A study on the relationship between language learning styles, reading strategies and reading achievement of english language learners at thai nguyen university

A study on the relationship between language learning styles, reading strategies and reading achievement of english language learners at thai nguyen university A study on the relationship between language learning styles, reading strategies and reading achievement of english language learners at thai nguyen university A study on the relationship between language learning styles, reading strategies and reading achievement of english language learners at thai nguyen university

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE

NGUYEN THI BICH DIEP

A STUDY ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

LANGUAGE LEARNING STYLES, READING STRATEGIES

AND READING ACHIEVEMENT OF ENGLISH

LANGUAGE LEARNERS AT THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS Field: English Linguistics

Code: 8220201

THAI NGUYEN - 2020

ĐẠI HỌC THÁI NGUYÊN

TRƯỜNG NGOẠI NGỮ

NGUYỄN THỊ BÍCH DIỆP

NGHIÊN CỨU MỐI TƯƠNG QUAN GIỮA PHONG CÁCH HỌC TẬP, CHIẾN LƯỢC ĐỌC VÀ KẾT QUẢ ĐỌC HIỂU

CỦA SINH VIÊN KHÔNG CHUYÊN NGỮ

TẠI ĐẠI HỌC THÁI NGUYÊN

LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ Ngành: Ngôn ngữ Anh

Mã số: 8220201

THÁI NGUYÊN - 2020

DECLARATION

The thesis entitled “A study on the relationship between language learning styles, reading strategies and reading achievement of English language learners at Thai Nguyen University” has been submitted for the Master of English language

I, the undersigned, hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis I have fully acknowledged and referenced the ideas and work of others, whether published or unpublished, in my thesis

My thesis does not contain work extracted from a thesis, dissertation or research paper previously presented for another degree or diploma at this or any other universities

DEDICATION

I dedicate this research project to my parents To my Dad, I thank you for encouraging me to work hard to fulfil this study To my Mum, thank you for your encouragement and support throughout my studies Special dedication goes to my husband for being there for me when I needed his help most

I love you all

In addition, I would like to express my thankfulness to all the participating students

at the International School, Thai Nguyen University who helped me in my preliminary research, especially the students who accompanied me during a long time of my data collection time The results I have achieved today partially belong to them

Last but not least, I would like to thank my fellows for their dedication and support, and my family members for their motivation for me to overcome all the difficulties and to become a better me now

Thank you

Nguyen Thi Bich Diep

July, 2020

ABSTRACT

The study was conducted at the International School, Thai Nguyen University with

152 non-English majored students The participants come from different cultural settings and countries The purely quantitative research design was employed, and the model of learning style developed by Reid (1987) was used as the theoretical framework for the

study Two surveys of “Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire” (PLSPQ) and

“Survey of reading strategies” (SORS) were used to collect data The Statistical Package

for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used to analyse the data The findings of the study indicated that (1) the preferred learning styles of Thai Nguyen University students are Visual and Group (2) Students who participated in the study use reading strategies at medium level (M=3.1684) There is a significant difference between major learning styles, minor learning styles, negligible styles, and the use of reading strategies The students majoring in visual use strategies more often (M=3.18) The students whose major styles were tactile and kinesthetic use strategies at the frequency of (M=3.16) The auditory learners use the least strategies at (M=3.11) The group learning styles ranked the top of (M= 3.21) (3) Visual and individual learners attain the highest academic achievement, while the tactile and auditory learners attain the lowest points The visual and group learning styles students use more reading strategies than the other groups

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION i

DEDICATION ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

ABSTRACT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationales 1

1.2 Statement of the problem 3

1.3 Significance of the study 3

1.4 Aims of the study 4

1.5 Research questions 4

1.6 Scope of the study 5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Theoretical framework 6

2.2 Definitions and nature of learning styles 7

2.3 A brief discussion of learning style models 9

2.3.1 Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model 9

2.3.2 Kolb‟s Learning Style Model 10

2.3.3 Honey and Mumford‟s Learning Styles Preferences 11

2.3.4 Reid‟s Perceptual Learning Style Preferences 12

2.4 Factors affecting learning styles preference 14

2.5 Learning styles and academic achievement 16

2.6 Reading strategies and reading comprehension 18

2.7 Reading strategies and academic achievement 19

2.8 Reading strategies and learning styles 22

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 25

3.1 Research design 25

3.2 Participants 26

3.3 Data collection instruments 27

3.3.1 Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire 27

3.3.2 Survey of reading strategies (SORS) 27

3.4 Data collection procedures 29

3.5 Data analysis instruments 29

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 30

4.1 Results of the research question 1 30

4.2 Results of the research question 2 31

4.3 Results of the research question 3 37

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION 41

REFERENCES 42

APPENDICES 54

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Number and percentage of participants by genders 26

Table 4.1 Number and percentage of participants by learning styles 30

Table 4.2 The mean score of the reading strategies uses 31

Table 4.3 Mean score of major, minor, and negligible learning styles 31

Table 4.4 Test of Homogeneity Variances for visual learners 31

Table 4.5 Sig F of the ANOVA for Visual learning styles 32

Table 4.6 Test of Homogeneity Variances for tactile learners 32

Table 4.7 Sig F of the ANOVA for Tactile learning styles 33

Table 4.8 Test of Homogeneity Variances for auditory learners 33

Table 4.9 Sig F of the ANOVA for Auditory learning styles 33

Table 4.10 Test of Homogeneity Variances for Kinesthetic learners 34

Table 4.11: Sig F of the ANOVA for Kinesthetics learning styles 34

Table 4.12 Test of Homogeneity Variances for group learners 35

Table 4.13 Sig F of the ANOVA for Group learning styles 35

Table 4.14 Test of Homogeneity Variances for individual learners 36

Table 4.15 Sig F of the ANOVA for Individual learning styles 36

Table 4.16 Descriptive statistic of the relationship between learning styles, reading strategies and academic achievement 37

Table 4.17 Test of Homogeneity of Variances 38

Table 4.18 Means of academic achievement and the uses of reading strategies 38

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 The Kolb‟s learning cycle (Güven, 2004, p.27) 10

Figure 2.2 Honey and Mumford‟s learning styles associated with learning cycle 11

Figure 3.1 Number and percentage of participants by genders 26

Figure 4.1 Number and percentage of participants by learning styles 30

Figure 4.2 Visual learning styles and the use of reading strategies 32

Figure 4.3 Tactile learning styles and the uses of reading strategies 33

Figure 4.4 Auditory learning styles and the uses of reading strategies 34

Figure 4.5: Kinesthetic learning styles and the uses of reading strategies 35

Figure 4.6 Group learning styles and the uses of reading strategies 36

Figure 4.7 Individual learning styles and the uses of reading strategies 37

Figure 4.8 The relationship between learning styles and academic achievement 39

Figure 4.9 The relationship between learning styles and the use of reading strategies 39

