An investigation into learing autonomy in engliah vocabulary learning among grade 12 students

Relationship between learner autonomy and students‘ uses of vocabulary learning strategies .... The linear relationship between learner autonomy and students‘ use of vocabulary learning

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

DO THI NU

AN INVESTIGATION INTO LEARNING AUTONOMY

IN ENGLISH VOCABULARY LEARNING

AMONG GRADE 12 STUDENTS

M.A THESIS Field: English Linguistics

Code: 8220201

THAI NGUYEN – 2020

ĐẠI HỌC THÁI NGUYÊN

TRƯỜNG NGOẠI NGỮ

ĐỖ THỊ NỤ

NGHIÊN CỨU NĂNG LỰC TỰ HỌC TỪ VỰNG

TIẾNG ANH CỦA HỌC SINH LỚP 12

LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ Ngành: Ngôn ngữ Anh

Mã số: 8220201

THÁI NGUYÊN - 2020

DECLARATION

I declare that this research report entitled ―An investigation into learning

autonomy in English vocabulary learning among grade 12 students‖ has been

composed by myself, and described my own work, unless otherwise acknowledged

in the text I confirm that this work is submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of master at School of Foreign Languages, Thai Nguyen

University This work has not been and will not submitted for any other degree at

any other institution of higher education

I would like to sincerely thank the anonymous participants who contributed data to this study Without their outstanding cooperation, this thesis would not have been completed

My appreciation is also extended to a number of staff members of Ly Nam

De high school for their assistance is statistical issues and for their assistance in editing work

I would like to thank my family, especially my parents and my husband for their constant source of love, support and encouragement in times of difficulty and frustration

Finally, I would like to thank my readers for their interests and comments on this thesis

While I am deeply indebted to all these people for their help to the completion of this thesis, I myself remain responsible for any inadequacies that are found in this work

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF TABLES v

LIST OF FIGURES vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii

ABSTRACT viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Statements of the problems and aims of the study 3

1.3 Scope of the study 4

1.4 Significance of study 4

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Learning autonomy 5

2.1.1 Learner autonomy in language learning 7

2.1.2 Learner autonomy 8

2.1.3 Level of learning autonomy 9

2.1.4 Characteristics of autonomous language learners 13

2.2 Factors affecting learner autonomy 13

2.2.1 The Role of Learner Themselves 13

2.2.2 The Role of Teachers 14

2.2.3 Learner motivation and attitude 15

2.2.4 Self-regulation 15

2.2.5 Self-efficacy 15

2.2.6 Self-determination 16

2.3 Vocabulary learning strategies 16

2.3.1 Language learning strategies 17

2.3.2 Classification of vocabulary learning strategies 18

2.4 Previous Studies 25

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 29

3.1 Research Design 29

3.2 Subjects and locale of the study 29

3.3 Research Instruments 29

3.3.1 Checklist: Learner‘s Autonomy Questionnaire (LAQ) 30

3.3.2 Questionnaire: Vocabulary Learning Strategies Questionnaire (VLSQ) 30

3.4 Data Gathering Procedure 31

3.5 Data analytical method 31

CHAPTER 4: PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION, AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 33

4.1 Demographic information of the participants 33

4.2 The use of students‘ vocabulary learning strategies 34

4.2.1 General Vocabulary learning strategies by participants 34

4.2.2 Specific Vocabulary learning strategies by participants 35

4.3 Levels of learner autonomy 42

4.4 Relationship between learner autonomy and students‘ uses of vocabulary learning strategies 47

4.4.1 The results of determining the form, direction and degree of correlation on a graph and by regression analysis 47

4.4.2 The results of determining the relationship between the students‘ uses of VLS and their levels of learning autonomy with Paired Samples T-test 51

4.4.3 Summary 52

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 54

5.1 Summary of findings 54

5.2 Conclusion 55

5.3 Recommendations 56

5.4 Limitations of the study and suggestions for further research: 57

REFERENCES 58

APPENDIX 1 62

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Students' background information 33

Table 4.2: General Vocabulary learning strategies by participants 34

Table 4.3: Memory strategies employed by participants 35

Table 4.4 Determination strategies employed by participants: 37

Table 4.5: Social strategies employed by participants 38

Table 4.6: Cognitive strategies employed by participants 39

Table 4.7: Metacognitive Strategies employed by participants 40

Table 4.8: Learner autonomy checklist 43

Table 4.9: The results of regression of analyses between the students‘ learning autonomy and their uses of vocabulary learning strategies 49

Table 4.10: Model Summary 49

Table 4.11: Coefficient size in the pattern 50

Table 4.12 Mean and SD of the scores of the two variables Paired Samples Statistics 51

Table 4.13: The correlation between students' uses of Vocab learning strategies and Levels of learners' autonomy 51

Table 4.14: The Paired Samples Test Analysis of the scores between 2 variables 52

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1 Distribution of the use of vocabulary learning strategies 42 Figure 4.2 Distribution of students‘ levels of learning autonomy 46 Figure 4.3 The linear relationship between learner autonomy and students‘

use of vocabulary learning strategies 48

English as a Foreign Language

Ly Nam De high school

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to improve students‘ uses of vocabulary learning strategies and levels of learner autonomy by determining the relationship between them To be more specific, the researcher firstly aimed at exploring students‘ levels

of learning autonomy, finding out students‘ vocabulary learning strategies and finally figuring out the relationship between learning autonomy and students‘ use of vocabulary learning strategies

The study employed the correlational research design A total of 145 students

of grade 12 at Ly Nam De High School of Thai Nguyen province participated in the study by giving their evaluation of their learning autonomy and VLS through two different instruments of a questionnaire and a checklist

Results of the study revealed that vocabulary learning strategies were used at medium level of frequency by grade 12 students In addition, the levels of learning autonomy by these participants was also measured at medium level Significantly, there was a linear, positive and rather strong correlation between students‘ uses of vocabulary learning strategies and their levels of learning autonomy

The findings of the study have proposed some implications for administrators, other researchers, English educators and students on the need to enhance students‘ learning autonomy in order to improve English vocabulary in particular and English language teaching and learning in general in Vietnam

CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale

English has gained its predominant role in the foreign language teaching program at tertiary level in Vietnam for the last few decades (Hoang Van Van, 2008) After Vietnam opened its door to reintegrate to the world in 1986, under the impact of globalisation and internationalisation in higher education, the need to enhance English language teaching and learning has become one of the most important aims of the higher education reform process in Vietnam With the Higher Education Reform Agenda (HERA)1 , Vietnamese government aims to ‗formulate a strategy on international integration, raise the cooperation capacity and

competitiveness of Vietnamese tertiary education‘ (p 7)

Vocabulary is an important sub-field of language learning, with which learners are able to use four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing (Nation, 2001; Richards & Renandya, 2002; Schmitt, 2010) This importance is recognized regardless of L1, L2, or EFL learning (Decarrico, 2001) However, learning words is an incremental process involving a variety of sub-processes One process is primarily concerned with lexical entry, i.e., the enrichment, refinement of lexical information, which many EFL tertiary-level learners lack (Nan, 2004) In other words, with a limited vocabulary size, it is very difficult for learners to effectively engage in an intensive or extensive reading course Accordingly, they need an effective way to improve their vocabulary size Concerning vocabulary acquisition, there are mainly two approaches: incidental learning and intentional learning (Schmitt, 2000, 2008; Teng, 2014a) In some studies, for example, Paribakht & Wesche (1993, 1997) fully supported the idea that intentional vocabulary learning yielded a better result than incidental vocabulary learning However, when considering the limited classroom time for intentional and explicit teaching of every word, many researchers have resorted to incidental vocabulary learning Incidental learning, which is learned in an implicit way, is a

―by-product‖ of any teaching activity (Hulstijn, 2001, p.266) When learners try to

understand the embedded meaning of the context, then the acquisition of words occurs subconsciously (Paribakht & Wesche, 1999) Many studies have been conducted on the effects of extensive reading on incidental vocabulary learning (Day, Omura, & Hiramatsu, 1992; Horst, 2005; Teng, 2015; Webb, 2008) However, incidental vocabulary gain is very limited Therefore, other factors that affect vocabulary learning have been suggested; for example, topic familiarity, time spent on learning, level of intake, and strategies (Nation, 2008; Pulido, 2004) The present study investigated how EFL learners perceive out-of-class autonomous vocabulary learning strategies, and reported some suggestions on how to encourage

learner autonomy with the support of teachers

Language learning and teaching methods have seen many innovations from grammar-translation which focuses on form to communicative language teaching (CLT) which focuses on meaning The basic principles of CLT emphasize the roles

of learners which have been shifted from passively received information from teachers to actively find the information from peers, other sources for their deep understanding In order to be benefited from resources available, learners should become 'self-instruction', 'self-access', 'self-study', 'self-education' learners In other words, 'the autonomous learner' is what a student should become (Richards, 2006) since learner autonomy is believed to produce positive outcomes to develop life-long learners

One of the aspects of language learning that has the greatest potential for adopting learner autonomy is vocabulary (McCathy, 1990) However, Wenden (1991) stress that being aware of different learning strategies also help language learners become more efficient autonomous learners and users Therefore, it is essential to determine whether there is a relationship between learning strategies and learner autonomy to better students‘ learning outcomes in vocabulary or not

Vocabulary learning is incredibly noteworthy to English language acquisition It is unfeasible for a learner to communicate without the required vocabulary In high education levels, learners are habitually forced to become autonomous and make conscious effort to learn vocabulary outside of the

classroom Consequently, the autonomy of the learners plays an important role in developing and enhancing their vocabulary Learner autonomy is a huge assistance for learners in vocabulary learning since it provides the learners with numerous diverse privileges such as independency from teacher The researcher investigated whether there is any statistically significant relationship between learner autonomy and vocabulary learning strategies use in Ly Nam De‘students with different language proficiency levels To meet the above purpose, a total number of 145 male and female grade 12th participated in this study The methodology underlying this study was quantitative (through the administration of questionnaires and a checklist) The quantitative data were analyzed using a set of correlational analysis revealing a significant positive correlation between learner autonomy and vocabulary learning strategies

This study attempted to examine the relationship between students‘ levels of learning autonomy and their uses of vocabulary learning strategies by grade 12 students at Ly Nam De High School, Thai Nguyen province

1.2 Statements of the problems and aims of the study

The aim of this study was to improve the use of vocabulary learning strategies and learner autonomy by determining the relationship between them

To be more specific, the researcher firstly aimed at exploring students‘ levels

of learning autonomy, finding out students‘ vocabulary learning strategies and finally figuring out the relationship between learning autonomy and students‘ uses

of vocabulary learning strategies

With the above-mentioned aims, the study tries to answer the following research questions:

1 What are the students' uses of vocabulary learning strategies?

2 What are the students' levels of learning autonomy?

3 What is the relationship between the students' levels of learning autonomy and students’ uses of vocabulary learning strategies?

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were tested for correlations:

* Null hypothesis: There is no relationship between the students‘ uses of VLSs and the learner autonomy

* Alternative hypothesis: There is a relationship between the students‘ uses

of VLSs and the learner autonomy

1.3 Scope of the study

The study was carried out at Ly Nam De High School where the researcher has been working for years as a teacher of English It is a newly established high school located in Pho Yen town, Thai Nguyen province with 24 classes and 947 students from grades 10 to 12

This study involved 145 students in grade 12 who joined to answer a checklist on learning autonomy and vocabulary strategies questionnaire

c) to 12th grade students at Ly Nam De high school, the research is hoped to make them more interested and motivated to learn vocabulary as well as learn English well

d) to other researchers, the research can give general knowledge of how to extend students‘ English vocabulary and as the foundation for the next research

CHAPTER 2:

LITERATURE REVIEW

This part presents the theories of learning autonomy and learner autonomy, factors affecting learner autonomy language learning strategies in general and vocabulary learning strategies in particular and some related studies on relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and learning autonomy The key ideas to be discussed are about the effect of LLSs and learner autonomy on successful language learning which have been managed so far

