Effects of communication based translation activities on efl high school students vocabulary achieviment m a

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION-BASED TRANSLATION ACTIVI

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY – HO CHI MINH CITY

UNIVERSITY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES & HUMANITIES

FACULTY OF ENGLISH LINGUISTICS & LITERATURE

EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION-BASED

TRANSLATION ACTIVITIES ON EFL HIGH SCHOOL

STUDENTS’ VOCABULARY ACHIEVEMENT

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of English Linguistics & Literature

in partial fulfillment of the Master’s degree in TESOL

By

PHAM NGOC TRUONG LINH

Supervised by

NGUYEN THI NHU NGOC, Ph.D

HO CHI MINH CITY, JULY 2018

to approach new domains in the areas They all together made me so new and ready for the upcoming challenging stage of my life – doing research and working daily things with scientific and professional senses

However, this thesis would have remained a dream had it not been for the help

of many others I wish to thank, first and foremost, my supervisor Dr Nguyen Thi Nhu Ngoc, who guided me to an appropriate decision on the research subject and approach Thanks to her constructive suggestion, thorough correction and incisive criticism, this paper has been continuously revised before the completion I also own a debt of gratitude to my two beloved sisters and colleagues, Ms Pham Ngoc Han and Ms Le Thi Kim Chi, who supported me a lot in the experimental project with the test feedbacks, observation and assessment Another special gratitude goes out to the head

as well as the staff of Marie Curie High School for their full assistance and encouragement for me to conduct the study at the facility

And finally, last but not least, to my family and all my friends who were always keen to know what I was doing and how I was proceeding, although it is likely that they have never grasped what it was all about! Their continuous hopes, wishes and supports have been playing as a spiritual power for me to pursue my passion and recover whenever my steps falter

STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree

or diploma at any other higher education institution To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due references are made

HO CHI MINH CITY, JULY 10, 2018

PHAM NGOC TRUONG LINH

RETENTION OF USE

I hereby state that I, Pham Ngoc Truong Linh, being a candidate for the Master’s degree in TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s thesis deposited in the University Library

In term of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited should

be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for care, loan, or reproduction of theses

HO CHI MINH CITY, JULY 10, 2018

PHAM NGOC TRUONG LINH

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Tittle page i

Acknowledgements ii

Statement of originality iii

Retention of use iv

Table of contents v

List of abbreviations viii

List of tables ix

List of figures x

Abstract xi

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the study 1

1.2 Aims of the study 4

1.3 Research questions 4

1.4 Significance of the study 5

1.5 Scope of the study 6

1.6 Organization of the study 6

1.7 Summary 7

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Vocabulary in second language acquisition 8

2.1.1 The role of vocabulary 8

2.1.2 Aspects of vocabulary knowing 9

2.1.3 Vocabulary teaching and learning 13

2.2 Translation in second language acquisition 15

2.2.1 The role of translation 16

2.2.2 Translation in relation to contrastive analysis 18

2.2.3 Translation in communicative approach 21

2.3 Summary 23

CHAPTER 3 – METHODOLOGY

3.1 Construction of a CTA for teaching and learning vocabulary 24

3.1.1 Target learners 24

3.1.2 Conceptual framework 24

3.2 Experimental project of CTAs application 27

3.2.1 Design of the experimental project 27

3.2.2 Participants 27

Sampling procedure 27

Participants’ characteristics 28

3.2.3 Procedure 29

Pilot stage 29

Implementation stage 29

Post-stage 30

3.2.4 Research instruments 30

Recognition Test 30

Writing Test 32

Speaking Test 33

Questionnaire 34

3.2.5 Data analysis procedure 35

3.3 Summary 37

CHAPTER 4 – RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Some model CTAs for teaching and learning vocabulary at high school 38

CTA 1 - Vocabulary brainstorming 39

CTA 2 - Vocabulary recognition 40

CTA 3 - Vocabulary guessing 41

CTA 4 - Controlled sentence translation 43

CTA 5 - Free sentence translation 44

CTA 6 - Role play 45

CTA 7 - Translation with pictures 48

CTA 8 - Translator-to-be 50

CTA 9 - Speedy translation 52

CTA 10 - Writing-Translation 53

4.2 Effects of CTAs on the students’ vocabulary achievement 57

4.2.1 Before the treatment 57

4.2.2 After the treatment 58

4.2.3 Correlation between recognition and production 62

4.3 Experimental students’ attitudes towards CTAs 65

4.4 Summary 72

CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 5.1 Conclusions 73

5.2 Implications 75

5.3 Limitations 78

REFERENCES 80

APPENDIX 1 – The relationship between vocabulary and the matrix of questions in the English Test of National Examination 2016 87

APPENDIX 2 – Glossary – English 10 – Semester 1 88

APPENDIX 3 – English 10 contents (Student book extracts) 91

APPENDIX 4 – Extra vocabulary exercise practice 109

APPENDIX 5 – Some suggested ideas of CTAs for teaching and learning vocabulary in the English 10 student textbook 112

APPENDIX 6 – Vocabulary Test 1 – English 10 127

APPENDIX 7 – Vocabulary Test 2 – English 10 129

APPENDIX 8 – Speaking Tests – Questions 131

APPENDIX 9 – Speaking Assessment 132

APPENDIX 10 – Questionnaire (English version) 133

APPENDIX 11 – Questionnaire (Vietnamese version) 135

APPENDIX 12 – Answer key to extra exercise practice 137

EG Experimental Group GTM Grammar Translation Method L1 Native language/ mother tongue / source language L2 Target language

M Mean score

N Number The number of participants in a group

p Sig.(2-tailed) Significant value between two independent samples

p < 0.05: there is significant difference between the means

p ≥ 0.05: the difference between the means is not significant

r Pearson

correlation coefficient

r can take a range of values from +1 to -1

r = 0: indicates no association between the two variables

r > 0: indicates a positive association; that is, as the value of one variable increases, so does the value of the other variable

r < 0: indicates a negative association; that is, as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases