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

B2 – CEFR : B2 – Common European Framework of Reference IELTS : International English Language Testing System FCE : First Certificate in English

IS –TNU: International School – Thai Nguyen University

PLSPQ: Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire

SORS: Survey of Reading Strategies

SPSS: The Statistical Package for Social Sciences

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

In Chapter I, the researcher presents some of the preliminaries of the study such as rationales, statement of the research problem, scope and aims of the study, significance of the study and finally the research questions that the study attempts to answer

1.1 Rationales

In terms of language learning, reading is considered as one of the most crucial language skills serving as the foundation for other language skills to be developed, especially for academic achievements at tertiary level It is thought to be the primary means for gaining access to various sources of information, providing the basis for

“synthesis and critical evaluation skills” (Celce-Murcia, 2001, p 187) Anderson (2003) considers reading as “an essential skill which is most important skill to master for most of the learners of English in order to ensure success in learning” (p 2) There are internal and external factors that contribute to the comprehension process

Reading strategies and learning styles have been proven to be variables for successful language readers Reading strategies are purposeful means of comprehending the author‟s message (Olshavsky, 1977), or as problem-oriented actions and techniques used to achieve apprehension or production goals (Wenden, 1987) Oxford and Crookall (1989) explained reading strategies as learning techniques, behaviors, problem-solving skills, or study skills that can lead learners to more effective and efficient learning Obviously, reading strategies refer to techniques that a person chooses to deal with the reading texts Learning styles, on the other hand, belong to personal traits and different with different individuals so methods and resources will be more effective for some learners and less effectivefor others (Burke & Dunn, 2003)

Sternberg and Grigorenko (2001) further highlight the difference between the degree

of consciousness involved in applying styles and strategies: Styles operate without individual awareness, whereas strategies involve a conscious choice of alternatives In

specific reference to the field of language learning, Bailey et al (2000, p 118) concur:

“Learning styles are not the same as learning strategies Whereas learning styles represent unintentional, or automatic individual characteristics, learning strategies are actions chosen

by students that are intended to facilitate learning.”

Being aware of learning styles of the learners will help teachers, instructors, to develop learning tasks that address individual learning needs If a particular approach to learning is encouraged by a teacher, there is a possibility that some pupils will work and learn less effectively than others in the class For this reason, an awareness of learning styles is important for teachers Learning style awareness should make an impact on pedagogy – the ways in which teachers choose to teach – and should help teachers to a better understanding of the needs of learners, as well as to an awareness of the need to differentiate materials, not only by level of difficulty but also by learning style (Prichard,

2009, p.42)

Alternatively, students with knowledge of their own preferences are empowered to use various techniques to enhance learning, which in turn may impact overall educational satisfaction Claxton & Murrell (1987) stated that knowledge of individual learning style preferences will help students see themselves as learners and the awareness of their learning style preferences can lead to improvingperformance and learning outcomes

In Vietnam, English is considered a foreign language School children spend 6 to 10 years studying English at schools, then another two to three more years at university However, the language achievement is quite limited They are unsatisfactorily to meet the demand of real communication That failure is partly due to the mismatch between teaching styles of teachers and learning styles of the learners, or it may come from ineffective uses of learning strategies

Numerous studies have been conducted to measure the effectiveness of reading strategies on reading comprehension achievement However, few studies have been done

to investigate the interplay of preferred learning styles, the utilization of reading strategies and reading outcomes, especially in Vietnamese EFL teaching context The lack of literature over the issue inspires us to carry out this study in the context of English teaching

at the International School -Thai Nguyen University This study is carried out to explore different learning styles of learners, the reading strategies they employ and their language achievement in reading comprehension

“The present study investigated the reading comprehension achievement under the impacts of learning styles and the uses of reading strategies so that the teachers may adapt their teaching styles for varieties of language learners‟ learning styles.”

1.2 Statement of the problem

Learning is the process of obtaining knowledge by studying, teaching, practicing, and experiencing Learning is also called process of getting the aim by doing experiences, those are seeing, observing, and comprehending about something (Rusman, 2011:3) Studying can not only gained by only sitting and listening to teachers‟ explanation in schools, but also can be gained from how the learner process the information delivered by teachers In learning process, students do many things like reading, researching, experimenting, and others learning activities to better comprehend what they have been taught or instructed Suitable ways of learning may foster or hamper the learning input It

is beneficial for teachers to know their students‟ learning styles and learning strategies so that appropriate teaching styles, activities are developed and delivered Dunn (1990) points out that teacher awareness of the preferred learning styles of students can help teachers understand and cope with students‟ course-related learning difficulties and ultimately help alleviate their frustration levels Chang (2003) believes that understanding the preferred learning styles of students has a resounding impact on curriculum design, teacher training, material development, and student orientation Macfarlane (2004) contends that polarized communication exists when teachers misunderstand or lack interest in students‟ educational backgrounds, and that may eventually harm the relationship between teachers and students Investigating students‟ language learning style preferences provides teachers with useful information on developing students‟ language learning strategies, which are directly related to language achievement Some researchers (Cotazzi, 1990; Ehrman, 1996; Felder, 1995; Oxford, Hollaway, & Horton-Murillo, 1992; Jones, 1997; Littlewood, Liu, &

Yu, 1996; Reid, 1987; Peacock, 2001; Stebbins, 1995; Tuan, 2011) propose that a mismatch between teacher instructional styles and students‟ language learning styles may lead to negative impacts on students‟ language learning The present study investigated the reading comprehension achievement under the impacts of learning styles and the uses of reading strategies Learning styles and reading strategies were independent variables while academic reading achievement would act as dependent variable

1.3 Significance of the study

On completion, the study is expected to contribute to a comprehension of the relationship between learning styles and language learning strategies to the academic

reading achievement The study may discover some preferred learning styles of language learners when preparing for the IELTS reading module From the findings, teachers may have general guidelines for their teaching practice so that the teaching styles match the learning styles of language learners Teaching style refers to the classroom behaviour associated with the teaching beliefs of an instructor and is not restricted to a teaching method or a technique (Cooper, 2001; Heimlich & Norland, 2002; Jarvis, 2004) Teaching styles can affect how teachers present information, interact with students, and supervise coursework Many researchers (Giles et al., 2006; Heimlich & Norland, 2002; Soliven, 2003) point out that teaching style is vital for providing students with good learning experiences and enhancing students‟ academic outcomes The results of this study are suggested to make learning process more intensive by finding out the students‟ learning style, so the teacher could use the best strategies in teaching Claxton and Murrell (1987) stated that information onlearning styles can help educators “become more sensitive to the differences students bring to the classroom It also can serve as a guide to the design of learning experiences that either match, or mismatch, students' learning style” (p 77).Besides, the study can be as a reference for researchers who wish to study about the impacts of variables such as learning styles, learning strategies on language achievements

1.4 Aims of the study

This study firstly aimed at finding different preferred learning styles of English language learners at the International School of Thai Nguyen University so that the teachers may adapt their teaching styles for varieties of language learners‟ learning styles The second aim of the study was to identify the relationship between perceptual learning style preferences and students‟ readingstrategies selection Finally, the study tried to find the correlation that might exists between students‟ learning styles, preferred reading strategies and language reading achievement when students take the IELTS reading module

3.What is the relationship between learning styles, reading strategies towards academic reading achievement?