In formal educational contexts, the basis of learner autonomy is acceptance

of responsibility for one's own learning; the development of learners autonomy depends on the exercise of that responsibility in a never-ending effort to understand what one is learning, why one is learning, how one is learning, and with what degree of success; and the effect of learner autonomy is to remove the barriers that

so easily erect themselves between formal learning and the wider environment in which the learner lives

Autonomous learning is more effective than non-autonomous learning In other words, the development of autonomy implies better language learning This is one of the three hypotheses which almost all research in the field of autonomy is based on, and has implications for (Benson, 2001, p 183) As Benson (2001, p 189) stated, many advocates for autonomy are concerned primarily with the ability

to learn effectively in terms of personal goals Although autonomy may ultimately lead to greater proficiency in language use, whether autonomous learners learn more than non-autonomous learner is a secondary issue In recent years, however,

the contribution of practices associated with autonomy to language proficiency has become a critical issue for two reasons One reason is that researchers are increasingly beginning to understand that there is an intimate relationship between autonomy and effective learning However, to date this relationship has largely been explored at the level of theory, and lacks substantial empirical support Another reason is that world-wide concern with accountability in education is increasingly obliging teachers to demonstrate the effectiveness of their practices in terms of proficiency gains If researchers can show that practices aiming at greater autonomy also lead to greater proficiency, in whatever terms this is measured, their arguments will be strengthened For both practical and theoretical reasons, therefore, there is a pressing need for empirical research on the relationship between the development of autonomy and the acquisition of language proficiency The hypothesis that practices intended to foster autonomy lead to better language learning can be demonstrated empirically at two levels One level is that research can attempt to show that a particular form of practice associated with autonomy produces gains in proficiency that are equal to or greater than other forms of practice Another level is that research can attempt to describe the ways in which proficiency develops as a result

of the distinctive qualities of practices designed to promote autonomy Comments made on the design of action research projects focusing on gains in autonomy apply equally to research on proficiency gains However, research on proficiency gains faces two additional problems The first concerns the selection of relevant measures

of proficiency The second problems concerns the life cycle of programmes aiming

to foster autonomy (Benson, 2001, p 191) Research that is able to document changes in the quality of learning in such programmes will contribute a great deal to our understanding of the relationship between the development of autonomy and the development of proficiency To date, however, only a few researchers explored the relationship between learner autonomy and language proficiency (Ablard and Lipschultz, 1998; Corno and Mandinach, 1983; Risenberg and Zimmerman, 1992; Zhang and Li, 2004) Corno and Mandinach (1983, p 89) initially proposed that learner autonomy could help to improve the language proficiency of learners and

concluded that autonomous learners were the learners of high language proficiency Ablard and Lipschultz (1998, p 97) also found out that different high-achievement students applied different autonomous strategies Risenberg and Zimmerman (1992,

p 120) further pointed out that a high degree of learner autonomy among the achieving students would achieve high scores and the learner with low degrees of learner autonomy was likely to risk achieving the low scores if learner autonomy could augment the academic scores Zhang and Li (2004, p.21) concluded that learner autonomy was closely related with the language levels and its Pearson Coefficient amounted to 0.6088 based on the comparison between the subjects in China and Europe

high-2.1.1 Learner autonomy in language learning

Benson (2008) highlights the importance of learning about the perspectives held by teachers and learners on learner autonomy Moreover, he emphasizes that learners and teachers do not necessarily share the same perspectives Teachers, Benson argues, focus more on the institutional aspect of learner autonomy with classroom arrangements in place and the students taking charge of the responsibilities determined and established therein The learners, on the other hand, hold a broader view of learner autonomy To learners, autonomy is concerned with their lives beyond their classrooms

The three basic pedagogical principles which underlines autonomy in language learning is learner involvement (engaging learners to share responsibility for the learning process), learner reflection (helping learners to think critically when they plan, monitor and evaluate their learning) and appropriate use of target language (using target of language as the principal medium of language learning) Holec (1981), Allwright (1990) and Little (1991) theorize that autonomous learners can be seen as those who are able to reflect on their own learning through knowledge about learning and who are willing to learn in collaboration with others These learners understand the purpose of their learning program, explicitly accept responsibility for their learning, share in the setting of learning goals, take initiatives in planning and executing learning activities, and regularly review their

learning and evaluate its effectiveness In other words, there is a consensus that the practice of learner autonomy requires insight, a positive attitude, a capacity for reflection, and a readiness to be proactive in self-management and in interaction with others

2.1.2 Learner autonomy

Learner autonomy has been identified as a complicated capacity that potentially has a great impact on personal growth and achievement Different mediated attributes associated with situational, psychological, cultural and political aspects of this construct have been developed and examined to facilitate the promotion of this educational goal Taking this into account, this paper adopts socio-cultural perspective to localize the situation of EFL learning in higher education in Vietnam Personal reflections and part of the data generated from a large-scale project are extracted to illustrate a dilemma of the context where learner autonomy can be either fostered or hindered deliberately within various

community constraints

In about twenty years after the Second World War, autonomy, self-direction, and self-access that all refer to the sameconcept entered into the field of education and went under analyses and researches, and as the time passed, it becamemore and more familiar in the field of education (Gremmo & Riley, 1995) Since 1980s, autonomy in language learninghas been a subject of prevalent debate.According to Littlewood (1999), definitions of autonomy have varied, but they have typically included these vital features

- Students should take responsibility for their own learning

- Taking responsibility‘ involves learners in taking ownership (partial or total) of many processes which have traditionally belonged to the teacher, such as deciding on learning objectives, selecting learning methods and evaluating progress

Little (2007, p.26) defines learner autonomy as "Learner autonomy is the product of an interactive process in which theteacher gradually enlarges the scope

of her learners‘ autonomy by gradually allowing them to take more control of the process and content of their learning‖ Littlewood (1996) believed that the

influencing goal of teaching is to produce learners that can act and think more independently, i.e more autonomously, and a strategy for developing autonomy is the main target of language teaching As Scharle and Szabo (2000) pointed out, we

do not consider of conscientious learners as role models (or teacher‘spets), but as learners who admit the idea that their own endeavor are significant to develop in learning, and behave accordingly Consequently, when doing their homework or answering a question in class, they are not trying to satisfy the tutor, or to get a

good mark They are basically making an attempt in order to learn something

While it is not known when the term ‗learner autonomy‘ was first used as pedagogy, it appeared officially for the first time in second language education in the Council of Europe Modern Languages Project in 1979 by Holec This led to the publication of Holec‘s (1981: 3) seminal report, in which he defined learner autonomy as ―the ability to take charge of one‘s own learning‖ In this definition, Holec treated learner autonomy as an attribute of the learner Following this, various other definitions of learner autonomy have been used For example, Wenden (1999) indicated the importance of metacognitive awareness when she claimed that true learner autonomy refers to how students reflect on their learning and how they are able to realize when they have effective learning opportunities In another example, Littlewoods (1996: 427) took the notion of autonomy as