SD Standard

Deviation

The average distance from the mean of the data set to a point The greater the SD, the greater the variances of the samples The smaller the SD, the greater the homogeneity

t t-value The size of the difference relative to the variation in the

sample data The greater the magnitude of t (it can be either positive or negative), the greater the evidence against the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference The closer

t is to 0, the more likely there isn't a significant difference

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1: What is involved in knowing a word? (Nation, 2001, p 27) 10

Table 2: Receptive knowledge and use of the word ‘discontented’ 11

Table 3: Productive knowledge and use of the word ‘discontented’ 12

Table 4: Summary of participants’ English scores in the placement test 27

Table 5: Summary of participants’ characteristics 28

Table 6: Recognition Test - descriptions and examples 31

Table 7: The matrix of items in Recognition Test 32

Table 8: Writing Test - descriptions and examples 32

Table 9: The matrix of items in Writing Test 33

Table 10: Components of Attitudes (Schau, 2003) 34

Table 11: Levels of agreement indicated by mean score rating 36

Table 12: Example of role play activity 46

Table 13: Elements and Potential vocabulary enhancement involved in the CTAs 55

Table 14: Summary of pre-test results 57

Table 15: Summary of control group’s results 58

Table 16: Summary of experimental group’s results 58

Table 17: Summary of post-test results 59

Table 18: Correlations of test scores in the control group 62

Table 19: Correlations of test scores in the experimental group 62

Table 20: Attitudes towards difficulty level of CTAs 66

Table 21: Attitudes towards cognitive competence 66

Table 22: Attitudes towards how CTAs affect feelings 67

Table 23: Attitudes towards personal interests 67

Table 24: Attitudes towards the values of CTAs 68

Table 25: Attitudes towards personal efforts 69

Table 26: Correlations between students’ attitudes and their background 70

Table 27: Summary of the study results 73

LIST OF FIGURES

Page Figure 1: The English scores of Marie Curie high school students in the National

Examination 2016 2 Figure 2: Summary of elements and sub-elements that constitute a method 25 Figure 3: Conceptual framework of a CTA for vocabulary teaching and learning 26 Figure 4: Design of the experimental project 27 Figure 5: Example of rewards designed with computer 49 Figure 6: Example of interactive characters designed with computer 50

ABSTRACT

In most EFL contexts of Vietnam’s high schools, vocabulary learning is accompanied with long lists of first language (L1) equivalents in the grammar-translation method (GTM), which is criticized for abusing translation, focusing much

on form and structure, lacking space for communicative performance; whereas the communicative language teaching (CLT) is preferred in modern language teaching trends because it motivates learners’ discovery, participation and communication How

likely is it to integrate translation with the CLT in communication-based translation activities (CTAs)? This study suggests some models of CTAs for teaching and learning

EFL vocabulary at high school in Vietnam then tests their effects in an experimental project with 73 tenth-graders in two groups (with and without CTAs application), pre-post tests and a survey After 8 weeks of treatment, the results highlighted CTAs in enhancing students’ vocabulary achievement both in recognition and its assistance in subsequent productive skills while the GTM only improved students’ receptive vocabulary knowledge Additionally, the survey indicated the experimental students’ positive attitudes, which were statistically influenced by their L1 and translation habits except for their gender The study is supposed to provide practical implications for improving EFL students’ vocabulary and communicative performance at high school

in Vietnam and those with similar contexts

1.1 Background to the study

Although vocabulary competence plays a very important role in the second language acquisition, most EFL classrooms in Vietnam have not provided adequate concern for teaching and learning vocabulary To save time, many teachers mainly focus on grammar instruction and skill practice; and vocabulary instruction is often done by providing new words and their Vietnamese equivalents Students have to look

up the required words by themselves prior the lessons or are given glossaries to learn

by heart However, remembering such long lists of words and their meanings is not easy for many students, especially high school students who are almost not English majors and often lack learning motivation This not only leads to a serious shortage of input to master the target language but also causes the students some confusion, boredom and discouragement in their real communication

For example, an investigation into the National Examination 2016 for high school students shows that at least 23 out of 68 questions in the English test are mainly concerning vocabulary knowledge, not to mention some others that require a wide range

of vocabulary to process such as ones in the reading and writing sections (Appendix 1,

p 86); however, the results of Marie Curie High School in Ho Chi Minh City were not very satisfying, which indicated that many students were not good at vocabulary

As shown in Figure 1, the total number of students who got good and excellent scores in the test accounts for only 11.4% while the most common scores observed fall into the low group (37.8 %), followed by the fair group (26.7 %) and the poor group (24.2 %) Such disappointing results might have been affected by many different factors, but it was likely that the students did not acquire the necessary amount of vocabulary knowledge to approach other linguistic features, to process various input and thus could not pass the test with flying colors Obviously, vocabulary is an essential element to acquire a second language and therefore should receive more attention in the learning and teaching process

Vocabulary, i.e words and expressions, is acquired day by day in class and from many other sources, requiring students a good memory and patience to acquire and practice Thus, it is necessary to find out some techniques or solutions for EFL high school students in Vietnam to be more interested in vocabulary and recognize it as an important and practical way to improve their English competence There have been so many studies concerning the methods of teaching vocabulary such as using visual aids, using contexts to guess the meaning of words, but little research has been done into

‘translation activities in the communicative approach’ and their effects on EFL vocabulary teaching and learning

In this study, the activities are called communication-based translation activities (CTAs), which refer to those that utilize translation in combination with the

communicative language teaching (CLT) as a means to overcome cultural-linguistic barriers in language acquisition and encourage learners’ use of language to communicate in practical contexts

This utilization is different from the use of translation activities that have been criticized for following the traditional patterns of the grammar-translation method (GTM) Actually, there is nothing wrong with translation itself; the problem is from the method that misconceives and overuses it, separating language from its communicative function (Mogahed, 2011) However, translation has recently been brought back to its own deserving position in language learning thanks to the incorporation with the CLT, one of the most effective teaching approaches in most of the EFL and ESP contexts