1.6 Scope of the study

The study was carried out with 152 second year students at the International School

of Thai Nguyen University This is the only institution of Thai Nguyen University where English language is used as the language of instruction for all disciplines Students come from many different countries such as Lao, Myanmar, The Philippines, East Timor and Nigeria A one-year intensive English course is delivered to first year students so that they can attend lectures delivered in English The language achievement to be accepted to enter the majoring phase is B2 (CEFR), i.e 5.5 in the IELTS or FCE examination During the English course, students practice four macro language skills focusing on exam preparation The study was designed along the lines of correlation research to determine whether and what degree a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables In addition, it used a purely quantitative method to gather data from the students

1.7 Design of the study

The study is divided into five chapters

Chapter 1 - Introduction relates to the rationale for the research Besides, it shows

the significance of the study, the aims and objectives, research questions, the scope, the methods and the design of the study

Chapter 2 - Literature review supplies an overview of theoretical background and

previous studies involved in the research topic

Chapter 3 - Research Methodology describes the methods used for this study, data

collection instruments, data collection procedures and data analysis procedure

Chapter 4 - Findings and Discussion provides the findings and discussion of the

research based on results of the action research methodology

Chapter 5 – Conclusion and Recommendation comes up with the summary,

implications and some suggestions for further studies

To sum up, in chapter 1, the researcher presents some preliminaries of the study such

as rationales, statement of the research problem, scope and aims of the study, significance

of the study, and finally the research questions that the study attempts to answer The next chapter will be focusing on the theoretical framework, definitions of terms used, and

similar work in the field

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

In this part of the study, the researcher will discuss the theoretical framework for the whole study In the second place, a brief review of models of learning styles, readings strategies, and reading comprehension achievements will be mentioned Finally, some related studies will be included as background for the present research

2.1 Theoretical framework

The concept of learning styles was introduced in the 1960s It was based on the principle that all individuals are capable of learning but vary enormously in the speed and way they pick up new information and ideas, and the confidence with which they process and use them When teachers recognise that students have different learning styles, they start to become more sensitive to these students‟ individual differences and needs in the classroom This could ultimately enhance the teachers‟ teaching practices (Gappi 2013:70) Unfortunately, when the students‟ learning styles and the teacher‟s learning styles do not match, the students are likely to become uncomfortable, bored and inattentive in class, do poorly in tests and ultimately become unmotivated (Felder & Spurlin 2005:103) Teachers need to help students discover their own learning styles and provide constructive feedback about the advantages and disadvantages of these various styles Teachers also need to respect students‟ learning styles and encourage their development whilst at the same time creating opportunities for the students to experiment with other ways of learning (Farajolahi & Nimvari 2014:159) When students are made aware of their learning styles and strategies, they are not only more prepared for learning, but also more analytic about their learning styles and the strategies they use Knowledge of one‟s own learning style is essential in „learning to learn‟ as it enables students to take control of their learning whilst still allowing them to maximise their potential for learning (Farajolahi & Nimvari 2014:159) Therefore, learning styles can be seen to be students‟ comfort zones or educational conditions under which they learn best (Tuan 2011:287)

Learning styles have been defined in several ways which vary according to different purposes and different approaches Curry (1991, p 249) states “there is a bewildering confusion of definitions surrounding learning style conceptualizations and there is a wide variation in the scale and scope of learning, school achievement, and other behavior predicted by the various learning style concepts.”

Many research works have then explored the types and the nature of strategy use, the effectiveness (if any) of language learning styles (LLS) However, as stated by Phakiti (2003, p.7), “To date, there is little empirical evidence to show how language learning strategies are related to actual strategy use in context.” This opinion was also asserted by Rees-Millers (1993, p.11) “Until empirical data, particularly in the form of empirical studies are gathered to answer questions about the usefulness of learner training, teachers should approach the implementation of learner training in the classroom.” Therefore, it is necessary to conduct more research work in the field of LLS of EFL language learners in the specific context in order to help learners choose the proper LLSs in acquiring the target language, especially in the settings of mountainous areas

For the EFL context, the present study adopts the concept raised by Reid (1995) as the theoretical framework for the study in which learning styles are referred to as an individual‟s natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills” (p viii) The concept represents a profile of the individual‟s approach to learning, a blueprint of the habitual or preferred way the individual perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment (Dörnyei, 2015, p.108)

2.2 Definitions and nature of learning styles

As stated in the previous part, learning style is defined variously Below are some definitions of learning styles:

“The term learning style refers to the general approach preferred by the student when learning a subject, acquiring a language, or dealing with a difficult problem.” (Oxford, 2003, p 273)

“Learning styles are internally based characteristics, often not perceived or consciously used by learners, for the intake and comprehension of new information.” (Reid, 1998, p ix)

“Learning style is a composite of environmental and perceptual preferences, which influence our physical and sensing needs; cognitive variables, which determine how we approach, conceptualize, and structure our world; and social preferences, which arise from cognitive, personality, affective factors and which shape our behavioral tendencies in learning situations.” (Galloway & Labarca, 1990, p 113)

A particular way in which an individual learns; a mode of learning – an individual’s preferred or best manner(s) in which to think, process information and demonstrate learning; an individual’s preferred means of acquiring knowledge and skills; habits, strategies, or regular mental behaviours concerning learning, particularly deliberate educational learning, that an individual displays (Prichard, 2009: p 41)

The wording from the above-mentioned definitions such as „individual, particular‟

suggests the uniqueness of learning styles In other words, learning styles vary from persons to persons, and students do not all learn in the same way Each individual will adopt an approach to learning with which they are most comfortable and in doing so leave behind the approaches with which they are less comfortable. Every student has different learning style There are students who must study by sitting in a quiet room In addition, there are also students who must study by moving their bodies like walking or to study with pronounce their material loudly