―learners‖ ability and willingness to make choices independently‖ He argued that

―this capacity depends on two main components: ability and willingness‖ (p 428) These two abilities are interdependent and are divided into subcomponents of knowledge about the alternative choices and skills available for carrying out appropriate choices Willingness depends on the motivation and confidence a person has in order to take responsibility for necessary choices In order to become autonomous successfully, a person needs to have the four subcomponents of knowledge, skills, motivation, and confidence Littlewoods (1996) also suggested that these components be focused in the development of learner autonomy

2.1.3 Level of learning autonomy

Littlewood (1999) highlights the interpersonal environment which facilitates LA through the provision of help and resources, personal concern,

involvement of others, opportunities for making choice, and freedom from being controlled by external agents He distinguishes two levels of autonomy: proactive and reactive autonomy The former refers to situations where learners are able to take charge of their own learning by setting up their personal agendas and directions, and evaluating progress in the learning process The latter is considered

a preliminary step towards the former Reactive autonomy encourages learners to learn without being forced Although learners do not create their own directions, when a direction has been set up by teachers or the curriculum, reactive autonomy enables them to autonomously organise their resources to achieve their objectives and goals Collaborative and cooperative learning strategies by Flannery (1994) are used by Littlewood (1999) to manifest distinctions between proactive and reactive levels of LA Central to collaborative learning strategies is learners having a greater degree of choice and judgment about what and how they should learn, and they themselves set the agenda for their learning Employing cooperative learning strategies, learners work independently on tasks but rely on the teacher for setting up the agenda for learning Littlewood (2002) believes that

in order to move from reactive autonomy to proactive autonomy, there should be a shift from cooperative learning which is controlled by teachers or the syllabus to collaborative learning which is based on learner-directed activities where they select the content and methods of their learning He followed Ribe and Vidal (cited in Littlewood, 2002, p 35) to construct his framework for LA developmental process At the starting point, collaborative tasks are intended to build up learners ‟ communicative ability through the application of CLT The next step is to increase 35 both communication skills and cognitive strategies to process information These cognitive strategies include activities aimed to enhance learners ‟ problem solving and analysing skills necessary for the task completion The purpose of the third stage is to develop students ‟ personal and interpersonal skills by learning and using the target language Collaborative learning, therefore,

is at the heart of proactive autonomy

Engaging learners in communication-oriented activities is only the first step

in the LA development process It is where the principles of CLT and LA overlap

The aims of the next two stages could be considered the silient features of LA which have recently made LA more popular than CLT The three stages of the process move learners to higher levels of autonomy Hence, LA could be regarded

as an umbrella covering CLT As far as autonomy in Asia is concerned, Littlewood (1996b) makes the following comments: Asian learners have a high level of reactive autonomy because they follow authority to a high degree Asian learners manifest a high level of proactive autonomy when they work with peers due to their group-oriented nature Their proactive autonomy becomes weak when they perform in public or status-dominated domains such as school or family the control and authority of schools hinder Asian learners from shifting from reactive to proactive autonomy As a result, they demonstrate proactive autonomy in the private rather than in the public domain It is argued that the process described in Table 2.2 would

be a useful tool for autonomy practitioners in the Asian context for many reasons

To begin with, as Benson (2002) and Little (1991) argue, the development of LA is

a long-term and incremental process For Asian learners, the initial goal is to develop reactive autonomy and then step by step they will move to the proactive level This long-term process would be more effective in the Asian context because learners need to see the practical values of LA in order to pursue it as a legitimate goal of education, and to develop a positive attitude towards it Also, for those learners who are made aware of LA and exercise it for the first time, they would need to see the positive changes brought about by autonomy-driven activities before they would make further steps towards LA Another reason for this process to be accepted and used in the Asian context is that a steady, rather than a hasty shift away from dependence on the teacher would work better No matter what kind of learners they are, whether they are those who would like to explore knowledge for themselves, or those who prefer to be guided by their teachers, they need more time

to build their confidence and to learn how to make decisions by themselves in the learning process To summarise, learners going through various stages in the LA development process will achieve different levels of autonomy

Levels of control in LA Benson (2001) argues that autonomy should be described in terms of observable behaviours He explains three interdependent levels of control including learning management, cognitive management, and learning content Control over learning management is associated with behaviours that learners employ to plan, to organise, and to evaluate their learning First of all, control over learning manifests itself in the learners "ability to plan their learning Secondly, learners should be able to use different learning strategies in the learning process There are cognitive, metacognitive, social, and affective strategies Benson (2001) believes that metacognitive, social, and affective strategies are more closely related to 37 autonomy They reflect the thinking about, the planning, the monitoring, and the evaluating of the learning process in the form of observable behaviours Control over cognitive process is concerned with the psychology of learning including directing attention, reflection on the learning process, and building metacognitive knowledge Benson (2001) argues that reflection is a distinctive characteristic of autonomy Reflection has both individual and social dimensions It is also a mental process in which learners demonstrate their understanding and interpretation of their rational thoughts, emotions, judgment, and beliefs at a deeper level It is regarded as a tool to help learners gain better understanding of language structure, thus contributing to their autonomy as language users Conscious reflection on the learning process, the existing beliefs, and the practices also yields autonomy as language learners Control over learning content is identified as a third level of control It is broadly accepted by researchers

in the LA field that learners should, and have the right to, choose and make decisions on what they would like to learn This involves both determining the contexts of experience where learning takes place and deciding the linguistic content to be learned Also, control over the learning content should enable learners

to engage in social interactions in order to make decisions on what to learn and on the contexts in which to implement those decisions The interactions may be made through negotiation of learning goals and tasks with teachers and other authorities who have a voice in the negotiation of the curriculum It is also vital that both

teachers and authorities create situational contexts where learners are rewarded and encouraged to exercise freedom of learning In this respect, autonomy involves the social and political aspects of learning

