A survey of strategies in formulating speaking ideas among english major students at thu dau mot university m a 60 14 10

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE A SURVEY OF STRATEGIES IN FORMULATING SPEAKING

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS AND LITERATURE

A SURVEY OF STRATEGIES

IN FORMULATING SPEAKING IDEAS

AMONG ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS

AT THU DAU MOT UNIVERSITY

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature

in partial fulfillment of the Master‟s degree in TESOL

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

I hereby declare this thesis entitled “A SURVEY OF STRATEGIES IN FORMULATING SPEAKING IDEAS AMONG ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS AT THU DAU MOT UNIVERSITY” is the result of my own work

except as cited in the references

The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and it is not currently submitted in candidature of any other degree

Ho Chi Minh City, July 2017

Signature: _

Name: QUACH YEN LINH

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, QUACH YEN LINH, being the candidate for the degree of Master in TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master‟s Theses deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin copy of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and research in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for the care, loan and reproduction of theses

Ho Chi Minh City, July 2017

Signature: _

Name: QUACH YEN LINH

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Dr Le Hoang Dung, for his invaluable guidance and support during the preparation and completion of this thesis Without his wholehearted assistance throughout the research, I would not have finished this thesis successfully

Secondly, I would like to express my deep gratitude to all my teachers in my postgraduate program for their dedication and useful instructions through my time

as a master student

Thirdly, I am obliged to my colleagues and students at Thu Dau Mot University for their precious time in providing data for the study This thesis would not have been completed if it had not been for their sincere cooperation

Fourthly, my special thanks are extended to my fellow master students – TESOL

2013 class – who are my good friends as well as good colleagues I highly appreciate the understanding and knowledge they shared with me during the course

Fifthly, I would like to express my appreciation to the English Resource Center (ERC) of the Faculty of English Linguistics and Literature for helping me access

to valuable sources of materials for the research

Last but not least, my heartfelt gratitude are reserved for my parents and sisters who have always supported and encouraged me, especially in my gloomy days Their unconditional care and continuous encouragement motivated me to burst with full energy and effort

ABSTRACT

Difficulties in speaking have become major concerns for teachers and learners However, main focuses of research papers are commonly given to grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation which are considered as students‟ main problems, resulting in disregard for other elements, especially formulating speaking ideas This is really challenging for students to finish a speaking task successfully with

no ideas or opinions to express

This study, therefore, surveyed the strategies in formulating speaking ideas among English major students at Thu Dau Mot University (TDMU) It analyzed the causes to difficulties, the strategies in formulating speaking ideas as well as offering some suggestions for students and teachers The study employed non-experimental design and its data were collected via means of (a) questionnaire to

116 second-year students of English major, (b) interview with 6 teachers and 18 students, and (c) think-aloud protocol to 8 students The analysis was carried out

by measures of counting frequency, calculating percentage, and interpreting comments from the respondents

The findings of the study indicated that all of the student respondents did encounter difficulties in formulating speaking ideas due to a number of major causes such as lack of vocabulary, no background of knowledge, lack of confidence and lack of time to prepare ideas This paper provided useful strategies for students to overcome difficulties in formulating speaking ideas The results, although tentative, give a better understanding of the reality of using strategies in formulating speaking ideas at TDMU and offer suggestions for both teachers and learners in this institution The thesis closes by identifying some ideas for further research in relation to this study

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

ABSTRACT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix

LIST OF FIGURES x

LIST OF TABLES xi

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background to the study 1

1.2 Aims of the study 6

1.3 Research questions 6

1.4 Significance of the study 7

1.5 Scope of the study 7

1.6 Structure of the thesis 7

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 8

2.1 Speaking skill 8

2.1.1 The nature of the speaking skill 8

2.1.2 Importance of the speaking skill in EFL classrooms 9

2.1.3 Functions of speaking 9

2.1.4 The speaking process 12

2.1.5 What speakers need to know 13

2.2 Problems with speaking activities 15

2.3 Factors influencing EFL learners‟ speaking skill 17

2.4 Characteristics of a successful speaking activity 18

2.5 The roles of the teacher in a speaking activity 20

2.6 Teaching methodology of the speaking skill 21

2.6.1 A basic methodological model for teaching speaking 21

2.6.2 Other models of teaching speaking 22

2.7 Formulating speaking ideas 24

2.7.1 Pre-speaking activities 24

2.7.2 Strategies in formulating speaking ideas 26

2.7.2.1 Planning strategies 26

2.7.2.2 Brainstorming strategies 28

2.8 Related local studies 33

2.9 Conceptual framework of the study 35

2.10 Summary 38

CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY 39

3.1 Research design 39

3.2 Research site 39

3.3 Participants 39

3.3.1 Students‟ profile 39

3.3.2 Teacher respondents‟ profile 42

3.4 Research instruments 42

3.4.1 Questionnaire 43

3.4.2 Interview 44

3.4.3 Think-aloud protocol 45

3.4.4 Summary of the research instruments 46

3.5 Data collection procedures 48

3.5.1 Procedures for distributing the questionnaire 48

3.5.2 Procedures for conducting the interview 48

3.5.3 Procedures for conducting the think-aloud protocol 49

3.6 Data analysis procedures 50

3.7 Summary 50

CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 51

4.1 Data analysis 51

4.1.1 Analysis of data collected from the questionnaire to students‟ respondents 51

4.1.1.1 Difficulties encountered by students‟ respondents in formulating speaking ideas among second-year students at Thu Dau Mot university 51