Like the definitions of learning styles, different researchers have different opinions towards the nature of styles Keefe (1982) states that learning styles are relatively stable when learners interact with the learning environment Ehrman and Oxford (1990) consider that learning styles are internally based characteristics which are retained despite the teaching methods and classroom atmospheres Learning styles are also used unconsciously

by learners for absorbing and understanding new information (Reid, 1998) However, Ehrman and Oxford (1990) add that new styles may be acquired with time and the old styles can be adapted when learners start to become aware of them Sternberg (1994, p 174) points out that learning styles “are not permanently determined at birth” Learning styles can change in different situations and stages of life, and environmental reinforcement can result in the shaping of learning styles For example, rewarding learners who use certain styles can lead to their preferences for those styles In addition, designing learning tasks which are more optimally performed with certain styles can also cause learners to prefer certain styles He also adds that one‟s value system is related to the development of learning styles through socialization Kinsella and Sherak (1998) explain that learning styles are not fixed and not fully innate They found that learning styles can

be reinforced by classroom roles and values and learners tend to prefer the ways that they are most often exposed to, especially when they experience academic success That means learning styles reflect habitual ways of acquiring knowledge

2.3 A brief discussion of learning style models

Various classifications exist as a result of both theoretical and practical studies which are conducted regarding learning styles 71 models of learning style were listed by Coffield

et al (as cited in Matheoudakis & Alexiou, 2010) in their review Hence, there are different approaches that exist about the classifications of learning styles These approaches are based on different characteristics of students in learning process De Bello (as cited in Hein & Budny, 1999) points out that some models are multidimensional which include cognitive, affective, and psychological characteristics, and the others have only one dimension Also, each approach emerged provides a source for the next approach related to learning styles (Güven, 2004) Some of the well-known learning style approaches and the models which are based on these approaches are as follows:

 Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model

 Kolb‟s Learning Styles Model

 Honey and Mumford‟s Learning Styles Model

 Reid‟s Perceptual Learning Style Preferences

2.3.1 Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model

Dunn and Dunn Learning Styles Model is one the well-known model within learning style models According to this model, both biological and individual developmental characteristics possessed by an individual and how a person learns new information and skills are indicated by this peculiar characteristic of that person Five learning style stimuli and some elements for each stimulus are identified by Dunn and Dunn (Hawk & Shah, 2007) These stimuli are environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological, and psychological processing Also, the elements which are within the stimuli are sound, light, temperature, and room design which are identified as the environmental stimuli Motivation, persistence, responsibility, and structure are identified as emotional stimuli Learning alone, in a pair, with peers, with a teacher and such are identified as sociological stimuli Perceptual, intake while learning, energy patterns during the day and mobility needs are identified as physiological stimuli Global or analytic, hemisphericity and impulsive or reflective are identified as psychological processing stimuli

2.3.2 Kolb’s Learning Style Model

Kolb‟s learning style model which is based on Kolb Experiential Learning Theory was developed by Kolb Based on this experiential model, learning is defined by Kolb as

“process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (as cited

in Baker, Jensen & Kolb, 2002, p.52) In this model, individual‟ learning styles are like a circle which includes four learning stages These stages are concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC) and active experimentation (AE) (as cited in Kaya, Özabacı & Tezel, 2009) The Kolb‟s learning cycle is illustrated in Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1 The Kolb’s learning cycle (Güven, 2004, p.27)

According to Kolb (as cited in Kolb & Goldman, 1973), the process of learning contains two primary dimensions First dimension is reaching from abstract conceptualization to concrete experience and second dimension is reaching from active experimentation to reflective observation Kolb models demonstrate how knowledge is perceived by an individual through concrete experience and abstract conceptualization and how knowledge is integrated by an individual through reflective observation and active

experimentation An individual learns by “feeling” (concrete experience), “watching” (reflective observation), “thinking” (abstract conceptualization) and “doing” (active experimentation) Therefore, knowledge is perceived by an individual through thinking and feeling Also, knowledge is integrated by an individual through watching and doing Furthermore, Kolb (as cited in Kaya, Özabacı & Tezel, 2009) asserts that, in this model, a cycle of four learning modes is required for all learning However, one of the four modes

of the cycles is found as the most appropriate by each person (as cited in Groat, 1998) Four learning styles which are based on this learning cycle are identified by Kolb These styles are converger, diverger, assimilator and accommodator (Kolb & Goldman, 1973)

2.3.3 Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles Preferences

Honey and Mumford‟s learning styles model is based on Kolb‟s experiential learning model in terms of description and measurement of learning style (Cassidy, 2004) Honey and Mumford identified four learning styles These are activists, reflectors, theorists, and pragmatists In the learning cycle, four stages are designated by Honey and Mumford to show learning style preference of a learner The Honey and Mumford learning styles which are associated with learning cycle are shown in Figure 2.2

Figure 2.2 Honey and Mumford’s learning styles associated with learning cycle

Activists prefer to learn by doing, they like to immerse themselves in a wide range of

experiences and activities and like to work in groups so that ideas can be shared, and ideas tested This type of learners does not like repetition activities

Reflectors, on the other hand, like to collect as much information as possible before

making any decisions; they are always keen to „look before they leap‟ They prefer to look

at the big picture, including previous experiences and the perspectives of others

Theorists like to adapt and integrate all their observations into frameworks, so that

they can see how one observation is related to other observations Theorists work towards adding new learning into existing frameworks by questioning and assessing the possible ways that new information might fit into their existing frameworks of understanding

Pragmatists are keen to seek out and make use of new ideas Pragmatists look for the

practical implications of any new ideas or theories before making a judgement on their value They will take the view that if something works, all is well and good, but if it does not work, there is little point in spending time on the analysis of its failure (cited in Prichard, 2009, p.43)

2.3.4 Reid’s Perceptual Learning Style Preferences

The outstanding model which especially developed for foreign language learners who enrolled at universities to reveal their preferred learning styles is Reid‟s perceptual learning style preferences This model was developed in 1987 Reid (1995) mentions that perceptual learning styles identify the differences among learners considering their senses

to understand, arrange and remain experiences Reid (1995) claims that three major categories of learning styles are sensory or perceptual learning styles, cognitive learning styles and affective/temperament learning styles Sensory or perceptual learning style has

to do with the physical environment in which we learn and involves using our senses to perceive data In studies on perceptual learning styles, Dunn (1990) has shown that learners whose preferred learning style is visual may have difficulty learning where the teaching mode is through lectures (auditory) as opposed to auditory learners who may prefer them Reid purports that research generally refers to learning styles as being points along a continuum In fact, learners may have more than one learning style and are able to switch or flex styles depending on the environment or task at hand Cognitive styles relate

to thinking, problem solving abilities and the ability to organize information One type of cognitive learning style research measures field independence and field dependence in

learners The field independent students prefer to learn in a context where rules, instructions, discrete-point tests and imitation are emphasized The field dependent students, on the other hand, generally prefer cooperative and experiential learningenvironments Affective learning/temperament learning style takes students‟ emotions,values and feelings into consideration The focus is on the learner (i.e his or hermotivation, level of engagement, interaction and reception to feedback) and how he orshe reacts to learning opportunities