The combination of translation and the CLT was then suggested and discussed

in many studies For example, Kiraly (2000), Colina (2003) and Liao (2011) proposed that language transition should take communicative competence into consideration; Malmkjaer (1998) encouraged integrating translation into real life activities to foster language skills while Gohil (2013) and Nguyen (2016) provided some implications and models of translation activities in communicative approach for language skills and language forms such as vocabulary

Nevertheless, how and to what extent the integration of translation and the CLT can be applied to enhance students’ vocabulary achievement as well as subsequent skills in the EFL teaching contexts at high school has not been adequately investigated

in prior research and thus is what motivates this study to be carried out

1.2 Aims of the study

The current study is conducted with two primary aims: (1) to provide some applicable model CTAs for teaching and learning vocabulary in EFL classrooms at high school, and (2) to identify the effects of such models on students’ vocabulary achievement in terms of receptive knowledge, productive practice and attitudes

In order to achieve the aims above, the study first defines a framework of how a CTA is constructed based on previous theories and suggestions, then some model CTAs are given with detailed descriptions, examples and analyses

Next, the study regards an empirical project with pre-tests, post-tests, trial lessons and a questionnaire over two participant groups of different methods (with and without the application of CTAs) to test the effects of CTAs compared to the GTM in the EFL high school context

Finally, some discussions and implications of CTAs for teaching and learning EFL vocabulary at high school in Vietnam are provided

1.3 Research questions

Stimulated by the basis of the mentioned reality, the researcher came to a decision to conduct a study to help students get improved in English vocabulary knowledge and communicative performance at least in the form of writing and speaking To obtain the above purposes, the study addresses the following research questions:

(1) What are applicable CTAs for teaching and learning EFL vocabulary at high

school in Vietnam?

(2) Are there any significant differences in terms of recognition and production

in the vocabulary achievement of high school students who use CTAs and those who do not?

(3) What are the students’ attitudes towards CTAs in their EFL classrooms?

Responding the research questions, three hypotheses are laid out respectively as follows:

(1) The translation activities created in combination with the CLT will possess a

significant number of characteristics that might be successful in enhancing EFL high school students’ vocabulary knowledge and communicative performance

(2) The student group who study English vocabularies with CTAs will

significantly surpass the other group in the Vocabulary-Recognition Test, the Writing Test and the Speaking Test after the treatment thanks to the significant connection between the vocabulary knowledge acquired through CTAs and its application in subsequent use

(3) With reference to the students’ views on CTAs, there will be a relationship

between how the students perform and what the students think; more positive attitudes will be statistically observed

The first research question will be answered based on prior theories and suggestions while the others will be made clear to a certain extent through an experimental project

1.4 Significance of the study

This study provides some model CTAs and at the same time examines their effects on enhancing students’ vocabulary competence, so some significant contributions are supposed to be made as follows

In theory, the study tries applying some implications of previous studies concerning teaching and learning vocabulary based on translation in the communicative approach to expand the theoretical background for further research in the area The result is some model CTAs that can be applied or adapted for different EFL teaching contexts such as translation, basic language skills and language forms in which vocabulary plays an important role in stimulating communication

In practice, the empirical results may provide EFL teachers with implications of applying CTAs in their students’ language acquisition process; this means that they will have more choices of teaching vocabulary besides the traditional methods On the other hand, the results from the survey would help teachers check the students’ compatibility with the new practice for further modification and adjustment to meet the students’ differences (i.e needs, gender, personality, language level, learning strategies, etc.)

1.5 Scope of the study

The conduction of the study is limited in the following range of aspects

First, the suggested model CTAs are designed for teaching and learning EFL vocabulary at high school in Vietnam; the specific examples and applications are given based on the contents of the English 10 student book published by Vietnam Minister of Education and Training (Appendix 2, pp 87-89; & Appendix 3, pp 90-107)

Second, the subject is empirically investigated within tenth-graders in the EFL teaching context of Marie Curie High School in Ho Chi Minh City Because the participants are high school students and translation is not a compulsory subject, the translation activities in this research are not deeply academic

Finally, the productive knowledge of words is tested in some basic writing tests and short talks due to the students’ language levels and the allocated time in the required syllabus at high school in Vietnam

1.6 Organization of the study

The thesis consists of five chapters:

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION – states the background of the problem from which the author’s motivation is raised to look for some solutions To make it more specific, the aims and the research questions with hypotheses are proposed; then the structure of the study is introduced

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW – provides some background knowledge concerning the key terms of the study such as vocabulary, translation, grammar-

translation method, communicative approach, communication-based translation activities, and some relevant information in previous studies

Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY – establishes a conceptual framework to explain the theoretical background on which CTAs are created and applied; then presents how the experimental project is conducted to test the effects of CTAs The chapter includes descriptions and explanations of methods, participants, instruments and data collection procedure

Chapter 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS – suggests some model CTAs with

an analysis of applicability and processes data collected from the experimental project

to reveal some significant findings Discussions will be laid out along the analysis

Chapter 5: CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS – confirms the answers to the research questions then proposes some solutions to the problems that might arise in the practice of CTAs at high school At the end of the chapter, some limitations and implications of the research are indicated as concerns for further studies

1.7 Summary

The chapter has explained the background of the study in terms of necessity, feasibility, significance and construction It aims to advocate CTAs, in contrast to the GTM, as a new method to help EFL high school students take advantage of L1 and translation in vocabulary acquisition and communication The study is both qualitative and quantitative in its research to provide significant theoretical and practical outcomes The insights into CTAs and their effects in the EFL vocabulary teaching and learning

at high school are yielded in the following chapters of the study

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter looks at the role of vocabulary and translation in second language acquisition To make it more specific, vocabulary teaching and learning is analyzed with the aspects involved in knowing a word while translation is investigated in the support of contrastive analysis and communicative approach The literature review plays as a conceptual framework from which CTAs are constructed and applied in EFL contexts