2.1.4 Characteristics of autonomous language learners

This part talks about some proposals of scholars on characteristics of autonomous language learners

Holec (cited in Hsu, 2005) expressed that to be an autonomous learner is to be the manager of his or her own learning processes This is further developed by Nunan (1997:193) as the ability ―to hold the responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of this learning, i.e.: determining the objectives; defining the contents and progressions; selecting methods and techniques to be used; monitoring the procedure of acquisition properly speaking; and evaluating what has been acquired‖ Therefore, in Holec‘s opinion, autonomous learners are the ones who have ability to find out the goals, contents and progressions; choose and use methods and techniques to gain those goals, contents and progressions; choose and use methods and techniques to gain those objectives; and assess what has been acquired

In addition, Littlewoods (1997) stated that motivation and confidence constitute willingness, whereas knowledge and skills are the bases for ability and autonomy is possible only to the extent that students hold both the willingness and the ability to act independently bases on the level of their knowledge and skills

From these discussions, there are similar points about the features of autonomous language learners among them

2.2 Factors affecting learner autonomy

The results of the previous researchers showed that factors were influenced

by learners autonomy such as learners themselves, teachers, motivation and attitude

Self-regulation, Self-efficacy, Self-determination

2.2.1 The Role of Learner Themselves

There are some factors may influence learners to be autonomous learners One of them is the past experience of the learners Higgs (1998) states that past educational experiences influences the autonomous learners Additionally, Candy

(1988) says that their past experience will lead them to be better in learning, because they can learn from the past Another factor is the psychological variable

As stated by Benson that the autonomous learners learn languages and the outcome

of their learning are influenced by a variety of individual psychological variable He also says that learners tend to exercise control over psychological factors that influence their learning, especially those which concern on motivation, affective state and beliefs or preferences

Additionally, Yoen Pan (1997) in her research defines that there are three psychological factors influence learners to be autonomous, those are (1) desire, it is

an innate tendency, and left to themselves, people pursue learning; (2) ability, to be

an autonomous, they need to develop an inquiry and that will prompt them to question and search which enable them to adapt and apply the knowledge they require; (3) needs

2.2.2 The Role of Teachers

In developing learner autonomy, the teacher-student relationship is crucial The trust and cooperation between the teacher and the students makes the students feel comfortable and secure in the classroom The distance between the teacher and the students is shortened through face-to-face talks During the intervals, the teacher and the students chat freely just as good friends do Teachers play an important role

in helping students to learn about the process involved in learning This process creates supportive and simulating learning achievements which helps students to be

a discipline The most important thing in language teaching is to help students become more autonomous in learning (Benson, 2001:1) Therefore, teachers should raise the students‘awareness of ways of identifying goals, specifying objectives and identifying resources which will help them to realize these goals (Harmer, 395) Next, the course task should be explicitly linked to a simplified model of the language learning process When students are encouraged to be autonomous, teachers need to try to ensure that both, students and teachers are hearing the same thing Furthermore, teachers will need to offer them a choice of learning strategies, for example; memory strategies by using flash cards to remember words, cognitive

strategies by reading for pleasure, affective strategies by giving themselves a prize

if they did well, and so on

2.2.3 Learner motivation and attitude

Motivation and positive attitude have been widely viewed researchers as key factors that influence in the success of learning language Conttia (2007) conducted

a research on the influence of learner motivation on developing autonomous on developing autonomous learning which indicated that learner motivation and learner autonomy are intertwined in a verb of cognitive, psychological and social practices

which are dynamic and socially-constructed

2.2.5 Self-efficacy

As mentioned above, learners have the ability to condition their beliefs about learning and consequently the behavior pertaining to learning Bandura (1997) describes as self-efficacy the beliefs and judgments held by an individual about their capability to successfully perform different tasks including learning The

emphasis on the individual agency by both language learner autonomy and efficacy beliefs reveals the direct relationship between the two constructs Furthermore, self-efficacy serves as the infrastructure for motivation (Henry, 2014)

self-To support his opinion, Henry (2014) cites Pajares (2008) suggesting that individuals will not be motivated to initiate a process unless they believe that they have the ability to succeed in the given task An important consideration is the impact of prior experience manifested in the individuals‘ self-evaluation upon self-efficacy beliefs Individuals‘ past experiences and the outcomes of their previous actions to a large extent shape the picture learners have of their competence in a given field Accordingly, it is, in essence, the learners‘ beliefs about their ability and not the actual ability that determines the degree of self-efficacy beliefs Highlighting the importance of self-efficacy beliefs, Henry (2014) refers to a very interesting study of Pajares and his colleagues (Mills, Pajares, & Herron 2007) who found self-efficacy beliefs to be a ―predictor of achievement‖ (Henry, 2014, p 102)

2.2.6 Self-determination

Another theory relevant to language learner autonomy and the current research is that of self-determination theory (SDT) Described as the graded internalization of external motives, SDT is deeply related to learner autonomy and motivation as two interrelated constructs (Okazaki, 2012) To have a thorough understanding of self-determination theory, an understanding of extrinsic and intrinsic categorization of motivation is essential

2.3 Vocabulary learning strategies

Vocabulary learning strategies are based on the theo- retical framework of language learning strategies, and are important components of the language learning strategies In this paper, vocabulary means the total cordingly vocabulary learning strategies refer to the methods and techniques used by learners with the purpose of learning vocabulary well Cohen and Aphek (1981) categorize the vocabulary learning strategies into the cognitive strategy, me- learning strategies into the cognitive strategy, me- ta-cognitive strategy and social /emotion strategy The author thinks that this classification is quite reasonable and adopts it throughout the paper

This section aims to provide a variety of terminological definitions, and classification systems of LLSs particularly VLS proposed by different authors