4.1.1.2 Causes to difficulties in formulating speaking ideas among second-year students at Thu Dau Mot university 53

4.1.1.3 Strategies in formulating speaking ideas used by second-year students at Thu Dau Mot University 54

4.1.1.4 Summary 57

4.1.2 Analysis of data from the interviews 58

4.1.2.1 Data analysis from the interviews with student respondents 58

4.1.2.2 Data analysis from the interviews with teacher respondents 67

4.1.3 Analysis of data from the think-aloud protocols 71

4.2 Discussion of results 75

4.2.1 Causes to difficulties in formulating speaking ideas 75

4.2.2 Strategies in formulating speaking ideas 76

4.2.3 Pedagogical implications for teachers and solutions for students 78

4.2.3.1 Pedagogical implications for teachers 78

4.2.3.2 Solutions for students 80

4.3 Major findings 84

4.4 Summary 87

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION 88

5.1 Conclusion 88

5.1.1 Causes to difficulties in formulating speaking ideas 88

5.1.2 Strategies in formulating speaking ideas 90

5.2 Suggestions 91

5.2.1 Suggestions for teachers 91

5.2.2 Suggestions for learners 93

5.3 Limitations of the study 93

5.4 Recommendations for further study 94

5.5 Summary 95

REFERENCES 96

APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE 102

APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW (FOR TEACHERS) 105

APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW (FOR STUDENTS) 106

APPENDIX D: THINK-ALOUD PROTOCOL 107

APPENDIX E: LETTER TO TEACHER RESPONDENTS 110

APPENDIX F: LETTER TO STUDENT RESPONDENTS 111

APPENDIX G: LETTER TO ADMINISTRATOR 112

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

TDMU: Thu Dau Mot University

L2: Second Language

ELT: English Language Teaching

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: A basic model for teaching productive skills suggested by Harmer (2007) 21

Figure 2: Frequency of difficulties in formulating speaking ideas encountered by students

52

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Some taxonomies of language learning strategies 2

Table 2: Taxonomies of communication strategies as cited in Dornyei & Scott (1997), pp 196-197 3

Table 3: Strategies in brainstorming suggested by Cullen (1998) 32

Table 4: Strategies in formulating speaking ideas from Cohen et al (1996) and Cullen (1998) 36

Table 5: A compiled list of strategies of formulating speaking ideas as the conceptual framework 37

Table 6: Number of classes and students in the Faculty of Foreign Languages 40

Table 7: Demographic characteristics of student respondents 41

Table 8: Demographic characteristics of teacher respondents 42

Table 9: A summary of the research tools 47

Table 10: Causes to difficulties in students‟ formulating speaking ideas 53

Table 11: Strategies in formulating speaking ideas used by second-year students at Thu Dau Mot University 55

Table 12: How students have the strategies in formulating speaking ideas 56

Table 13: How teachers can help students overcome difficulties in formulating speaking ideas 63

Table 14: Causes to difficulties in formulating speaking ideas through the think-aloud protocols 72

Table 15: Strategies in formulating speaking ideas as reported in the think-aloud protocols 73

Table 16: Pedagogical implications for teachers in formulating speaking ideas 78

Table 17: Solutions for students in formulating speaking ideas 81

Table 18: A summary of causes to difficulties in formulating speaking ideas from the

study‟s results 89

Table 19: A summary of strategies in formulating speaking ideas from the study‟s results

90

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study

Speaking is one of the two productive skills which many learners of English find difficult to master The researcher of this current study, as a lecturer at Thu Dau Mot University (TDMU), has observed that speaking skill brings up many weighty matters to English learners as well as EFL teachers At TDMU, both teachers and learners tend to make every effort to primarily enhance grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation for students‟ perfect speaking skill by feeding more grammar and vocabulary (idioms, useful phrases), and drilling their pronunciation

Theories and experiments have proved that the causes of the difficulty are because of the lack of grammar, vocabulary, confidence, etc The purpose of speaking is primarily to achieve effective communication In order to communicate well, learners are usually advised to use language learning strategies which are the so-called speaking strategies and communication strategies

As reported by Anderson (2005), serious concentration on the significance

of language learning strategies have been increasing since the mid-1970s and 1980s It is evident that language learning strategies have been researched and classified by many theorists, such as O‟Malley et al (1985), Rubin (1987), Oxford (1990), Stern (1992), Anderson (2005) and Zhang (2006)

Socio-2 Rubin (1987) Learning strategies (including Cognitive strategies and

Metacognitive strategies), Communication strategies, Social strategies

3 Oxford (1990) Direct strategies (including Memory strategies,

Cognitive strategies, Compensation strategies, and Communication strategies), Indirect strategies (including Metacognitive strategies, Affective strategies, and Social strategies

4 Stern (1992) Management and planning strategies, Cognitive

strategies, Communicative – Experiential strategies, Interpersonal strategies, and Affective strategies

5 Anderson (2005) Memorization strategies, Clarification strategies,

Communication strategies, Monitoring strategies, and Prior knowledge strategies

6 Zhang & Goh

(2006)

Use-focused learning strategies, Form-focused learning strategies, Comprehension strategies, and Communication strategies

Table 1: Some taxonomies of language learning strategies

However, “most of them come up with more or less the same classification,” Razmjoo & Ardekani (2011) concluded, and they “represent very general language learning strategies.” There are hardly any taxonomies which barely target strategies for speaking skill, especially how to formulate speaking ideas Oxford (1990) compiled a table of “Strategy applications listed according to each of the four language skills,” which has become “the most widely used inventory for L2 strategy research” (Anderson, 2005, p.760) but it also failed to explore the ways to obtain speaking ideas nevertheless