2.1 Vocabulary in second language acquisition

2.1.1 The role of vocabulary

To discuss the importance of vocabulary in language acquisition as well as communication, Wilkins (1976, p 111) argues that without grammar, there are few things we can express; while without vocabulary, there is nothing we can express Vocabulary is supposed to be crucially important because it is an instrument for thinking about the meanings which it conveys Neuman & Dwyer (2009, p 385) state that we must know words to communicate effectively – words in speaking (expressive vocabulary) and words in listening (receptive vocabulary) However, communication

is not just about speaking and listening; reading and writing should also be taken into account In fact, research shows that there is an evident correlation of vocabulary with reading comprehension and writing skill among second language learners (Proctor et al., 2005; Olinghouse & Wilson, 2013) Therefore, vocabulary obviously plays as the most basic tool to approach a language and it is the least device to base on for communication

Jue (2010, p 1) warns that insufficient vocabulary or vocabulary difficulties will result in communication barriers or failures because without the mediation of vocabulary, no amount of grammatical or other types of linguistic knowledge can be employed in second language communication or discourse In other words, language acquisition now seems likely to start with word learning rather than syntax prompting

With a shortage of vocabulary, learners cannot understand and use the structures and functions, and thus cannot get their language skills improved or communicate well

in practical contexts In a survey conducted among 185 students at Ho Chi Minh City University of Social Sciences & Humanities (Nguyen, 2009, pp 51-63), the results indicate that 72% of the responding students found it difficult to learn the English skills (reading, speaking, listening, writing) due to their serious lack of general vocabularies The finding is also similar in another survey within 417 EFL students (Hasan, 2016, p 219), which indicates 38.14% of the participants were strongly influenced by the problem of vocabulary shortage and were not good at using the four language skills as

a result It was explained that the vocabulary insufficiency caused the students difficulties in understanding texts, their teachers, and native speakers of English as well

as in expressing their own opinions and feelings

In short, vocabulary learning is essential and should be the first thing to begin in second language acquisition The benefits of building vocabulary can be acknowledged

as it gives learners the ability to process the input from texts, instructions and conversations so that they can think more logically and express themselves precisely without misunderstanding, confusion and repetition of ideas

2.1.2 Aspects of vocabulary knowing

Pikulski and Templeton (2004, p.1) believe that the greatest tools for learners to

be successful, not only in their education but more generally in life, is a large, rich stock

of vocabulary and the skills for using those words Then the question to concern here

is how and to what extent one can tell a language learner has acquired a word

To suggest a way for explanation and assessment, Nation (2001, pp 26-28)

analyzes word knowing based on three aspects, i.e form, meaning and use, which are

strongly correlated within a word Each aspect itself contains many sections supporting each other

Specifically, ‘form’ is analyzed with pronunciation including stress pattern (spoken), spelling (written) and word structure or word family (word parts); ‘meaning’

includes successful retrieval of words (form and meaning), knowledge of homonyms

(concept and referents), synonyms, antonyms and hyponyms (associations); while ‘use’

deals with syntactic patterns of words (grammatical functions), word compatibility (collocation) and practical contexts (constraints on use) Such a complex relationship

of the aspects involved in knowing a word is summarized as follows

Table 1 What is involved in knowing a word? (Nation, 2001, p 27)

*Receptive knowledge (R) *Productive knowledge (P)

Form

Spoken

R What does the word sound like?

P How is the word pronounced?

Written

R What does the word look like?

P How is the word written and spelled?

Word parts

R What parts are recognizable in this word?

P What word parts are needed to express the meaning?

Meaning

Form and meaning

R What meaning does this word form signal?

P What word form can be used to express this meaning?

Concept and referents

R What is included in the concept refer to?

P What items can the concept refer to?

Associations

R What other words does this make us think of?

P What other words could we use instead of this one?

Use

Grammatical functions

R In what patterns does the word occur?

P In what patterns must we use this word?

Collocations

R What words or types of words occur with this one?

P What words or types of words must we use with this one?

As can be seen from Table 1, the comprehension of a word requires knowledge

of the three aspects – form, meaning and use – receptively and productively According

to Nation (2001, pp 24-25), the distinction of receptive and productive knowledge depends on its resemblance to the distinction between receptive skills and productive

skills, i.e ‘receptive’ refers to receiving and comprehending input from others through listening and reading while ‘productive’ carries the idea of producing language forms

by speaking and writing to convey messages to others Accordingly, receptive vocabulary use is said to involve perceiving the form of a word while listening or reading and retrieving its meaning; productive vocabulary use involves wanting to express a meaning through speaking or writing, retrieving and producing the appropriate spoken or written word form to fit the contexts

From the point of view of receptive knowledge and use, knowing the word, for

example, ‘discontented’ (Reading section, Unit 1, English 10, p 13) involves:

Table 2 Receptive knowledge and use of the word ‘discontented’

Form

Spoken form Being able to recognize the word when it is heard

Written form Being able to locate the word when it is met in reading Word parts Recognizing that the word includes a root –content, a

suffix –ed and a prefix dis-

Meaning

Form and

Meaning

Knowing that the word signals the meanings ‘not happy’

or ‘not satisfied’ with –content (satisfy), –ed (adjective inflection) and dis- (not)

Concept and

Referents

Knowing that the word refers to conditions opposite happiness or satisfaction and do not have a homonym

Associations Knowing that there are related words like contented,

happy, unhappy, satisfied, dissatisfied

And from the point of view of productive knowledge and use, knowing the word

Being able to produce the correct word form to fit the

sentence, e.g ‘He felt (content) with the way his life had turned hard.’

Concept and

Referents

Being able to retrieve the word for speaking or writing to express the feeling when unexpected situations occur

Associations Being able to produce dissatisfied or unhappy as

synonyms, satisfied or happy as antonyms

‘I discontented with my poor English scores.’ (*)

‘I am discontented with my poor English scores.’

Collocations

Being able to produce words that commonly occur with

it e.g

‘I am discontented my poor English scores.’ (*)

‘I am discontented for my poor English scores.’ (*)

‘I am discontented with my poor English scores.’