2.3.1 Language learning strategies

Firstly, how can one define learning strategies? There is no unified definition

of language learning strategies O‘Malley and Chamot (1990) define learning strategies as complex cognitive skills that make learning more effective, while Oxford (1990) describes learning strategies as steps taken by students to make their own learning easier, faster, more effective, more fun and more self-directed On the other hand, PavičićTakač (2008) claims that learning strategies are specific actions, behaviours, steps or techniques that learners use (often deliberately) to improve their progress in development of their competence in the target language

Since the 1990s, lexical instruction has received great attention (Nation, 2001; Schmitt, 1997) Many studies have been done to explore the characterictics off successful language learners (e.g., Gu & Johnson, 1996; Kojic-Sabo & Lightbown, 1999) and to investigate the effectiveness off different vocabulary learning and teaching methods (e.g., Hsu, 2004; Laufer, 2003; Lee, 1994; Li, 1998) Currently, one approach to fostering vocabulary learning that has attracted emerging attention is vocabulary learning strategies (Schitt, 2000) There are several reasons why instruction of vocabulary learning strategies may be critical to L2 vocabulary learning For one thing, from the observation of good and poor language learners, applying a variety off strategies to language learning seems to be significant predictor of language achievement (Gu, 1994; Gu & Johnson, 1996; Kang, 1997; Kojic-Sabo&Lightbown, 1999; Oxforf, 1990) Provided that vocabulary learning strategies are explicitly instructed, they can be made available and used by less successful learners to bridge the gap between the good and the poor learners; the successful learners can be more aware of applying appreciate strategies to language acquisition in different situations For another, since no single teaching method can serve as the best one to all the English classrooms and to all the leaner‘s due to variations in learning environments and learners‘ needs, strategy instruction may help learners in most contexts by empowering them to learn in a more self-directed

and effective way Instruction of vocabulary learning strategies may also suit different learners needs For example, self-directed vocabulary learning strategies (e.g., keeping vocabulary notebooks and using dictionaries) can help build the lexicon of the students who major in engineering More advanced language learners can acquire vocabulary through using it in communication Low-achievers can use techniques such as ―key-words‖ and ―phonological analysis‖ to retain the meanings

of vocabulary longer and more efficiently Teaching vocabulary learning strategies, therefore, is encouraged in the literature (i.e., Blachowicz & Scarcella, 1994; Schmitt, 2000, Sokmen, 1997)

2.3.2 Classification of vocabulary learning strategies

Learning strategies are defined by Oxford (1990) as ―special actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations‖ (p.8) O‘Malley and Chamot (1990) define them as ―special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to comprehend, learn, or retain new information‖ (p.1) Therefore, vocabulary learning strategies can be viewed as skills or steps taken to enhance the comprehension and storage of words, and to facilitate the retrieval of these words from memory and the application of them in appropriate situations A model of five essential steps of vocabulary learning was identified by Brown and Payne (1994, cited in Fan, 2003) The step include:

(a) Having sources for encountering new words,

(b) Getting a clear image, either visual or auditory of both, of the forms of the new words,

(c) Learning the meaning of the words,

(d) Making a strong memory connection between the forms and the meanings of the words, and

(e) Using the words (p.223)

According to Fan (2003), all vocabulary learning strategies are, to some extent, associated with these five steps

In regard to a comprehensive list of vocabulary learning strategies, several researchers (e.g., Fan 2003; Gu & Johnson, 1996; Nation, 1990; Schmitt, 1997; Stoffer, 1995) have attempted to develop a classification system when they investigated learners‘ strategy use Stoffer developed a 53-item Vocabulary Learning Strategy Inventory (VOLSI), which was administered to 707 students at the university of Alabama By factor analysis, those items could be further classifies into nine categories: strategies involving authentic language use, strategies involving creative activities, strategies used to create mental linkages, memory strategies, visual/auditory strategies involving physical action, strategies used to overcome anxiety, strategies used to organize words, and strategies used for self-motivation Gu and Johnson (1996() established a questionnaire for their study of vocabulary learning strategies used by Chinese university learners of English The total number of strategies in their study was 74 items clustered into: beliefs about vocabulary learning, metacogonitive regulation, guessing strategies, dictionary strategies, note-taking strategies, memory strategies (rehearsal and encoding), and activation strategies In his study of Japanese SFL learners‘ use and perception of vocabulary learning strategies, Schmitt (1997) developed an extensive taxonomy, following Nation‘s (1990) discovery/consolidation distinction and Oxford‘s classification of learning strategies Of the established systems, this one developed

by Schmitt (1997) seems to capture the wide range of vocabulary learning strategies identified and ―has the advantage of being organized around an established scheme

of learning strategies‖ Segler, pain&Sorace, 2002, p.413) As a result, Schmitt‘s taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies is chosen as the instrument to an examine students‘ strategy use in the present study

Next section presents studies done based on Schmitt‘s categorization of vocabulary learning strategies, followed by discussion on the six learning strategies selected for instruction

Schmitt‘s Taxonomy of Vocabulary learning Strategies and Related Studies Schmitt (1997) taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies (VLS), containing 58 items, is organized around two classification dimensions (Segler et

al., 2002) First, four strategy categories were adopted from Oxford‘s (1990) classification scheme of six learning strategies They were social, memory, cognitive and metacognitive categories Social strategies are strategies, which ―use interaction with others to improve language learning,‖ memory strategies, which

―relate new materials to existing knowledge,‖ cognitive strategies, which

―manipulate or transform the target language,‖ and metacognitive strategies, which

―involve a conscious overview of the learning process and making decisions about planning, monitoring, or evaluating the best ways to study‖ (Schmitt,1997,p.205) Since Oxford‘s classification system was unsatisfactory to describe the kind of strategies used by an individual who discovers the meaning of a new word by himself or herself, Schmitt added a fifth category, Determination Strategies, to the taxonomy In the second classification, following Nation‘s (1990) scheme, Schmitt made a distinction between the initial discovery of a word meaning (Discovery) and remembering that word once it has been introduced (Consolidation) A clear overview of Schmitt‘s VLS taxonomy is presented in table 1

Based on this taxonomy, Schmitt (1997) investigated VLS used by 600 Japanese EFL learners, consisting of junior high, senior high, university students and adult learners His study aimed to investigate the relationship between actual strategy use and perceived helpfulness In the VLS questionnaire, the participants were required to determine whether they actually used a particular strategy or not and whether they perceived it helpful or not The results indicated that six strategies