Mulalic, Shad and Ahmad (2009) state that in this classification, the lea rning styles of learners such as visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile are classified according to their perceptions The other two social aspects, group and individual preferences are listed focusing on how learners learn best According to Reid (199 5)

there are six major learning style preferences These are visual, auditory, kinesthetic, tactile, group and individual major learning style preferences Individuals can perform

well by using these learning style preferences

2.3.4.1 Visual learning styles

Students who prefer visual learning style as their major style preference learn best by seeing from books, chalkboard, and workbooks They can easily retain and comprehend instructions and information through reading (Reid, 1995)

2.3.4.2 Auditory learning styles

Auditory major learning style preference is another learning style Mulalic, Shad and Ahmad (2009) reported that auditory learners can learn well through listening information

in lectures Moreover, Reid (1987) mentions that students who prefer auditory learning style retain knowledge through reading new material loudly Audio tapes, lectures and class discussions are beneficial for auditory learners

2.3.4.3 Kinesthetic learning styles

The other learning style is kinesthetic major learning style preference Drama, play and moving around are the examples of active involvement preferences of kinesthetic learners (Mulalic, Shad & Ahmad, 2009) Hence, kinesthetic learners learn well by experiencing and involving in classroom practices physically In this respect, kinesthetic learners need to take part in the activities such as field trips and role playing to keep in mind the information (Reid, 1995)

role-2.3.4.4 Tactile learning styles

There is one more learning style: Tactile major learning style preference Reid (1995) indicates that tactile learners can learn well if they the chance to deal with hands-on experiences with materials such as experiments in a laboratory, handling and building models

2.3.4.5 Group learning styles

In addition, the other learning styles which create the social aspects of the Reid‟s learning style preferences is group major learning style preference According to Reid (1995) students who prefer group learning style as their major preference learn easily when they study at least with one of their classmates Also, when they study with other students, they finish their work more successfully

2.3.4.6 Individual learning styles

The last learning style which has part in the social aspects of Reid‟s learning style preferences is individual major learning style preference Learners with individual learning style preference gain knowledge best when they study alone Furthermore, when they learn

on their own, they comprehend new material easily (Reid, 1995)

Reid (1995) categorizes learning styles as major, minor, and negligible Each student has major, minor and negligible learning style preferences Major learning styles point out the area in which the learner could perform well Minor learning styles show areas in which students still can perform well On the other hand, negligible learning styles show the areas in which students may have trouble in learning

2.4 Factors affecting learning styles preference

Learning style preference is said to be affected by several factors, some of which have more effect on certain learners or in certain stages than others For example, when Ramayah et al (2011) examined the effect of peer, technology, cultural background on learning style of business school students, they found that peer affected all four types of learning style, technology affected reading and writing, while cultural background of the learner affected visual, aural and kinesthetic learning styles of the participants There have been several other studies confirming the effect of culture (Charlesworth, 2008; De Vita, 2010; Lee, 2011; Song & Oh, 2011) A study more specific about the cultural effect found

that cultural differences were „marginally significant‟ when it comes to variability in preference for active experimentation over reflective observation, something which was rather affected by age and area of specialization, while culture had a significant effect on the choice between abstract learning style and reflective learning style (Joy & Kolb, 2009)

A research study conducted by Reid (1987) indicates that Korean students were the most visual in their learning style preferences while Arabic and Chinese language learners expressed a strong preference for auditory learning Hyland‟s (1993) Japanese learners favored auditory and tactile styles In a study conducted by Rossi-Le (1995), Spanish speakers expressed a strong learning style preference for auditory learning, whereas Vietnamese learners preferred visual learning (cited in Griffiths, 2008) Reid (1987) conducted a study to investigate 152 English as a second language students‟ learning style preferences with respect to their gender and grade level In his study, he used the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire which he prepared to collect the necessary data The data collected using the questionnaire revealed significant differences between learning styles and gender The findings of the study demonstrated that male students scored higher for visual and tactile learning style preferences than female students Also, the results showed that graduate students had higher scores for visual and tactile learning style preferences than undergraduates Moreover, graduate students had higher score than undergraduates for auditory learning style preference In another study, Lim (1995) explored secondary school students‟ learning styles using Kolb Learning Style Inventory 173 secondary school students participated in the study The study showed that most of the students were assimilators and divergers

Literature on learning styles contains many studies that aimed to investigate the relationship between learning styles and gender However, the findings of these studies revealed contradictory results Logan and Thomas (2002) conducted a study to find out the learning styles of distance education students at university level The Honey and Mumford‟s learning style questionnaire and Grasha and Reichmann Learning Style Scale were used to determine Open University‟s distance education students‟ learning styles in relation to their gender According to the results of Honey and Mumford‟s learning style questionnaire there were significant differences between students‟ learning styles and their gender According to the data gathered, female students had more pragmatic, theorist and reflector styles than males However, the result of the Grasha and

Reichmann Learning Style Scale showed no significant difference between students‟ learning styles and their gender

In a similar study, Kumar, Kumar and Smart (2004) conducted a study on 65 students who were enrolled at two medium-sized mid-western universities In their study they used Grasha and Reichmann Learning Style Scale as a data collection tool According

to the results, the students‟ learning style preferences were identified as participant, dependent and collaborative

In a later study, Uzuntiryaki (2007) investigated high school students‟ learning styles

by using Grasha and Reichmann Learning Style Scale 265 tenth grade high school students participated in this study The result of the study showed that students had participant, dependent and collaborative styles

Dunn (1978) as cited by De Porter and Hernacki (1999:110) concludes that there are many factors that influence learning style, like physical factor, emotional factor, sociological factor, and environmental factor For instance, students can study at their best with a brighter light or the others may only be able to study in crowded places Kolb (1984) mentions that ''learning style is based on a process in which knowledge is constructed through the transformation of experience It means the knowledge occurs due

to the combination based on the experience of the person and the way this is transformed to have a good learning process Gardner (1993) agree that learning styles is the “composite

of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment” In the same way Stewart and Felicetti (1992) contribute that learning styles are those “educational conditions under which a student is most likely to learn” (p.15) It means that people‟s learning styles partly determine their success in their learning process

It could be visual, auditory, reading or kinaesthetic Thus, learning styles are not really concerned with what learners learn, but rather how they prefer to learn Additionally, in foreign language education, teachers use different strategies to help students to reach their learning styles so that they can achieve better language performance during their study

2.5 Learning styles and academic achievement

Academic achievement is defined by Ahmad et al (2011:266) as a measure of the success of a student Academic performance or achievement is related to the knowledge

and skills developed by a student in various courses The level of academic achievement or success is measured using tests, assignments and final examination results and is dependent on the standards put in place by the educational institution (Garner-O‟Neale & Harrison 2013:108) Academic achievers or high performers do exhibit certain characteristics such as appropriate learning strategies and comfortable learning styles

