and multilateral legal instruments, presents a comparative analysis of the Common Law and the Civil Law and examines the case law from Canada, Hong Kong and the European Court of Justice Especially in Chapter Two, she begins with a classification of legal translation which is followed by

an analysis of the nature of legal language in terms of its normative, performative and technical character A characterization of legal language is also mentioned in terms of legal lexicon, syntax, pragmatics and style Then, the chapter elaborates on the three major sources of difficulty in legal translation, that is, the legal, linguistic and cultural complications As for “A Linguistic Analysis of Some Problems of Arabic-English Translation of Legal Texts, with Special Reference to Contracts” (2015) by Ahmad Abdelmoneim Youssef Masry Zidan, this book aims to provide a relatively comprehensive description of legal language in general and an application was done to the main features of the language of contracts and how each translator approached problematic areas of legal translation in the two contracts For Susan Šarčević with the

book “New Approach to Legal Translation” (1997), by analyzing legal translation as

an act of communication in the mechanism of the law, she attempts to provide a theoretical basis for legal translation within the framework of modern translation theory and also points out the difficulties of legal translation between countries in different legal systems Her paper focuses on the role of the receiver in translation theory; it is not concerned so much with methods of interpretation but rather with the implications for the decision-making process of translators Regarding to Vietnamese authors: Ms Nguyen Minh Tram with her journal “Legal translation and experiences

of legal translators in Ho Chi Minh City”, this paper briefly summarizes the legal translation study by highlighting major issues when translating legal documents and pointing out the skills and qualities required of a legal translator; the journal

“Problems and difficulties encountered in the translation of legal texts between English and Vietnamese” (2010) by Mr Tran Huu Hai, he identifies some key characteristics of legal English and common problems and difficulties in translating legal documents and documents between English and Vietnamese to ensure the academic value of the translation besides ensuring the clarity, completeness, accuracy and transparency of the translation But both articles do not mention the direction to solve those problems

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research questions

On the basis of my research goals and review of the literature researcher developed the following four research questions to guide my investigation The research questions for this study were: (i) How many types of translation theories and what are they? (ii) What are the main characteristics of legal translation? (iii) What are the difficulties of legal translations? (iv) To what extent can the mentioned translation theories be applied to deal with the difficulties of the translation of English – Vietnamese legal texts?

3.2 Design and context of the study

This study utilized the library research in order to achieve the purpose which is

to describe the translation theories and some main features of legal translation as well

as to determine which translation theories can be applied to solve the legal translation problems

The way researcher approach the research questions will have a great bearing

on this research outcomes There are quite a wide range of research methodologies; one of them is what is called „library research‟ In fact, it refers to any study aiming to get an overview of existing works In other words, the research question is literature-based and involves only a methodology of theoretical analysis requiring selection and discussion of descriptive materials as well as a comparative investigation of the targeted theories defining the issue under scrutiny Under such circumstances, the objective is not to discover something about a specific phenomenon; rather, the researcher aims at reaching a judgment about the merit of main theories defining the related concept in order to understand it as one of the realities of the world Naturally, the right thing to do here is a library-based or theoretical study

3.3 Research instruments

Because of the nature of „library research‟ method and in order to collect, evaluate and analyze a tons of information related to the thesis topic, researcher primarily finds sources (such as books, articles, reports, etc.) from a school library together with some specialized online tools like Google Scholar, Sciencedirect.com Preference for the use of these instruments is premised on several research

assumptions such as the variety of sources from a lot of foreign scholars, the easiest and effective way to get access to the information as well as the cost of being a least expensive means of gathering information

3.4 Conceptual framework

The basic Conceptual framework which was followed throughout the study is

drawn below:

Figure 1 Conceptual Framework of the study

In order to achieve the goals of this study, the researcher has followed this process This research seeks to identify the appropriate methods of legal translation which are based on the translation theories