Constraints

on use

Being able to decide to use or not to use the word to suit the degree of satisfaction of the situation e.g

‘I am discontented with my best English scores.’

[I need to try more]

‘I am discontented with my luxurious life.’

[I hardly feel happy despite my luxurious life]

(*) Incorrect

Table 1 and the accompanying example ‘discontented’ serve as an indication of

the range of aspects of receptive and productive knowledge and use They seem to overlap but in fact are separate from each other, which helps thoroughly analyze and assess a learner’s knowledge of a word to answer the following questions:

 How much is the learner able to comprehend the word?

 How much is the learner able to produce the word?

 Which aspects does the learner seem to acquire smoothly?

 Which aspects does the learner seem to struggle?

The processing model mentioned above might make a useful contribution to vocabulary teaching and learning in EFL contexts since teachers can base on it to design vocabulary test or modify their lessons appropriately while learners might take it as a checklist to reflect on their knowledge for further study and practice

2.1.3 Vocabulary teaching and learning

Throughout the life span, people develop vocabulary effectively and almost effortlessly as long as they see words in meaningful contexts, it is a natural and lifelong phenomenon (Bintz, 2011, p 45) In language teaching context, however, vocabulary acquisition needs instruction, facilitation and enhancement as the target items are required to be obtained purposefully To meet the vocabulary need for accessing and using the language, both teachers and leaners are expected to be involved with great effort in the teaching and learning process

Nation (2001, pp 63-70) suggests three important general processes that may

lead to a word being remembered These comprise noticing, retrieval and generation

‘Noticing’ is giving attention to an item through formal instruction and negotiation

based on learners’ interest and motivation to comprehend or produce the word

‘Retrieval’ refers to the acts of recalling the word meaning with the form encountered

in listening and reading (receptive), or recalling the word form when wishing to

communicate its meaning in speaking and writing (productive) ‘Generation’ occurs

when learners encounter a word used in new ways that have not been met previously (receptive) or when learners produce new ways of using the wanted vocabulary in new contexts (productive)

Based on the mentioned scales for describing depth of processing for vocabulary, a number of vocabulary teaching strategies have been applied in EFL classrooms For example:

Noticing According to Nation (2001, p 64), the chances of a word being noticed can be increased by ‘highlighting’ the word in the text, letting learners ‘negotiate’ the word meaning with each other or with the teacher, ‘explaining’ the word to the learners

by giving a definition, a synonym or a L1 translation This roughly responds to Chung’s (2012, p 107) assertion that teacher reading-aloud accompanied with explanations and discussions of vocabulary or modeling of new and high-level vocabulary usage will

enhance vocabulary growth Besides, ‘morphological analysis’ and ‘basic word presenting’ should be taken into consideration as strategies for noticing (Sedita, 2005;

Chung, 2012) because word part or word family are likely to be challenging aspects for learners when they first meet a word, and because all of the words that need to get known cannot be taught at a time

Retrieval Retrieval can be designed into tasks of ‘story impressions’ or ‘word sorts for text’ suggested by Bintz (2011, pp 48-49) In ‘story impressions’, clue words

and phrases taken directly from a story are arranged in the order in which they appear, learners are asked to guess the content of the story based on the items given, then read

the story to check their impression In ‘word sorts for text’, the teacher creates a

collection of important words and phrases from a story on index cards, learners arrange the cards in an order that supports the telling of the story and then use the cards to retell the story to the class Nation (2001, pp 72-73) argue that these tasks will help learners get repeated retrieval as they have to bring back the meaning or use of the words over and over again when the story is read several times, which at last strengthens their memory of the words

Generation Teachers can try to encourage generation by ‘wide reading’, i.e

using a long text and present it part by part as a serial (Elley, 1989, as cited in Nation, 2001; Sedita, 2005; Chung, 2012) Long texts provide an opportunity for the same vocabulary to recur in contexts that differ from those previously met in the story, this

generative use will contribute to vocabulary learning ‘Simple contextual definitions’ of

words are also suggested as useful strategies for vocabulary generation (Nation, 2001;

Chung, 2012; Nguyen, 2016) They are definitions using example sentences that are different from those contained in the reading text The contextual definition is believed

to have learners encounter words in various contexts and thus appear to enhance vocabulary development On the other hand, productive generative use can be

encouraged by requiring ‘retelling the contents without the input text’ or ‘role play based on written input’, in which learners reconstruct the definitional knowledge that

was acquired from the text (Nation, 2001; Stahl & Kapinus, 2001; Jue, 2010; Nguyen, 2016)

These strategies focus on word recognition and word use in meaningful contexts and thus are most likely to positively affect vocabulary growth More insights into the strategies practice have been reported in EFL classrooms for young learners (Christ & Wang, 2010) or students of different grades (Sweeny & Mason, 2011) Additionally, a number of suggestions have been notified for the design of rich, multifaceted vocabulary instruction in a research synthesis by Butler et al (2010); the one that receives the most concern might be the use of visual and interactive aids such as body language, competitive games, pictures, blackboard drawings, an overhead projector, computer soft-wares, etc in vocabulary instruction (Allen, 1983; NICHD, 2000; Nation, 2001; Chung, 2012; Nguyen, 2016)

2.2 Translation in second language acquisition

It has always been assumed that, in a second language learning situation, learners rely extensively on their native language (Gass & Selinker, 2008, p 89) One of the

earliest studies on this subfield of second language acquisition is the book Linguistics Across Cultures by Lado (1957) who states that individuals tend to transfer the forms

and meanings, and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture (p 2) This is also what Ellis (1985) advocates:

The L1 may contribute to learning in entirely different ways For instance,

learners may not transfer L1 rules into the L2, but may avoid using those

rules that are absent in their L1 system Or there may be linguistic

constraints on which differences only under certain linguistic conditions

Or learners may use the L1 as a source from which they consciously

borrow in order to improve their performance (i.e they ‘translate’) (p 7)