A considerable number of studies have investigated the relationship between learning styles and students‟ academic achievement Many of them have found significant relationships between the learning styles and students‟ academic achievement (Kopsovich,

2001; Gokalp, 2013; Jilardi et.al, 2011) Many other studies show that matching teaching

styles to learning styles can significantly enhance academic achievement of students at the primary and secondary level (Smith & Renzulli 1984) Dedicated teachers have made attempts to enhance their students‟ academic achievements in many ways One of these ways according to Abidin (2011) is to identify each student‟s learning style to determine strengths for academic achievement In a study of Castro and Peck (2005) on learning styles and learning difficulties of foreign language students, they claimed that the preferred learning style of the student can be a help or a hindrance in the success of the student in the foreign language classroom Abidin et al (2011) implied that the students in their study possessed multiple learning styles or a combination of different learning styles, thus, they can learn effectively They indicated that learning styles make an impact on the students‟

overall achievement Dunn et al (1995) argued that students who were taught by an

approach compatible with their learning style did better than those whose learning styles were not matched with the teaching methodologies

A student‟s style of learning, if accommodated, can result in improved attitudes toward learning and an increase in thinking skills, academic achievement, and creativity (Irvine & York, 1995) Some past research on learning styles attempted to categorize learners by ability has produced some convincing results For example, Kolb (1984) identified four learning styles (i.e accommodation, assimilation, converging, and diverging) and four learning modes (i.e concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation) (Kolb, 1984) Dunn and Dunn (1978) developed a comprehensive model dealing with environmental, emotional, sociological, physical, and psychological learning style elements and concluded that these elements could provide information directly related to teaching strategies and academic

achievement Rajshree (2013) conducted a study with 200 students of 9th, 10th and 11thclasses at Maharashtra state school The findings of the study reveal that, kinesthetic learning style was found to be more prevalent than visual and auditory learning styles among secondary school students There exists positive high correlation between kinesthetic learning style and academic achievement The main effects of the three variables - visual, auditory, and kinesthetic are significant on academic achievement Most researchers in the field of learning styles agree that enabling learners to reflect

on how they learn best helps to develop their meta-cognition: fostering meta-cognition is perhaps the most important advantage that can be claimed for applying learning style theory to teaching and learning which in turn develop effective learners who can handle challenges in a learning context and excel in examinations Learning style consideration in learning is therefore an approach that is directed at meta-learning, similar to setting goals, choosing appropriate strategies and monitoring progress which are more effective ways of improving learning outcomes and achievement than those which simply aim to engage learners at the level of presenting information or understanding and use (Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996)

2.6 Reading strategies and reading comprehension

Reading strategies have been defined differently by different researchers Anderson (1999) defined reading strategies as “deliberate actions that learners select and control to

achieve desired goal or objectives.” According to Paris et al (1983:293), reading strategies

are "skills under consideration" which closely depend on specific reading contexts as well

as readers' awareness, control and intention A strategic reader is described to have three sources of knowledge: declarative knowledge (what the strategies are), procedural knowledge (how to use the strategies), and conditional knowledge (when and why to use the strategies) Block (1986:465) suggested that reading strategies indicate "how readers conceive a task, what textual cues they attend to, how they make sense of what they read, and what they do when they do not understand" Barnett (1988) defined reading strategies

as the mental operations conducted by readers when they purposely read a text for comprehension Oxford and Crookall (1989) explained reading strategies as learning techniques, behaviors, problem-solving skills, or study skills that can lead learners to more effective and efficient learning

There have been many attempts in finding the relationship between reading strategies and language proficiency However, the results were different because of different subjects and different academic settings Kate Tzu-Ching Chen and Sabina Chia Li Chen (2015) conducted a study about the use of reading strategies among high school students in Taiwan The findings were that students preferred global reading strategies, followed by problem-solving strategies and support strategies Another study by Ngan Mai Hoang (2015) at Northumbria University- UK investigated the relationship between reading strategies use and reading proficiency of Vietnamese students in the United Kingdom The focus of the study was on the correlation between reading strategy use and reading competence, as well as the differences between higher-proficiency readers and lower proficiency readers in terms of strategy utilization The results show that Vietnamese student were medium strategy users, and there was no statistically significant association between overall strategy use and reading comprehension Poole (2005) used the Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) to explore the reading strategies of 248 university ESL students from the Midwest and South of the United States The results revealed that problem-solving strategies were used with high frequency, while global and support strategies were used with medium frequency Gorsuch and Taguchi (2008) found that Vietnamese college EFL students mostly used bottom-up, top-down, and cognitive strategies to assist comprehension in repeated reading sessions Karbalaei (2010) compared reading strategy use in Iranian EFL and Indian ESL college students They found that Indian ESL students used mostly global and support strategies, as well as metacognitive reading strategies, while Iranian EFL students used mostly problem-solving reading strategies

2.7 Reading strategies and academic achievement

In order to help the students to comprehend the text, reading strategy is really helpful Researchers (O‟malley & Chamot, 1990) believe that using strategies well can foster and lead to students‟ autonomous learning, especially for students who perform less well on academic fields Caverly, Nicholson, and Radcliffe (2004) indicate that developmental students showed significant improvement in a teacher-made reading comprehension test and a standardized reading test, as well as a significant growth was found using cognitive, metacognitive, and affective strategies in their study

Rubin (1987, p 19) describes reading strategies as "sets of operations, steps, plans,

or routines used by the learners to facilitate obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of

information" These specific operations that are often intentionally taken up by learners, make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations They also help students enhance their own learning,

be more autonomous in their learning, and improve their progress in developing second language skills

According to Long & Crookes (1992, p 42) formal instruction on strategies has a positive effect on students' use of strategies and improves the rate of learning However, strategies should be contextualized for the purpose of the formal training Decontextualized teaching of individual strategies for a short time will not a have long term effect on students nor will it help them to develop as strategic readers Strategy use develops over a long term, perhaps several years In this regard, Janzen (2002, p.288) introduces the following factors in the formal instruction of strategies to help develop learners into strategic readers:

 Inserting strategies in the content area of students' regular course

 Teaching strategies through direct explanation, teacher modeling, and feedback

 Recycling the strategies over new texts and tasks

Teaching strategies become more useful if it is related to the reading task at hand, if

it fits the particular student's learning style preferences to one degree or another and if students employ the strategy effectively and link it with other relevant strategies (Oxford, 2001b, p 362) Strategies that fulfill these conditions make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations Application of learning strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, or retrieval of the new information The ability to employ strategies during reading, distinguishes good readers from poor ones Good readers use strategies in a systematic way whereas poor ones use them in a random, unconnected, and uncontrolled manner Good readers are also able

to shift between alternative strategies, as needed, so that they can progress in reading as efficiently as possible (Vann & Abraham, 1990) Strategy training can be generally included in academic courses Therefore, bycreating proper situations, students can have opportunities to use, adapt, evaluate, and transfer a strategy to new situations and in reading tasks Besides, providing suitable contexts for strategy instruction can encourage teachers to model reading skills and strategies overtly, facilitating students' performances

of theses abilities However, strategies should be learned in an organized way The organized, reasoned use of learning strategies is more important than the sheer; frequent use of them Successfulapplication of strategies help readers to process a text actively, to monitor their comprehension, and to cormect what they are reading to their own existing knowledgeand to other parts of the text

Reading is the primary source for getting different information It is important for learning as it gives learners independent access to a vast world of information as well as fulfillment and enjoyment (Gunning, 2007:3) For Schmidt, Rozendal & Green (2002:131), the ability to read is a critical component of school success and a strong correlation exists between poor reading ability and school failure Reading is essential for learning and if learners have not properly mastered the skill their potential for success in the learning context is hampered (Bohlman & Pretorius, 2002:205; Martin & Carvalho, 2008:114) The success or failure in reading depends greatly on the strategies used by readers In other words, readers are required to manipulate various tasks to comprehend a written text Johnston (1983) asserts that

Reading comprehension is considered to be a complex behavior which involves conscious and unconscious use of various strategies, including problem-solving strategies,

to build a model of the meaning which the writer is assumed to have intended The model

is constructed using schematic knowledge structures and the various cue systems which the writer has given (e.g., words, syntax macrostructures, social information) to generate hypotheses which are tested using various logical and pragmatic strategies Most of this model must be inferred, since text can never be fully explicit and, in general, very little of

it is explicit because even the appropriate intentional and extensional meanings of words must be inferred from their context (p 17)

Gunderson (2014) provides explanations for the three levels of comprehension: literal-level comprehension requires little more than simple memory work and the remembering of details from the text; inferential-level comprehension involves "readers in thinking about what they've read and coming to conclusions that go beyond the information given in the text"; at critical and evaluative-level comprehension, readers are able to "evaluate whether a text is valid and expresses opinion rather than fact, as well as apply the knowledge gained from the text in other situations" (p.28)

2.8 Reading strategies and learning styles

From a psycholinguistic point of view, the reading process encompasses many activities that start with the first apprehension of printed features by the reader‟s eye to the production of textual comprehension For successful comprehension to occur, the reader extracts and integrates various pieces of information from the text and interprets this information by combining it with his or her background knowledge (Koda, 2005) The interaction between the reader and the text may be described not only in terms of process

or system but also in transactional terms, where the act of reading may be viewed as an event or as a holistic act, as defined by Rosenblatt (1994), in which the cognitive, metacognitive, affective and social dimensions have fused Thus, reading can be thought of

as a highly dynamic and complex process, in which many factors - such as the reader‟s background knowledge, personal factors, strategic processes, task demands and the reading context - influence comprehension (Anderson, 1999; Grabe, 2009; Grabe & Stoller, 2002; Koda, 2005; Wilkinson & Son, 2011) In the field of second/foreign language teaching and learning, many studies have focused on the reading process to understand the differences between successful and less successful readers These studies have advocated that reading strategies - defined as “deliberate and conscious procedures used by readers to enhance text comprehension” (Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001, p 433) are essential to reading comprehension Early second language research generally suggested that successful readers used different strategies than less successful readers (Block, 1986; Carrell, 1989; Hosenfeld, 1984) The studies carried out more recently have shown that, although there are no specific sets of strategies used by successful readers, successful readers use strategies more effectively (Anderson, 1991; Bouvet, 2002) or more frequently (Thampradit, 2006) than less successful readers Furthermore, Sheorey and Mokhtari (2001) have argued that the combination of the awareness of strategic reading processes and the actual utilization of reading strategies distinguishes the skilled from the unskilled readers As stated by Grabe (2009), recent second language reading research asserts that successful readers use a wide range of strategies effectively and that they know how to use combined strategies, depending on their goals, reading tasks, and strategic processing abilities In addition to the actual implementation of reading strategies, the recognition of the critical role of reading strategy awareness in the reading process has also prompted several studies to focus on language learners‟ perceived use of reading strategies and reading ability For example, a number of researchers have found a relationship between

learners‟ perceived use of reading strategies and self-rated reading ability (Alhaqbani & Riazi, 2012; Mónos, 2005; Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001) or reading ability as measured by a reading comprehension test (Barnett, 1988; Madhumathi & Ghosh, 2012; Saeedeh, 2013) The comprehension process involves some factors for getting a good understanding One of the factors is students‟ learning styles in order that the comprehension can occur (Balci, 2017) Ellis (1985) argued that language learners have differences of personality, learning styles, motivation, aptitude and age These differences are assumed to be significant contributors which determine the success or failure in learning English language

One of these differences is learning style Learning style refers to an individual‟s habitual and preferred way of absorbing, processing and retaining new information and skills (Wang, 2007)

Thus, each learning style has its own strengths and weaknesses, so that a person who has to one style is never going to be an ideal learner (Moradkhan & Mirtaheri, 2011) Richard & Platt, (1992) said that learning style is the particular way which used by a learner to learn something or the way to make a person like to learn, where the learner will enjoy and feel comfortable in absorbing the information with their own way Thus, learning style is not really concerned with what the learners learn, but rather how the way that prefers to learn the materials Furthermore, each person has their own best way to learn, governing the best way which they prefer to receive and process the knowledge Some learners may like using visual image or presentation (visual), listening to the music while learning (auditory), or better to learn hands-on activities (kinesthetic) (Barbe & Milone Jr, 1981)

Students who have different learning style preferences would behave differently in the way they perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment It will be important for an educator to know the variations of students' learning styles, because the information about students‟ learning style can help the teachers or lecturers become aware

of the students‟ differences in the classroom (Wang, 2007)

A number of researchers have argued that learning styles are an influencing factor in strategyuse (Cohen, 2003; Ehrman, Leaver, & Oxford, 2003; Ehrman & Oxford, 1990; Li

& Qin,2006) and in reading comprehension (Cesur & Fer, 2011; Jafari & Mahboudi, 2012;Williams, 2010) The findings of these studies suggest that learning styles can be related to

reading strategy use as well (Anderson, 1991) However, only very few empirical studies have been carried out to investigate the relationship between reading strategy use and learning styles(Corbitt, 2013; Díaz & Diez, 2009; Shen, 2010; Tsai, 2012) Díaz and Diez (2009) proposed that pragmatist and reflexive styles influenced the frequency of reading strategy use of Englishlearners at the university level Shen (2010) found that perceptual learning style preferences affected second language lexical inferencing of learners of English in higher education Similarly, Tsai (2012) identified a high correlation between reading strategy use and learning styles of English learners at the university level Corbitt (2013) identified a relationship between perceived global strategy and learning styles in a group of Spanish learners with learning disabilities However, Corbitt‟s study did not reveal any relationship between learning styles and perceived use of strategiesamong the non-at-risk student group