Communication strategies are, according to Corder (1981), “a systematic technique employed by a speaker to express his [or her] meaning when faced with

some difficulty.” Stern (1983) also shared the same point of view towards the definition of communication strategies which are defined as the “techniques of coping with difficulties in communicating in an imperfectly known second language.” Communication strategies, nevertheless, have been used by Oxford (1990) “in a very restricted sense, referring to strategies which compensate for missing knowledge only during conversational speech production.” To outline the history of communication strategies, Dornyei & Scott (1997) summarized nine taxonomies of communication strategies, as follows:

researcher Taxonomy of communication strategies

1 Tarone (1977) Avoidance, Paraphrase, Conscious transfer, Appeal

for assistance, and Mime

2 Faerch & Kasper

4 Paribakht (1985) Linguistic approach, Contextual approach,

Conceptual strategies, and Mime

5 Willems (1987) Reduction strategies, and Achievement strategies

6 Bialystok (1990) Analysis-based strategies and Control-based

strategies

7 Nijmegen Group Conceptual strategies and Linguistic/ Code strategies

8 Poulisse (1983) Substitution strategies, Substitution plus strategies,

and Reconceptualization strategies

9 Dornyei & Scott

The review article of Faerch & Kasper (1983b) aimed at examining trends

in second language communication strategies Many other researchers in second language acquisition have also expressed their interest in communication strategies

Teng (2011) examined the communication strategy use of 318 EFL college students with three research instruments consisting of a role-play task, a communication strategy questionnaire and an interview This study showed that the most frequently used strategy was using familiar words This may also be a possible suggestion to help the learners gain fluency in formulating ideas quickly

in speaking after they have practiced familiar topics that bring them speaking ideas

Cervantes and Rodriguez (2012) presented in their study results that EFL teachers would not use or teach communication strategies to their students They switched to their first language or abandoned the message “to avoid communication problems.” Results of the study revealed that the most frequently

used strategies were language switch, clarification request, comprehension check, and asking for confirmation One of their recommendations was that students

should go to classes regularly in order to acquire more topical knowledge and take more practice in speaking skill

Ugla, Adnan, and Abidin (2013) investigated the use of communication strategies by Iraqi EFL students The study indicated the significance of incorporating communication strategies into English learning programs to improve the students‟ communicative competence Because of their “lack of grammatical competence,” EFL students used communication strategy as a tool to help communicate effectively

Another study on the use of communication strategies came from Yaman, Irgin, and Kavasoglu (2013) Their study emphasized crucial differences of using communication strategies in gender and language proficiency The authors claimed that there were other variables such as individual differences, background knowledge and motivation which needed considering in identifying communication strategies

So far, a number of interested studies have been presented, however, most

of the studies take account of general issues and/ or only focus on grammar, vocabulary, or confidence Going back to the context of Vietnam, in my observation throughout the teaching years, if EFL learners are asked about the reasons why they cannot speak English, there is a high chance of another factor that causes their difficulties in speaking English EFL teachers may receive some common answers like “I‟m sorry but I don‟t know what to say next” or “I have no ideas for this topic” Arguably, students are well equipped with the knowledge of English grammar rules and vocabulary while they are learning at high schools or universities, yet it is often hard for them to speak out, if they do not have any opinions to express In this regard, ideas, in fact, also play a significant role in producing speech There are, nevertheless, very few studies which pay attention to the reasons why students have difficulties in formulating ideas when they speak English

In Vietnam, the education system in general and the teaching of English used to give too much weight to teaching grammar and vocabulary over many previous decades Recently, for the past few years, it has given closer attention to train and enhance learners‟ communication skills in English, especially speaking skill, which is a big challenge for lots of students

In the researcher‟s observation, the most common speaking problems that English-major students at TDMU have to face may consist of pronunciation mistakes, grammar errors, vocabulary misuse, lack of coherence, lack of fluency

and lack of speaking ideas Since each key problem indicates smaller ones, it is

very demanding indeed for both teachers and learners to tackle all For instance, to correct students‟ pronunciation mistakes, the teachers have to deal with every single minor one such as lacking final sounds in each word, difficulty in producing consonant clusters or unnatural intonation Hence, it really takes a great deal of time to sort out, let us say, only two of those key problems which definitely entail many subsequent ones

It seems widely assumed, even among the scholars and teachers of English,

that once students have good grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation, they will

definitely achieve high speaking scores When asked about the common speaking problems, the teachers only mention those three ones Thus, teachers in charge of speaking courses give very little consideration for other factors including

formulating speaking ideas, which also causes noteworthy difficulties for students

to perform their speaking tasks well Nevertheless, fewer local studies have addressed the difficulties in formulating speaking ideas So far the discussion has led the study to a real need to better understand the real causes behind the difficulties encountered by students It is most likely that formulating ideas in speaking is of crucial importance here and therefore needs further investigation

1.2 Aims of the study

Related to the argument and discussion above, the study, therefore, aims to (1) examine the reasons why the second-year students of English major at TDMU encounter those difficulties and (2) investigate what strategies the students employ when they have difficulties in formulating speaking ideas

in formulating speaking ideas?