To investigate translation for an appropriate application in language teaching and learning, most of the previous and recent researches focus mainly on (1) its advantages and disadvantages in language classrooms, (2) its relation to contrastive analysis, and (3) how it is utilized in communicative approach

2.2.1 The role of translation

Translation is often seen as a mechanic activity in which lexical and syntactic elements are replaced from one language to another The translation methods for this approach are word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation and semantic translation However, recent researchers agree that translation is a much more elaborated activity entailing linguistic and cultural of both languages involved The common translation methods used in this approach are adaptive translation, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation

morpho-Based on the aims of this study, the latter approach is taken as the main frame because it (1) focuses on the target language rather than the source language, and (2) encourages more creative and communicative process in second language acquisition (Newmark, 1988, p 45) However, whether to use translation in language classrooms

or not and how to use it effectively have been some big questions under argument for a long time

At first, translation is criticized for its connection with the GTM, which emphasizes the memorization of grammar rules and word lists for automatic translation

Another reason is because the method depends too much on the source language

in discussion and translation activities while the target language should be the one to

be focused for more productive activities (Owen, 2003; Campisi, 2015) On the other hand, many scholars believe that translation may not be suitable for all language learners, especially for those of beginning or low levels (Newson, 1988; Carreres, 2006) Newson (1988, p 2) even strongly suggests that translation should not be contained in the language syllabus for fear that it would negatively interfere with the target language acquisition in terms of comprehension, preparation and speaking practice opportunities Carreres (2006, p 5) adds to the objection by criticizing translation for confining activities to only reading and writing skills, discouraging learners to think in L2, lacking real world application and raising more mistakes than precise responses

In spite of these arguments against translation, there is evidence to support the benefits of translation applied in language teaching For example, Duff (1989, p 7), Malmkjaer (1998) and Nord (2005, p 161) believe that all of the four language skills could be developed and many different competences such as linguistics and culture could be acquired if teachers establish translation as an interpersonal communicative activity resembling the real life Duff (1994, pp ii – v) also supports translation by arguing that translation helps develop three aspects that are necessary for any language acquisition, i.e accuracy, clarity and flexibility In term of communicating meaning, Nation (2001, p 86) notes that translation has the advantages of being quick, simple and easily understood House (2009, pp 71-72) adds that translation itself is a cultural activity that helps communicate among cultures

According to Mogahed (2011), the arguments for using translation in the language classroom outweigh the arguments against it In his literature review, many empirical research results and reports concerning the positive effects of translation application are provided

Specifically, most students experiencing their language learning with translation activities express positive attitudes towards the approach; the activities invite more discussion and the students are happy to contribute to it (Hervey et al., 2002; Carreres, 2006); translation is no longer seen as an obstacle to real language use, but considered

as a language facilitator (Omura, 1996; Owen, 2003)

In short, despite some criticisms concerning the association with the GTM, translation has many advantages that it should be taken into account in second language acquisition – that is, enhancing L2 comprehension (receptive), easing memory constraints (positive procedure), encouraging expressing ideas in L2 (productive), reducing anxiety and raising learning motivation (positive attitudes) Nevertheless, there remains unclear how translation can be used effectively in language teaching and learning The two following sections will discuss the application of translation with the support of contrastive analysis and communicative approach to provide an acceptable strategy

2.2.2 Translation in relation to contrastive analysis

To emphasize the importance of contrastive analysis in translation as well as language teaching, Dang (1992, p 97) states that learners should be made aware of linguistic and cultural differences that they come across in textbooks and other teaching materials through conscious comparisons and contrasts of their own country to avoid negative transfer, culture shock and awkward situations which might lead to loss of face

in social interaction and which may hinder their progress in actual communication

Gass and Selinker (2008, p 96) define contrastive analysis as a way of comparing languages to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and not to be learned in second language acquisition To meet the aim, descriptions of the two languages are first obtained for an inter-lingual comparison; then a list of features of the L2, being different from those of the L1, is presumed to constitute the problem areas and given focal attention in the teaching

The ultimate goal is to predict areas that will be either easy or difficult for learners (Lado, 1957, p 59) so that some pedagogical implications of contrastive analysis can be provided, that is, the easy areas can be ignored as no new learning is involved and the difficulty caused by differences between the two languages is what must be learned (Gass & Selinker, 2008, p 97) In other words, thanks to contrastive analysis, teachers can know what to focus on in the target language and learners can take advantage of the similarities to assist the second language acquisition

Many Vietnamese researchers have been trying to analyze the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese in order to find out the relationship between them in some certain aspects and provide some significant implications for teaching and learning English However, the findings and suggestions are mainly gained from library research only; there is a serious lack of empirical studies on the effects or the approaches that contrastive analysis may be involved – e.g what is the best way to apply contrastive analysis? In what context? And what effects may it bring?

To give the answer to such questions, one study can be mentioned here is the English Grammar teaching project by Nguyen (2008) After a few weeks of application, the experimental student group who studied English grammar in contrast with some Vietnamese structures and patterns surpassed (in the grammar post-test scores) the control student group who studied grammar without any contrastive discussion in the lessons Despite some limitations concerning the study scale, the results of the experiment has proved contrastive analysis to be useful to a certain extent as it can limit errors made by Vietnamese learners when studying some grammatical features The findings have raised some confidence in teachers who desire to apply contrastive analysis in their teaching

To discuss how contrastive analysis can be approached in language teaching, Gass and Selinker (2008, p 97) propose two positions – (1) making predictions about learning and the success of language-teaching materials based on a comparison between two languages; and (2) starting with what learners do, then attempting to account for

those errors on the basis of differences between native and target languages They also indicate two criticisms concerning the role of contrastive analysis, i.e (1) what language to be the driving force? And (2) what actually constitutes a sign of difficulty, which was equated with errors when differences occur?