Learning style has a major role in academic achievement (Purnomo, 2009, Saadi,

2012, Tantaa, 2010) Rizky (2013) conducted a research to explore whether there is a significant difference in students‟ English achievement based on their visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles and the result showed that there was a significant difference among students‟ English achievement Gilakjani (2012) analyzes the learning styles of Iranian EFL university students The finding showed that Iranian EFL university students preferred visual learning style, and students with this type of learning style had the greatest academic achievement in their educational major

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the researcher describes the procedures that were followed in conducting the study After identifying the research questions, the researcher determines how the study is going to be planned and conducted, the procedures and techniques to be employed to answer each research question The next step involves selecting the site of interest and the sample of participants Data collection instruments were prepared and delivered to participants following the university guideline After data were collected, they were cleaned and fed into statistical software Quantitative research models were chosen to analyze the data, and finally, the researcher interprets the results of the analysis Each step

is described in more detail in the subsequent sections below

3.1 Research design

Research design refers to the way a study is planned and conducted, the procedures and techniques employed to answer the research problem or question (McMillan & Schumacher, 1984) This study used a descriptive research design In descriptive research design, data collection is carried out in a structured process Kumar (2011) argues that the goal of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics of a selected phenomenon and involves the collection of data without manipulation of variables The study was designed along the lines of a correlation research Gay (1996) described correlation research as that involving the collection of data to determine whether and what degree a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables

Burns and Grove (2003, p.195) define a research design as “a blueprint for conducting a study with maximum control over factors that may interfere with the validity

of the findings” Parahoo (1997, p.142) describes a research design as “a plan that describes how, when and where data are to be collected and analyzed” Since the research design is governed by the notion of „fitness for purpose‟, and the purposes of the research determine the methodology and design of the research Therefore, when conducting research, it is very important to specify the purposes and types of research as well as to design a systematic plan of gathering the data from whom, how and when to collect the data, and how to analyze and interpret the data obtained Cohen et al., (2002) suggest that research purposes and questions should be determined by researchers before setting a research design because of both research purposes and research questions specify the methodology and design of the research

This study used purely quantitative method to gather data from the students According to Hunter, Laura and Leahey (2008), the objective of quantitative method in research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories, and hypotheses on the phenomena Quantitative data was gathered using self-administered semi-structured questionnaires among the students The primary independent variable for the study was preferred learning styles The secondary independent variable was reading strategies The academic reading achievement was dependent variable for the study

Table 3.1 Number and percentage of participants by genders

Figure 3.1 Number and percentage of participants by genders

3.3 Data collection instruments

3.3.1 Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire

The first instrument that was used in the current study was the Perceptual Learning Style Preference Questionnaire (PLSPQ) developed by Reid (1987) It is a self-reporting questionnaire developed based on existing learning style instruments with some changes suggested by non-native speaker The questionnaire, which was designed and validated for non-native speakers, consists of five statements on each of the six learning style preferences to be measured: visual, auditory, kinaesthetic, tactile, group learning, and individual learning The first four categories constitute the perceptual learning style categories and the remaining two make up the social category The participants responded based on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree While answering the statements in the questionnaire the students were asked to decide whether they strongly agree, agree, are undecided, disagree, and strongly disagree and mark the item that best applies to their study of English The participants were also asked to respond

to each statement quickly, without thinking about the statements too much and they were asked not to change their responses after they mark them Reid (1987) stated that the validation of the questionnaire was done by the split half method Correlation analysis of

an original set of 60 statements (10 per learning style) determined which 5 statements should remain within each subset In order to make it to be accurate in the responses to the statements in the survey, the PLSPQ consists of two version; English and Vietnamese translation because most of the participants are Vietnamese

3.3.2 Survey of reading strategies (SORS)

The second data collection instrument that was used in this study was the Survey of reading strategies (SORS) which was a 30-item self-assessment instrument developed by Sheorey and Mokhtari (2002) for measuring “adolescent and adult ESL students‟ metacognitive awareness and perceived use of reading strategies related to reading academic materials” (p 2) (see Appendix B for Survey of Reading Strategies) Its purpose

is to evaluate the frequency of reading strategies and the perceived choices that the readers make SORS items uses a 5-point Likert scale that asks the respondents to evaluate according to their reading strategy choice Students‟ answers varied based on their opinion

at the time of the survey, ranging from 1 to 5 The format of a Likert item in SORS is 1 ("I

never or almost never do this") to 5 ("I always or almost always do this") Students read each SORS statement and circled the number that they thought best described to them when reading a text The highest point of „5‟ represented that they used that strategy a lot

or they knew to use that strategy during their reading The reason for the SORS was picked for this study due to its three broad categories: global reading strategies, problem-solving strategies, and support strategies Global reading strategies consist of 13 items that assess students‟ general abilities of intentional examining and overviewing the text Problem solving strategies with 8 items focus on strategies that mend comprehension when encountering a difficult text And last, the SORS uses the support strategies that contain 9 items which help the reader in grasping the text with back up support such as underlining, taking notes, or using a dictionary in order to measure the basic support mechanism (Mokhatri & Sheorey, 2002, p 4)

The SORS involves three categories as mentioned before To investigate the frequency of use for each content, mean, median and standard deviation were exploited for global, problem solving and support strategies To find the mean of each strategy, the researcher added all the numbers that participants circled for each statement (1, 2, 3, 4, or 5) Next, the researcher divided the subscale score by the number of statements in each category for each subcategory Sheorey and Mokhtari (2002) used three different levels (high, medium, and low) of means to determine the frequency of metacognitive reading strategy use in their research Based on Sheorey and Moktari‟s (2002) work, the researcher determined the means for interpreting the score averages received by students According

to this, high scores are considered 3.5 or higher, mediums are 2.5 to 3.4, and low scorers score 2.4 or lower The overall average for each category in the SORS questionnaire represents which group of strategies is used most or least

In addition to SORS and PLSPQ, for more in-depth data analysis, a student demographic background questionnaire was added This elicited information about participants‟ gender, age, nationality, native language, how well they think they read in English, how long they have been studying English, how many hours per day they read in English and in their native language outside of classroom Additionally, participants were assured that all the data that the researcher collected would be kept confidential Furthermore, the researcher explained the participants that the subjects had a right to withdraw whenever they felt uncomfortable