Based on answers to the two research questions, the study may then offer some suggestions for students and teachers to overcome the difficulties, particularly related to formulating speaking ideas

1.4 Significance of the study

It is hoped that the findings of the study will shed some light on the effective strategies of the students to make a contribution to the field of language teaching Furthermore, some practical solutions will be offered to teachers and students for how they should deal with the found difficulties, especially in formulating speaking ideas

1.5 Scope of the study

Since there are different groups of students taking undergraduate courses at TDMU, the study, within the time limit and the scope of a master‟s thesis, therefore is conducted on the sophomores of English majors Within the scope of this study, the research data, would be taken only from the second year students of English major classes in the Faculty of Foreign Languages at TDMU, who have been taking at least four courses of English speaking skills It is noted that, given the research aims, the study did not aim to carry out any experiments during the research process

1.6 Structure of the thesis

The thesis report is divided into five chapters Chapter One introduces the background to the study and states the purpose, significance and limitation

of the study Chapter Two provides the relevant literature on the speaking difficulties of the English major students and the learners‟ strategies Chapter Three presents the research methodology of the study Chapter Four analyzes the data and discusses the results Chapter Five summarizes the findings, draws conclusion, and offers recommendations for further research

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter explores and presents a number of academic work related to the focus

of the study mainly related to speaking skill in EFL classrooms, problems with speaking activities, different strategies, formulating speaking ideas, and so on Finally, the framework of the study is also conceptualized in this chapter

2.1 Speaking skill

2.1.1 The nature of the speaking skill

Bygate (1987) stated that it is necessary to distinguish between “knowledge” and

“skill” By giving “speaking practice” and “oral exam” to EFL learners, it enables

to see the difference between “knowledge” and “skill”, which is considerable in teaching speaking While the “knowledge” consists of a basic set of vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar rules, the “skill” refers to the learners‟ ability to use them

According to Bailey (2003), speaking skill is more difficult than the other three skills The first difficulty is that the speaker does not have much time to think before producing the verbal utterance In other words, speaking requires immediate feedback Hence, the speaker usually feels that the hearer is waiting for the speech from the speaker right then The second issue is that the utterance cannot be edited

or revised like writing This makes the speaker sometimes feel embarrassed because of the speech

In another research, Luoma (2004) suggested some of the following characteristics of speaking (as cited in Richards, 2008, p.19):

 Composed of idea units (conjoined short phrases and clauses)

 May be planned (e.g., a lecture) or unplanned (e.g., a conversation)

 Employs more vague or generic words than written language

 Employs fixed phrases, fillers, and hesitation markers

 Contains slips and errors reflecting online processing

 Involves reciprocity (i.e., interactions are jointly constructed)

 Shows variation (e.g., between formal and casual speech), reflecting speaker roles, speaking purpose, and the context

In general, speaking a foreign language requires a lot of effort from the students since this is one of the most significant skill which can reflect how learners apply the language they have learned

2.1.2 Importance of the speaking skill in EFL classrooms

As speaking is one of the most effective way to communicate successfully, an average person, according to Thornbury (2005), can produce “tens of thousands of words a day.” Harmer (2007) summarized three main reasons why English is significant to be taught in EFL classrooms The first advantage of speaking is to let students have “rehearsal opportunities” which help them practice “real-life speaking in the safety of the classroom.” Another strength is that speaking tasks can “provide feedback for teacher and students,” thus the feedback will indicate how much progress the students have made and whether there are still other language problems to solve for the students The last benefit is to help students become autonomous in their learning; hence, they can use the language items

“fluently without very much conscious thought.”

When learners have good competence of speaking skill, they will feel confident about their English This is both a target for every EFL learner and motivation to make more effort in studying a foreign language

2.1.3 Functions of speaking

Speaking is important for students to learn due to its several crucial functions Based on the version of Brown and Yule‟s framework of the functions of speaking, Richards (2008) offered three main functions with features involved sub-skills and clear examples as follows:

2.1.3.1 Talk as interaction

This simply refers to social exchanges such as greeting, small talks, and recent experiences “The focus is more on the speakers and how they wish to present themselves to each other than on the message.” According to Richard, talk as interaction:

 Has a primarily social function

 Reflects role relationships

 Reflects speaker‟s identity

 Maybe formal or casual

 Uses conversational conventions

 Reflects degrees of politeness

 Employs many generic words

 Uses conversational register

 Is jointly constructed

Here are some common examples For instance, two women are asking a third woman about her husband and how they first met, chatting to a school friend over coffee, telling a friend about an amusing weekend experience, etc He also illustrated some skills involved in this function, such as opening and closing conversations, choosing topics, making small-talk, joking, recounting personal incidents and experiences, turn-taking, using adjacency pairs, interrupting, reacting

to others, and using an appropriate style of speaking

Richards also claimed that students would feel difficulty in “presenting a good image of themselves and sometimes avoid situations that call for this kind of talk.” Thus, Hatch (1978) reported that students can get by on familiar topics and then practice new topics (as cited in Richards, 2008, p.24)

2.1.3.2 Talk as transaction

Unlike talk as interaction, talk as transaction focuses on what is said or done and not the participants Talk as transaction has several main features:

 It has a primarily information focus

 The main focus is on the message and not the participants

 Participants employ communication strategies to make themselves understood

 There may be frequent questions, repetitions, and comprehension checks

 There may be negotiation and digression

 Linguistic accuracy is not always important

Some common examples can be found such as group discussion, problem solving activities, making a phone call to obtain some information, asking for directions, buying things, ordering, etc Skills involved in this kind of talk can be explaining a need or intention, describing something, asking questions, asking for clarification, confirming information, justifying an opinion, making suggestions, clarifying understanding, making comparisons, and finally agreeing and disagreeing

Richards also emphasized that linguistic accuracy might be not important and priority should be given to successful communication In this function, it is necessary for participants to employ communication strategies to have each other‟s comprehension

2.1.3.3 Talk as performance

The last type can be considered as public talk, in other words public speaking Talk

as performance, which is normally in the form of monolog and follows a recognizable format, requires the speakers to make and deliver a speech in front of

an audience Common examples of talk as performance can be found as giving a class report, conducting a class debate, giving a speech of welcome, making a sales presentation, giving a lecture, etc According to Richards, talk as performance, in order to meet its purpose and goal, has to comprise the following features:

 A focus on both message and audience

 Predictable organization and sequencing

 Importance of both form and accuracy

 Language is more like written language

 Often monologic

Due to these features, talk as performance requires some essential skills, such as using an appropriate format, presenting information in an appropriate sequence, maintaining audience engagement, using correct pronunciation and grammar, creating an effect on the audience, using appropriate vocabulary, and using an appropriate opening and closing

Talk as performance focuses on both form and accuracy, both message and audience It is closer to written language than spoken language and organized in formal style Unlike talk as interaction and transaction, talk as performance is judged by its impact on the audience

In sum, speaking can serve three main functions: “talk as interaction”, “talk

as transaction”, and “talk as performance” “Talk as interaction” brings the focus into the speakers within the form of social conversations such as chatting or greeting, whereas “talk as transaction” refers to the message and comprehension such as discussion or suggestion “Talk as performance” seems to require more effort because it draws the focus on both audience and message and it follows a certain format such as a lecture, a presentation, or a speech of welcome

2.1.4 The speaking process

It is usually not common for people to think about the process of producing speech According to Levelt (1994), speaking consists of three levels at least Level of intentions and ideas, level of words and sentences, and level of sound and production or articulation have their own characteristic speeds of operation

In another research, Thornbury (2005) claimed that there are at least three stages, in other words three stages in the speaking process The first stage is

“conceptualization” which allows speaker to conceptualize the story in terms of discourse type (is it a story?), its topic (is it about sport?), and its purpose of

speaking (is it for entertainment?) Then, the idea “has to be mapped out”, which is called “formulation” This stage involves “making strategic choices at the level of discourse, syntax, and vocabulary.” After this stage, the speech needs to be articulated, which is called “articulation” This involves “the use of organs of speech ot produce sounds.” According to Thornbury, the speaking processes are automated “to some extent”, as during the speech, the speakers are also engaged in self-monitoring, and that is the reason why speakers can achieve fluency

In short, there are three main stages in the process of producing speech The speaker formulates the speaking ideas, chooses language units (such as lexicon, grammar, discourse), and finally delivers the speech

2.1.5 What speakers need to know

Before students can speak, they should have some information in their mind Thornbury (2005) classified what students know into two categories In EFL classroom, the features of language that students learn is called linguistic knowledge; others which are “independent of language” is called extralinguistic knowledge

2.1.5.1 Linguistic knowledge

The linguistic knowledge that students learn consists of genre knowledge, discourse knowledge, pragmatic knowledge, grammar, vocabulary, and phonology (Thornbury, 2005)

 Genre knowledge can be classified according to the speaking purpose (i.e transactional or interpersonal purpose), the kind of participation involved (i.e interactive or non-interactive), and the degree of planning (i.e planned

or unplanned)

 Discourse knowledge includes “how to organize and connect individual utterances, as well as how to map this knowledge on to the turn-taking, structures of interactive talk.”

 Pragmatic knowledge involves knowing how to use speech acts, and the operative principle, politeness, and register

co- Grammar of speech is not required to be similar to the grammar of written texts In speaking, there is not much time so the utterances tend to be less complex than in writing Thornbury also summarized facts about the distribution and frequency of verb forms in speech:

o Present tense forms outnumber past tense forms by 2:1

o Simple forms outnumber progressive and perfect forms by over 10:1

o The past perfect and present perfect continuous are rare

o Passive verbs account for only 2% of all finite verb forms in speech

o “Will”, “would”, and “can” are extremely common in speech

 Vocabulary that speakers use is called their productive vocabulary and the vocabulary that they recognize is called their receptive vocabulary Thornbury stated that the former, according to some research, is only half the size of the latter Speakers can achieve fluency with the use of chunks, collocations, phrasal verbs, idioms and sayings, sentence frames, social formulas, and discourse markers

 Phonology includes pronunciation, especially intonation “which serves both

to separate the stream of speech into blocks of information (called tone units) and to mark information within these units as being significant The aforementioned aspects are essential for EFL learners to enhance their speaking performance While linguistic knowledge refers to theory of linguistics such as grammar, vocabulary, etc., extralinguistic knowledge stands outside independently

2.1.5.2 Extralinguistic knowledge

This includes the background knowledge such as the topic and cultural knowledge, context knowledge, and familiarity with the other speakers If the knowledge involves “social values and the norms of behavior in a given society,” it belongs to sociocultural knowledge (Thornbury, 2005, p.12) Sociocultural knowledge can be

considered as extralinguistic knowledge, such as knowing if the people from a particular culture shake hands, bow, or embrace Moreover, it can be considered as linguistic knowledge, such as knowing what they say when greet each other

Students can perform their speaking well not only due to linguistic knowledge or extralinguistic knowledge but also conditions of speech

2.1.5.3 Speech conditions

Thornbury (2005) suggested that speech conditions play a significant role in determining the achievable degree of fluency There are three most important categories of speech conditions Cognitive factors can deal with familiarity with the topic, familiarity with the genre, familiarity with the interlocutor, and processing demands Next is emotional, which is known as affective factors including feeling towards the topic and/ or the participants, and self-consciousness Performance factors including mode, degree of collaboration, discourse control, time pressure, and environmental conditions

These three factors still interact with the personality of the speakers However, they do not implicate the ease or difficulty of the speaking process They can offer a useful template to predict the fluency degree of the speakers to be achieved

To sum up, EFL students should acquire linguistic knowledge and extralinguistic knowledge Besides, they also need speech conditions to increase fluency

2.2 Problems with speaking activities

The purpose of speaking activities is to give learners opportunities to develop their speaking skill by expressing their ideas towards some issues Although learners are prepared with input, they usually encounter difficulties with the speaking activities

Ur (1996) identified some common problems that EFL learners have in speaking (p.121):

3 Low or uneven participation

If there is a large group, it tends to be that some learners will dominate and speak more while others will speak “very little or not at all.”