In this research paper, English is chosen to be the driving force in the comparison

as it is the target language that Vietnamese learners are expected to acquire Hence, Vietnamese is considered to be a facilitator in the language acquisition; whatever to be contrastively analyzed is all to assist learners to avoid negative transfer and get improved in English On the other hand, a sign of difficulty is supposed to be when learners assume that learning English is somehow the same as learning Vietnamese while the two languages are different from each other in nature and in the cultures they are involved

For instance, Vietnamese learners often raise such questions as why we do not start learning English vocabulary with the alphabet and then combine the letters to make words like Vietnamese (form and meaning); why a Vietnamese word can be pronounced easily by looking at the letters it covers while an English word cannot

(written form and spoken form); why ‘rất thích Tiếng Anh’ cannot be translated directly into ‘very like English’ (grammatical functions); why ‘discuss about the problem’ sounds correct when translated into ‘thảo luận về vấn đề này’ but in fact incorrect in

English sense (collocation)

Obviously, Vietnamese EFL learners are learning a language that is different from their mother tongue and thus need many other ways to approach the target language rather than the way they have done with their very first language Translation

is often preferred as learners can rely on their L1 for quick, simple and easy understanding; however, translation is far more than a simple 1:1 correspondence Therefore, all the differences should be clarified (beforehand or when errors occur) so that learners can acquire the new language without any interference caused by L1

2.2.3 Translation in the communicative approach

As said by Campisi (2015) in an online reflection, ‘all the objections to the use

of translation in the language classroom are conclusive only when translation activities follow the traditional pattern of the grammar-translation method; if designed following

a communicative language frame, translation can be a source of interpersonal, intercultural, and real world experiences.’

While the GTM with a long list of equivalents and explanation in the mother tongue makes learning a tedious process and learners become passive in class, the CLT

is preferred because it might be integrated in translation to help learners understand how to use the language correctly and apply it effectively in communication

According to Huang & Wang (2011, p 204), the teacher in a GTM class functions as the possessor and distributor of knowledge and learners are the receivers

of the information Learners acquire the knowledge passively; sometimes they know the form very well but have little idea about the meaning; they also lack chances to truly use the language for communicative purposes

Under such circumstances, translation studies are simplified to mechanical activities; students have to follow and emulate their teachers’ standard versions of translation, which often produces a passive and uninteresting learning experience for learners In short, a GTM class majors in the teaching and learning process at a low level (noticing) while causing unsuccessful receptive and productive retrieval, and a lack of generative use, not to mention the negative attitudes from learners

As reviewed above from Nation’s research (2001, p 27), language is flexible in many terms (Table 1, p 9) Therefore, there are many ways to translate a text from L1

to L2 for a communicative exposure to the target language

For example, different words or phrases can be used based on the learners’ language level providing that the main ideas conveyed remain the same as the original ones and the communicative purposes are accomplished In other words, language transition should not only focus on the grammar and accuracy of the sentences but also take communicative competence into consideration (Kiraly, 1995; Colina, 2003)

More and more scholars have suggested incorporating the CLT in translation teaching since it appears as one of the most effective teaching approaches widely utilized by most language educators all over the world Wilkins (1976, pp 13-14) and Johnson (1979, p 200) emphasize that the main characteristics of a CLT class include (1) working on tasks or projects, (2) learners processing the knowledge themselves according to teacher’s guidance, (3) learners having choices in communication, and (4) use of authentic materials

Applying this communicative approach to translation activities in language

classes is called communicative translation teaching (Arranz, 2004; Huang & Wang,

2011; Liao, 2011; Nguyen, 2016) The approach is preferred because it can not only make up for the ineffectiveness of the traditional method (i.e GTM) but also help students improve their use of translation in term of communicability

Huang & Wang (2011, p 206) summarize the descriptions of communicative translation teaching as a student-centered teaching approach that incorporates and utilizes communicative and interactive activities from the CLT in translation studies In

a communicative translation teaching class, the teacher functions as a facilitator and students are encouraged to be active and autonomous learners The characteristics of the class are similar to those of the CLT, including (1) task-based learning, (2) autonomous learning, (3) cooperative learning and (4) authentic materials

Nevertheless, communicative translation teaching is often suggested mostly for translation classes, not mainly for second language acquisition The term

‘communicative translation’ in the approach also stands out as a method of translation

mentioned above Therefore, to apply communicative translation teaching as a framework in the current context of this study with the aims of enhancing learners’

vocabulary achievement through translation integrated with the CLT, the approach is

adapted in the so-called ‘communication-based translation activities’

Chapter 2 has reviewed some background theories of the study with an in-depth analysis of principles and prior studies related to the research subjects In the chapter, vocabulary has been justified as an essential element leading to the second language acquisition and communication The aspects of knowing a word, including form, meaning and use, are assessed in the light of receptive and productive knowledge, and

can be enhanced through noticing, retrieval and generation processes One of the techniques taken to approach vocabulary teaching is translation To overcome the

drawbacks addressed in the GTM, translation with the support of contrastive analysis

is advisable in the corporation with the CLT This then results in an approach called

‘communicative translation teaching’ that aims to be applied in CTAs for EFL

vocabulary teaching and learning The conceptual framework from which CTAs are constructed and tested will be fully explained in the next chapter

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the methodology in which CTAs are constructed and the experimental project is carried out to conclude if there is any significant difference in the experimental group results after the CTAs treatment as compared to the control group without the application of CTAs The project also tries to answer whether there

is a relationship between the knowledge students have perceived and the accuracy in the language they have used in simple writing and speaking The last thing to be concerned is the students’ attitudes towards CTAs applied in their EFL classrooms

3.1 Construction of a CTA for teaching and learning vocabulary

3.1.1 Target learners

The target learners of the CTAs suggested in this research are mainly high school students as (1) they are supposed to be in the early stages of the second language acquisition process that provides the basic knowledge background and skills for further study and achievements; and (2) they are among the young learners who often have little learning motivation and thus need a variety of teaching strategies to encourage their acquisition of necessary knowledge and skills, especially vocabulary Therefore, the CTAs are designed with procedures, contents and devices in correspondence with the textbooks and the psychophysiological characteristics of high school students