―use of a bilingual dictionary,‖ ―written repetition,‖ ―verbal repetition,‖ ―saying a new word aloud,‖ ―studying the spelling of a word,‖ and ―taking notes in class‖ were reported to both already used and helpful by Japanese learners of English

Excerpts from Schmitt’s VLS taxonomy

Analyze part-of-speech

Determination Analyze affixes, roots

Strategies Check for L1 cognate

Guess from context

Dimension Discovery Consolidation

Consult dictionary Use word lists Use flash card

Social Ask teacher Teacher checks students‘ flash card

Strategies Ask classmates Group study and practice

Group work Interact with native speakers

Group words together within a storyline Study word sound/spelling

Keyword method Use cognates Use new words in sentences Use physical action

Remember affixes and roots Remember parts-of-speech Use semantic maps

Paraphrase word meaning

Flash cards Word lists Use vocabulary section in textbook Listen to tape of word lists

Keep vocabulary section in textbook Listen to tape of word lists

Keep vocabulary notebook Put L2 labels on objects

Dimension Discovery Consolidation

Practice words/Studying words over time Find more opportunities to get access

to the target language (e.g English songs, movies, newspapers)

Source: Adapted from Segler et al (2002)

Schmitt‘s (1997) and Chen‘s (1998) studies combined data from different educational levels Yeh and Wang‘s (2004) study focused on vocabulary learning strategies used by senior high school students in Taiwan Another purpose of their study was to identify the differences in strategy use between good and poor learners Their participants were 271 twelfth-grade female students A vocabulary level test was administered to divide participants into good or poor learners, and a VLS questionnaire based on Schmitt‘s taxonomy was used to elicit information about the frequency of VLS used by participants on a 5-point Likert scale The results were as follows (1) cognitive strategies were the most frequently used while social strategies were the least frequently used; (2) the most frequently used strategies were related to rote repetition of the forms (i.e., orthographic and phonological form) of a word; (3) the least frequently used strategies were the use odd study aids, interacting with others, and dictionaries with L2 definition; (4) good and poor learners used vocabulary learning strategies in significantly different ways Although both group favored rote learning, good learners favored verbal repetition while poor learners favored written repetition Good learners tended to learn words

in context while poor learners tended to learn words in isolation

Yeh and Wang (2004) focused on frequency of strategy use Tseng (2006) however argued that measurement by the frequency of strategy use failed to reveal the qualitative aspect of strategic learning and could not assess whether a learner was capable of applying a particular technique appropriately In his model of motivational cyclic process of vocabulary acquisition, instead of viewing frequent use of strategies as the indicator of successful vocabulary learning, he further claimed that high frequency of strategy use, which indicated ―unorganized or

ineffective learning.‖ had negative effect on vocabulary knowledge but mastery of strategies, which represented the quality of strategic learning, had positive effect on successful acquisition of vocabulary As for the relationship between frequency mastery, it was hypothesized that ―the motivated vocabulary learning involvement‖ measured by frequency would have direct impact on the mastery level of vocabulary learning tactics used As a result, in his model, frequency (how often) was distinguished from mastery (how well) to examine whether these two factors influence the level of vocabulary knowledge differently

Chen‘s (1998), Schmitt‘s (1997), Tseng‘s (2006), and Yeh and Wang‘s (2004) studies provided self-reported information about EFL learners‘ vocabulary strategy use As noted above, these are also a large amount of empirical research in

to the effects of vocabulary learning strategies on retention According to Gu and Johnson (1996), so far most studies of vocabulary learning strategies have follow two trends: ―memory strategies‖ and ―learning vocabulary from context‖ These studies tended to focus on one particular strategy or to compare two strategies rather than exploring; them as a whole (Schmitt, 2000) However, according to Lawson and Hogben‘s (1996) observation of language learners‘ behavior, learners seldom employed only one certain technique; they typically combined various strategies when attempting to learn the meaning of new foreign language words Therefore, in the present study, instead of focusing on one vocabulary strategy or comparison of two strategies, six vocabulary learning strategies were selected to be taught based

on the literature of vocabulary strategy instruction

When it comes to vocabulary learning strategies, on the basis of Oxford‘s language learning strategies classification Schmitt (1997) proposed what is today the most comprehensive typology of vocabulary learning strategies Schmitt‘s taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies consisted of discovery strategies (used for initial discovery of a word‘s meaning) and consolidation strategies (used for remembering words) Discovery strategies are divided into two types: determination (discovering a new word‘s meaning without involving other people) and social strategies (involving cooperation with others), while consolidation strategies can be further divided into social, memory (involving relating the new word with some

previously learned knowledge), cognitive (referring to language manipulation or transformation) and metacognitive strategies (used to control the learning process) Out of the learning strategies that refer to specific language skills, i.e reading or grammar learning strategies, vocabulary learning strategies are the ones that attracted the most interest In Croatia PavičićTakač (2008) proposed a new classification of vocabulary learning strategies which consisted of strategies of formal vocabulary learning and practicing, self-initiated independent vocabulary learning and spontaneous (incidental) vocabulary learning.

To sum up, there is a pressing need for research that explores the relationship between the development of autonomy and the development of language learning strategies From a practical point of view, such research can help to validate forms

of practice that aim to foster autonomy in terms of language-learning gains From a theoretical point of view, it can help us to test and elaborate the theoretical hypothesis that autonomy in language learning is equivalent to better language learning At this stage, however, research is likely to be most valuable if it establishes proficiency criteria and assessment tools relevant to autonomous learning and documents the ways in which the development of autonomy and proficiency interact (Benson, 2001, p 191-192)

Each student consists of some different ways to improve their vocabulary learning strategies Wei (2007) states the use of strategies in vocabulary learning correctly can influence the development of vocabulary use in context Oxford (1990) and Schmitt (1997) are some of researchers who develop the classification and taxonomy of VLS

According to Oxford (1990), the taxonomy of VLS are divided into two groups: direct strategies (which include: memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies) and indirect strategies (which include: metacognitive strategies, affective strategies, social strategies)