4 Mother-tongue use

It is obvious that learners tend to use their mother tongue, which helps them feel easier and more natural to express their ideas

To deal with those problems, Ur (1996) also suggested many solutions:

 Use group work: this can help to lower the inhibitions of learners who are shy of speaking in front of the full class and “increase the sheer amount of learner talk going on in a limited period of time.” This will solve the above-mentioned problem number 1

 Base the activity on easy language: the level of language should be easier than that “used in intensive language-learning activities in the same class.” This helps the learners speak more fluently and naturally This can tackle problem number 4

 Make a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest: “the clearer the purpose of the discussion, the more motivated participants will be.” This might handle problem number 2 and number 3

 Give some instruction or training in discussion skills: for instance, each learner in the group is required to participate in the discussion and the chairperson of each group will regulate the participation This can also sort problem number 3 out

 Keep students speaking the target language: one member of the group might

be appointed as the monitor who reminds participants to use English The best way to keep learners speaking English is that the teacher should be there “as much as possible, reminding them and modeling the language use.”

As discussed above, the solutions that Ur suggested can solve only some of the problems with speaking activities What is more important is how to help the learners formulate speaking ideas if they have nothing to say, which cannot find out appropriate and satisfied solutions from Ur (1996), especially when the speaking topic is challenging for the students

2.3 Factors influencing EFL learners’ speaking skill

Besides these common problems with speaking activities, there are also factors involved the speaking skill in EFL classrooms In order to develop EFL students‟ speaking ability, a lot of papers have explored factors affecting their speaking effectiveness Shumin (2002) claimed that age or maturational constraints, aural medium, sociocultural factors, and affective factors were the four factors affecting adult EFL learners‟ oral communication Shumin argued that age was one of the most commonly determinant factors as ageing process might prevent adult learners from producing the target language with fluency and naturalness in spoken language “Every speaker plays a double role – both as a listener and as a speaker.”

If the speaker cannot understand the listener, it is impossible for the speaker to respond This makes aural medium become the second factor When non-native speakers have little knowledge about the traditions and social cultures of the language community, sociocultural factor can also affect their oral communication The last factor, which is associated with learners‟ feelings, consists of emotions, self-esteem, empathy, anxiety, attitude, and motivation For adult learners, they

have a high tendency to concern themselves with how they will be judged by other learners if there are any mistakes in speaking

In another research, Nation and Newton (2009) reported three factors influencing learners‟ speaking performance, including topic, text type, and performance conditions Topical knowledge is considered as one of the most important factors Learners tend to get used to some familiar and easy topics; this makes them confuse when there is a new topic which they have not had any background knowledge about it Text type is also a factor causing obstacles for learners Depending on the purpose of the speaking task, learners can deliver their talk as interaction, transaction, or performance When they are doing their tasks, there are three performance conditions including planning before speaking, time pressure, and amount of support Planning is preparing ideas and language before the speaking task; taking notes sometimes is often permitted Nation and Newton also suggested that learners can get good results if they spend ten minutes on planning In fact, students usually have three to five minutes for preparation so time pressure is particularly a remarkable condition Students have to focus not only on the speaking ideas but also the grammar, vocabulary and their pronunciation Amount of support is what Nation and Newton referred to

“supported or guided tasks” which can “allow learners to operate under the most favorable conditions for production.” This kind of support mostly comes from the listeners, for instance, waiting for responses, giving chance, etc

To sum up, these are popular factors causing difficulties in learners‟ speaking tasks It is advised that students should be well-prepared with necessary language, knowledge, as well as strategies to perform a successful speaking activity

2.4 Characteristics of a successful speaking activity

There are many ways to design and control a speaking activity During the oral performance, Ur (1996) recommended four characteristics of a successful speaking activity The first important thing is to let learners talk a lot In a speaking activity,

students are encouraged to spend as much time as possible but Ur stated the fact that most time is often “taken up with teacher talk or pauses.” The second feature

is the students‟ participation in the activity Participation should be divided evenly Each student, including talkative and quiet ones, should give their contributions

“fairly and evenly” in classroom discussion Next, they need high motivation Keening on speaking is a significant element in a speaking activity It shows that students have interest in the topic and they are willing to share their opinions or knowledge so as to achieve the objective of the speaking task Lastly, language is

of an acceptable level Accuracy, apart from fluency, also plays an essential role in assessing a learner‟s speaking skill However, it is required that learners can produce relevant and comprehensible utterances at an acceptable level of accuracy, with only a few minor mistakes

With his aim of developing learners‟ speaking abilities, Shumin (2002) presented four “components underlying speaking effectiveness.” Grammatical competence and discourse competence are the ones which students must definitely have for learning a foreign language Moreover, sociolinguistic competence is expected to teach students how to interact appropriately Shumin also modified that students should have strategic competence which refers to “the ability to know when and how to take the floor, how to keep a conversation going, how to terminate the conversation, and how to clear up communication breakdown as well

as comprehension problems.”