3.1.2 Conceptual framework

According to Richards & Rodgers (2001, pp 20-33), a language teaching

method includes approach, design and procedure ‘Approach’ refers to the principles

of how the language is treated and acquired in the language acquisition; ‘design’ describes the use of certain types of teaching activities as a consequence of its theoretical assumptions about language and learning; and ‘procedure’ encompasses the actual devices, techniques, practices and behaviors that operate in teaching a language All the elements that constitute a method are briefly summarized as follows

Method Approach Design Procedure

- Nature of language - Objectives - Time

- Nature of language - Types of activities - Equipment

learning - Learner roles - Interaction patterns

- Teacher roles - Strategies

- Roles of materials

- Syllabus model

Figure 2 Summary of elements and sub-elements that constitute a method

(Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p 33)

Structurally, all the CTAs in this study are constructed with some basic elements

of a language teaching method First, they apply the communicative approach, which means language is a system for the expression of meaning and it is acquired through interaction, communication, experience and exploration Second, the design of the CTAs includes the objective of acquiring the vocabularies provided in the textbook with learners as the center of the class, constructing their own knowledge through teacher’s guidance, facilitation and assistance, and thanks to the consciousness-raising tasks of translation Finally, the procedure of CTAs is carried out with a suitable setting of time, equipment, interaction patterns and strategies for each one

Theoretically, all the CTAs in this study are designed based on the ‘aspects of knowing a word’ and ‘vocabulary processes’ provided by Nation (2001), together with

‘communicative translation teaching’ approach To make it more specific, ‘the aspects

of knowing a word’ in terms of form, meaning and use with receptive and productive

knowledge will decide the aims of a CTA and at the same time influence the way it is

conducted to accomplish the expected outcomes ‘Word processes’ including noticing,

retrieval and generation will decide the procedure of a CTA to make sure the vocabulary knowledge is acquired to a certain extent, depending on the aims of the lesson stage

‘Translation’ in the support of contrastive analysis and the CLT will facilitate the

procedure as an actual device to successfully meet the vocabulary learning goals

Aspects of knowing

a word

RECEPTIVE PRODUCTIVE FORM MEANING USE

The conceptual framework of a CTA for teaching and learning vocabulary can

be summarized as follows:

Figure 3 Conceptual framework of a CTA for vocabulary teaching and learning

CTA

Outcome

3.2 Experimental project of CTAs application

3.2.1 Design of the experimental project

The project was designed to test the intervention of CTAs towards EFL high school students’ vocabulary competence and its application in practical use For this purpose, the project followed a quasi-experimental study designed in the form of pre-and post-tests with one control group (CG) and one experimental group (EG) The design of the project is briefly displayed in Figure 4

Table 4 Summary of participants’ English scores in the placement test

Independent Samples T-Test

Group N Mean SD t df Sig (2-tailed)

10A4 control 37 7.89 1.17 -.038 71 097

10B experimental 36 7.88 1.13

As can be seen from the table, the mean score of class 10A4 is 7.89 (SD=1.17) and that of class 10B is 7.88 (SD=1.13) The test proves that there was no significant difference between the classes because of t(71)=-.038, p =.097 >.05

CTAs

Therefore, the two groups in the experiment are supposed to be equal in English capacity Although non-probability sampling is not the best sampling procedure for representativeness, it is the most common form of sampling in educational research However, regarding the vocabulary achievement in terms of recognition and production, a pre-test would be still in need to examine the equivalence

Participants’ characteristics

The participants are not English majors and at the pre-intermediate level in the general English course required by Vietnam Minister of Education and Training They all have studied English for at least 4 years and share similar academic backgrounds such as learning environment, learning conditions, learning chances, and learning aptitude They are included in two groups as follows

Table 5 Summary of participants’ characteristics

Total Gender Placement test result

Group N Male Female Average Good Excellent

Table 5 presents the characteristics of the participants in the experimental project

in terms of gender and the English results in the placement test at the end of grade 9 Although the number of males and females in the two groups are not very equivalent, the percentage of the two genders is supposed to be acceptable within each group; that

is, no cases of too many male students over female students or vice versa is observed Concerning the English scores, the distribution of the students according to levels is quite similar and suitable between the groups, in which most of the students are above average and the number of students in each level is mostly equal In short, the two groups are supposed to be appropriate for the project as either the control or experimental group In this study, class 10A4 is chosen as the control group with traditional method (GTM) while class 10B is chosen as the experimental group with the treatment of CTAs application in the English lessons

3.2.3 Procedure

Pilot stage

The activities and instruments were first piloted for their reliability The trial teaching was conducted with a class before the treatment phase The trial class had similar backgrounds to the groups in the experimental project Unit 1 of the textbook English 10 was chosen for the pilot stage The teacher had four periods (45 minutes each) of trial teaching with the treatment Then, two students (chosen at random, 1 male and 1 female) were interviewed to check their understandings on the application in terms of content and usefulness Some questions included in the questionnaire were also provided to get their feedbacks on the activities as they had been implemented The whole pilot stage including the lessons and the interview was recorded with some notes for specific observations and adjustments

Implementation stage

The pre-tests in Vocabulary-Recognition, Writing and Speaking were first used

to test the students’ vocabulary level acquired implicitly or explicitly in previous lessons or outside the classroom After that, the lessons (unit 5 to unit 8, English 10) were provided to the participants by the same instructor (the researcher himself) within eight weeks (from 15 October to 15 December, 2016); each had 4 periods (180 minutes) per class Students in the two groups received the same amount of time and input but the techniques were different In the control group, the students learned the new vocabularies from a list with Vietnamese equivalents and examples; the teacher gave them more direct explanation, pronunciation and exercise practice before and after each lesson (Appendix 4, pp 108-110) In the experimental group, however, vocabularies were acquired directly or indirectly through CTAs in each lesson such as discussing meanings with the teacher and friends, self-studying words with guidance, translation games with computers, role-plays with translation in communicative contexts, etc (Appendix 5, pp 111-125); exercise practice is also provided in this group