Meanwhile, Schmitt adopts Oxford‘s (1990) notion on vocabulary learning strategies and classifies vocabulary learning strategies into 5 groups: determination strategies, social strategies, memory strategies, cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies

The theory from Oxford (1990) has 2 categories of direct and indirect vocabulary strategies which consist of; Direct: memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies, and Indirect: metacognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies Then compared to Schmitt (1997), he categorized vocabulary strategies into determination strategies, social strategies, memory strategies, cognitive strategies and metacognitive strategies Actually Schmitt has developed by adding and also changing strategies from some of Oxford's Because the VLS theory has grown, the researcher chooses Vocabulary Learning Strategies taxonomy by Schmitt (1997) to be used as theoretical framework Since Schmitt (1997) developed VLS taxonomy from Oxford‘s (1990) LLS, many researchers developed instrument of VLS by adapting Schmitt‘s (1997) taxonomy And the researcher also adapted VLSs from Schmitt‘s (1997) taxonomy with 25 items which are suitable for the participants

Schmitt (1997) Taxonomy of Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Determination

strategies

Social strategies

Memory strategies

Cognitive strategies

Metacognitive strategies

rejected Using the pertinent statistics procedure, it was shown that learner autonomy significantly predicts vocabulary learning strategies in Iranian advanced EFL learners, so the second null hypothesis of this study was rejected On the other hand, with a rather positive between these two variables in the intermediate group, i.e r=.249, the third null hypothesis was rejected Processed data show that learner autonomy significantly predicts vocabulary learning strategies in the intermediate level; accordingly the fourth null hypothesis is also rejected Taking this fact into account that the relationship between these two variables in intermediate level was not as significant as in the advanced group, we can come to conclusion that the higher the level of learner autonomy, the higher of vocabulary leaning strategies use will be Learners who are highly autonomous have tools to make the learning easier and more manageable as well as solution to overcome problems associated with learning They monitor their own learning and have learned how to deal with anxiety, nervousness, and fear of making mistakes

Teng Feng (2015) attempted to address the problems of applying autonomous vocabulary learning among low proficiency EFL university students The first part attempted to answer the question of how the students perceived their autonomous vocabulary learning Questionnaires and group discussions were applied to seek insights into learners‘view of teacher‘s role and their needs Resulting data were shared with teachers in a small-scale discussion, which was the second part of the present study Results revealed that a weak ‗top-down‘ approach

in implementing learner autonomy is not adequate Teachers need to provide scaffolding skills tailored to learners‘ context-specific needs, for which a strong

‗bottom-up‘ approach is more appropriate in supporting autonomous learning This means that the teacher‘s role in supporting learner autonomy is indispensible Ideally, any change in instructional practice needs to be guided by the teachers themselves Therefore, teachers should work collaboratively to develop resources and materials for learners‘ autonomous vocabulary learning In this case, teachers are no longer merely ‗the-one-who-teaches‘, but one who is himself taught along with the students, who in turn, while being taught, also teach Although it was

appreciated that teachers spent too much classroom time in explicitly teaching every word meaning, it was suggested that class time be allocated to demonstrating the application of relevant strategies Students‘ efforts were also crucial to autonomous learning With teacher‘s guidance, students needed to form greater awareness in setting plans or goals, and monitoring their vocabulary learning process

Schmitt‘s taxonomy was used as a starting point in designing a questionnaire for research on vocabulary learning strategies conducted by Kudo (1999) in Japan The aim of the research was to determine the frequency of individual strategy usage and to put together a classification of vocabulary learning strategies The results confirmed what Schmitt found: Japanese learners often use the traditional strategy

of mechanical rote learning and rarely opt for the strategies demanding deep cognitive processing.To continue, Kudo (1999) revealed two types of strategies: direct and indirect learning strategies Direct strategies include cognitive and memory strategies, whilst indirect strategies include metacognitive and social strategies

Thomas M.Segler, Helen Pain &AntonellaSorace (2010) find out thefrequency of use of vocabulary learning strategies in order to asses which strategies are the most often used among the first and second year students at the University of Applied Sciences Baltazar Zaprešić In order to find out whether there are any differences in the use of VLS between learners of general English and learners of business English, we analysed the frequency distribution (using the Mean as an indicator of central tendency) Overall, we found that the students of the University of Applied Sciences Baltazar Zaprešić use vocabulary learning strategies moderately For most of the offered strategies students said that they use them sometimes Only one item had the mean value lower than 1.5, which shows that students never use this strategy We will focus only on the strategies most and least often used Both groups of students use the strategy of translating the words into their mother tongue (a strategy for formal practicing) most often, which is consistent with the results of Pavičić Takač (2000) As much as 46 students out of the total number of 58 students who participated in the research said they always

use this strategy, while 10 students said they sometimes use it, and just two students said they never use it Also, both groups of students always use two spontaneous vocabulary learning strategies: using a word with similar meaning if they cannot remember a word in a conversation and picking up new words from films and TV programmers in English When it comes to strategies that are most rarely used, 48 out of 58 students said they never write down new words while they are reading a book or watching a film for pleasure, while 8 students said they sometimes do it, and only two they always do it Pavičić Takač (2008) classified this strategy as self-initiated independent vocabulary learning strategy To continue, 30 students (N=58) claimed they never group words together to remember them, which is also a self-initiated independent vocabulary learning strategy When it comes to reading a dictionary in order to learn new words, students were indecisive, 28 said they never

do this, 26 sometimes and four students said they always read and leaf through dictionary

The previous studies differ in some ways concerning methodology and tools,but they generally agree in results This indicates the significance of implementing autonomy learning approach in education generally and especially for learning English vocabulary The researcher benefits a lot from the above-mentioned studies in developing the research instruments and enriching the theoretical knowledge However, although the present research goes in line with the above mentioned studies in some aspects like the scientific design and the used tools, it deals with a different sample and uses different materials and strategy Besides, most of the above researches mainly aim at ELF learners, not high school students To extend prior researches and test the application of autonomy learning approach, this research will attempt to assess the impact of cooperative learning approach on English speaking, listening and writing competencesof 12th grade students at Ly Nam De high school