In general, a speaking activity is considered as success when it can satisfy four elements: long student-talking time, even participation, high motivation, and acceptable level of language To make it successful, it is necessary for the learners

to achieve grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence The last competence requires the teacher to equip students with speaking strategies, especially the ones to help students formulate speaking ideas

2.5 The roles of the teacher in a speaking activity

In a successful speaking activity, the teacher also performs a key role in developing students‟ speaking abilities During a speaking activity, a teacher can play many roles in the classroom According to Harmer (2007), there are three main roles of teachers to help students gain speaking fluency When the teacher finds that their students are lacking of ideas and do not know what to say next, the teacher as a prompter can offer them some “discrete suggestions.” However, before offering this assistance, teachers can leave the students “struggle out of such situations on their own, and indeed sometimes this may be the best option.” If the students are getting stuck or lost on the topic for a long time, a prompter will help them solve their problems

Sometimes teachers may want to participate with students in discussions or role-plays By this way, teachers can prompt the students covertly, introduce new knowledge, ensure every student‟s engagement and maintain the classroom atmosphere One thing for teachers to bear in mind is trying not to dominate the speaking so that students do not lose their opportunities for speaking

Students can make mistakes right from the time they start talking until they complete the speaking task On the one hand, teachers should play the role of a feedback provider, giving helpful and gentle correction On the other hand, over-correction in the middle of a speaking activity may prevent them from communicating Once students finish the task, feedback will be given in terms of both the language and the content used in the speaking activity How and when to give feedback really depends upon particular situations

In brief, the most crucial part of a teacher‟s role in a speaking class is to ensure students to identify the purpose and goal of the speaking task When, where, and how to adopt a certain teacher‟s role needs to take into consideration No matter what role the teacher can perform, there is obviously a methodology of teaching speaking skill

2.6 Teaching methodology of the speaking skill

Theories and practice, so far, have been proposed to suggest teaching methodology

of the speaking skill A basic methodological model for teaching speaking which is found common comes from Harmer (2007)

2.6.1 A basic methodological model for teaching speaking

Harmer (2007) concluded that writing and speaking skills, which are both productive and different in many ways, can still be provided with a basic model for teaching The following model is a basic methodology to teach speaking as well as writing:

Figure 1: A basic model for teaching productive skills suggested by Harmer (2007)

From Harmer‟s model, it is obvious that the model can be divided into three main stages The first stage, which is often called pre-speaking stage, consists of

“Lead-in” and “T sets the task.” During the pre-speaking stage, students are involved in getting to know the topic, such as their background knowledge or experience about a certain subject When the task is set, students should be equipped with all the necessary information and make sure what they are going to

do, and their teacher can help by demonstrating the activity When everything is ready which also means that the while-speaking stage can begin, students start

doing the task and the teacher monitors them and help them solve difficulties The time when students finish their speaking task is called the post-speaking stage Students listen to their teacher‟s feedback about their performance on both language and content used in the task Afterwards a “task related follow-up” might continue the task However, as Harmer explained, repetition plays an important role in learning foreign language Teachers can reset the task or create another similar activity for students to “go through the sequence again.” (Harmer, 2007, p 276)

Apart from Harmer‟s model, a lot of research proposed their own models of teaching speaking

2.6.2 Other models of teaching speaking

Rezaei (2013) recommended his own three-phased framework for a speaking lesson At the pre-speaking stage, input “play as a warm-up and prepare the learners for the main speaking activity.” The major aim of this stage is to help learners with language, ideas and motivation When students are well-prepared, while-speaking stage will require their engagement in speaking practice with various speaking activities In the last stage, post-speaking activities reflect students‟ performance integrate the knowledge they have learned with other language skills

Later, Wang (2014) analyzed some models of teaching English The research stated that speaking English depended on cognitive factors, linguistic factors, and affective factors These factors have caused difficulties for EFL learners to speak accurately and fluently Thus, Wang discussed “three effective models of teaching English speaking” and proposed a “four-step pedagogical method.”

The first model was from Willis (1996) This model has three stages including the input stage in which learners are “given a good model to imitate,” the

rehearsal stage in which learners do the task with their groups, and the performance stage in which learners perform the task in front of class

The second model was introduced by Florez (1999) There are five stages comprising the preparation stage for learners to brainstorm with the speaking topic, the presentation stage for learners to have a model, the practice stage for learners

to work in groups, the evaluation stage for learners to compare their output with a

“teacher-prepared speech,” and the extension stage for learners to record their conversation in real life and share their findings with their class

The third model was from Goh (2007) The number of stages of Goh‟s model is bigger than Willis‟s but smaller than Florez‟s It has four stages consisting of the pre-speaking support to help learners with vocabulary and knowledge before speaking, meaning-oriented speaking activity to develop learners‟ fluency, the language-focused activity to let learners focus on speaking accuracy, and the further practice to use repetition as a means to “develop a fluent and accurate speech.”

Wang also suggested a model of teaching speaking In his research, speaking activities are carried out through four stages: pre-speaking, while-speaking, post-speaking, and extension practice In the pre-speaking stage, Wang agreed with Skehan & Foster (1999) that pre-task planning can help students achieve great accuracy and with Yuan & Ellis (2003) that planning can improve fluency While the learners are performing the speaking task, they focus on the meaning rather than the form , i.e fluency is encouraged to achieve Moreover, Wang offered Maurice‟s technique which is called 4/3/2 to develop students‟ fluency With the same topic, learners practice speaking it three times in descending order of time, from 4 minutes at the first time to three minutes at the second time and to 2 minutes at the last time During the post-speaking stage, they receive feedback on their performance and mistakes and accuracy is emphasized Finally, the extension practice stage helps learners enhance their speaking skill, both fluency and accuracy, with task repetition