It can be seen that there are three (03) main stages in the process It begins with researching and analyzing some translation theories and finishes with identifying legal translation issues which could be solved by applying those theories At the first stage

of the process, the translation theories are presented consisting of the following: Philological Theories, Linguistic Theories, Functional Theories, Sociolinguistic Theories and Relevance Theory After studying and analyzing a number of theories, the researcher began to compare and find the relationship between the translation

Methods

• Legal system differences

• Language problems

Legal translation

issues

Translation theories’ implications for the translation of legal texts

theories and methods commonly used in legal translation as well as point out the nature and crucial characteristics of legal language By doing that, at the final stage, the researcher can determine which problems arising when translating legal texts will

be solved when combining those methods together

Last but not least, the research findings and recommendations could be adopted and implemented to benefit the area of translating English - Vietnamese legal texts

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Overview of translation theories

Basically there are two competing theories of translation In one, the predominant purpose is to express as exactly as possible the full force and meaning of every word and turn of phrase in the original, and in the other the predominant purpose

is to produce a result that does not read like a translation at all, but rather moves in its new dress with the same ease as in its native rendering The translation theories mentioned below mainly focus on the latter purpose, except for Linguistic Theories which aim for the former purpose The Figure 2 below briefly summarizes the translation theories mentioned in this thesis:

Figure 2 Overview of translation theories 4.1.1 Philological Theories

Philological theories rely upon „philology‟ as the study of the development of language, and the classical literary studies They are mainly concerned with the comparison of structures in the native and foreign languages, especially the functional correspondence and the literary genres in addition to stylistics and rhetoric

Translation

Theories

Be affected by specific factors such as social, context, function

Philological Theories

Functional Theories

Text-type Theory

Translational Action Theory

Skopos Theory

Sociolinguistic Theories

Relevance Theory

Express as exactly as posible the meaning of every words

Linguistic Theories

Nida (1976: 67-68) explicitly states: “The philological theories of translation are, of course based on a philological approach to literary analysis They simply go one step further; in place of treating the form in which the text was first composed, they deal with corresponding structures in the source and receptor languages and attempt to evaluate their equivalences […] Philological theories of translation are normally concerned with all kinds of stylistic features and rhetorical devices.”

be transferred to the TL and restructured to form TL surface elements

Pertinent to linguistic theories is Newmark‟s binary classification of translation into semantic and communicative, which somehow resembles Nida‟s formal and dynamic equivalence “Communicative translation”, Newmark (1981: 39) states,

“attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the original Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original”

4.1.3 Functional Theories

The 1970s and 1980s witnessed a shift from the static linguistic typologies of translation and the emergence, in Germany, of a functionalist and communicative approach to the analysis of translation

4.1.3.1 Text-type Theory

Built on the concept of equivalence, which is the milestone in linguistic theories, the text, rather than the word or sentence, is deemed the appropriate level at

which communication is achieved and at which equivalence must be sought (Reiss 1977) The Table below shows the way Reiss links the functional characteristics of text types to translation methods:

Table 1 Functional characteristics of text types to translation methods

(Reiss, 1977)

Informative: It is concerned with „plain

communication of facts‟: information,

knowledge, opinions, etc The language

dimension used to transmit the

information is logical or referential; the

content or „topic‟ is the main focus of the

communication

The TT of an informative text should transmit the full referential or conceptual content of the ST The translation should

be „plain prose‟ without redundancy, but

with the use of explication when required

Expressive: It denotes the „creative

composition‟ wherein the author uses the

aesthetic dimension of the language

The TT of an expressive text should transmit the aesthetic and artistic form of the ST The translation should use the

„identifying‟ method, with the translator adopting the stand point of ST author

Operative: The purpose is to induce

behavioral responses, i.e., to appeal to or

persuade the reader or „receiver‟ of the

text to act in a certain way

The TT of an operative text should produce the desired response in the TT receiver The translation should create an equivalent effect among TT readers

Audio-medial: It refers to films and

visual or spoken advertisements which

supplement the other three functions with

visual images, music, etc

Audio-medial texts require the

„supplementary‟ method, written words with visual images and music The text type approach moves translation theory beyond a consideration of lower linguistic levels, the mere words beyond even the