No matter how different the models of teaching speaking are, as discussed above, a common speaking activity consists of at least three major stages: pre-speaking, while-speaking, and post-speaking (Millrood, 2001) This paper merely focuses on the pre-speaking stage since this is the stage in which students start brainstorming and formulating their speaking ideas

2.7 Formulating speaking ideas

2.7.1 Pre-speaking activities

Pre-speaking stage brings a lot of benefits to students (Quinonez and Gutierrez, 2009; Rezaei, 2013; Wang, 2014) Saricoban (2005) examined attitudes of teachers and students towards pre-speaking activities According to the results, the teachers thought that the most important pre-speaking activities were introducing the speaking topic and arousing the learners‟ interest with a discussion, giving questions about students‟ background knowledge and familiarity with the topic, teaching new vocabulary which is necessary for the speech, providing extra material (such as a reading text, listening recording) about the topic However, the students believed that, apart from introducing the topic and arousing interest, using speaking strategies (like starting a discussion) and telling a joke, an anecdote or a real life event to introduce the topic are the most important pre-speaking activities Not only the most important ones, this study also investigated the least important pre-speaking activities from the attitudes of teachers and learners Both of the teachers and students selected watching a documentary (cartoon or movie) On the other hand, they also had different opinions The teachers added using speaking strategies while the students preferred setting a scene to help them imagine the situation of the topic Based on the findings, Saricoban recommended some solutions for teachers, including:

1 Motivate (warm up),

2 Help students to become familiar with the topic,

3 Try to introduce the topic orally and arouse interest To do so, teachers should utter the title of the presentation (or that day‟s topic) and lead a small discussion about it,

4 Focus on the new vocabulary by brainstorming the related words, expressions and structures (the teacher may use pictures, blackboard drawings and mime),

5 Tell an anecdote or a real-life event to help students to guess the topic,

6 Provide some language materials as stated in Item 3 above,

7 Set the scene by introducing the characters and describing the setting (p.53)

In brief, the main purpose of the pre-speaking activities is to create chances for students to plan their speaking ideas before while-speaking stage Quinonez and Gutierrez (2009) claimed that pre-speaking is the stage of planning and organizing Following the features of pre-speaking activities, the purposes of pre-speaking activities can be:

 Choosing a speaking topic: including constructing thought webs and graphic organizers, reading and researching, listening to music, viewing a video, listening to a speaker, jotting down ideas, reflecting upon personal experience

 Determining purpose: to express ideas, emotions, and opinions, and to share information Thus, learners have to ask themselves "What is my purpose for speaking?"

 Determining audience: learners have to ask themselves: "Who is my intended audience?" Audiences can be familiar, known audiences (self, friends, peers, family, teachers), extended and known audiences (community, student body), extended and unknown audiences (local media)

 Determining format: learners have to consider how their ideas and information can be presented most effectively Some possible formats include the following: conversation, discussion, formal speech, dramatic presentation, monologue, Readers Theatre

In this stage, students have to formulate speaking ideas with the assistance

of vocabulary, background knowledge and strategies so that they can reduce their anxiety and time pressure Moreover, students need to have enough time to prepare ideas and high motivation before while-speaking stage (Wang, 2014)

In short, pre-speaking is the main stage to help learners formulate speaking ideas and enhance students‟ fluency before their performance While learners are formulating their speaking ideas at this stage, planning and brainstorming are the two matters of concern which speakers should take into account

2.7.2 Strategies in formulating speaking ideas

To formulate is, according to Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary1, “to create

or prepare something carefully, giving particular attention to the details,” such as formulate a policy, theory, or plan Another way of defining “formulate” is from Longman Dictionary2, which means “to develop something such as a plan or a set

of rules, and decide all the details of how it will be done.” In general, to formulate speaking ideas is to create, prepare, or plan the speaking ideas for a speaking task Thus, this process mainly occurs at the pre-speaking stage which requires planning before speaking

During the process of planning speaking ideas, it is also essential to employ brainstorming as a tool which Namken and Rapp (1997) considered as a “problem-solving technique.” Brainstorming was claimed to be “used throughout the planning process.” The authors also encouraged the readers to learn this “important group technique.”

2.7.2.1 Planning strategies

According to Skehan (2003), planning is the potential to prepare what the learners are going to produce in a speaking task Since there are three stages in the speaking process including conceptualization, formulation, and articulation (Thornburry,

1

Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary, 8 th edition

2 Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Advanced Learner's Dictionary

2005), the stages of planning are similar to those of the speaking process Levelt (1989) also classified three main levels of planning as conceptualization (content

of the message), formulation (looking for vocabulary), and articulation (production

of the speech)

In order to elicit the frequency of strategy use of EFL learners, Cohen, Weaver, and Li (1996) developed a so-called Strategy Checklist which was employed at three stages of speaking: “before the students began the speaking task, during the task itself, and after the completion of the task.” Here is, within the scope of the research, an extract of the Strategy Checklist, which includes all of the strategies that can help students formulate speaking ideas at the planning stage, i.e before the speaking task:

 Identify the goal and purpose of the task: what is it you are to learn/ demonstrate in this exercise?

 Ask for clarification of the task if you are unsure of its goal, purpose, or how you are to do it

 Activate background knowledge; what do you already know about this situation/ task?

 Relate the task to a similar situation; make associations

 Organize your thoughts

 Prepare a general "outline" (use notes, keywords, draw pictures)

 Predict what the other party is going to say

 Rehearse (practice silently, act out in front of a mirror, record yourself and listen)

 Cooperate in all areas if it is a group task

At this stage, teachers need to encourage students to formulate ideas of the topic by using various pre-speaking activities, especially brainstorming