Washback of an english achievement test to teachers a study at a university in vietnam

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES ________________________ DINH MINH THU WASHBACK OF AN ENGLISH ACHIEVEMENT TEST TO TEACHERS A STUDY

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

DINH MINH THU

WASHBACK OF AN ENGLISH ACHIEVEMENT TEST TO TEACHERS

A STUDY AT A UNIVERSITY IN VIETNAM

Nghiên cứu tác động dội ngược của bài thi tiếng Anh hết học phần lên giảng viên tại

một trường Đại học ở Việt Nam

Major: English Language Teaching Methodology

Code: 9140231.01

SUMMARY OF PHD DISSERTATION

Hanoi - 2021

This dissertation has been carried out at Vietnam National University, Hanoi

University of Languages and International Studies

Supervisors: Assoc Prof Dr Nguyen Van Trao

Dr Duong Thu Mai

Examiner 1: Assoc Prof Dr Vu Thi Phuong Anh

Examiner 2: Assoc Prof Dr Phan Van Que

Examiner 3: Assoc Prof Dr Hoang Tuyet Minh

The thesis will be defended at the Board of Examiners of University of Languages and International Studies – Vietnam University, Hanoi at 8:30 on January 5, 2021

The thesis can be found in:

- National Library of Vietnam;

- Library and Information Center, Vietnam National University

ORIGINALITY STATEMENT

‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work To the best of my knowledge and belief it contains no materials published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at University of Languages and International Studies – Vietnam National University or any other educational institutions, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis Any contribution made to the research by others is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project’s design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.’

Signed:

Date: 20 November, 2020

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

On the completion of this thesis, I am indebted and owe gratitude to many people whose names cannot all be mentioned here Nonetheless, I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the following individuals and organisations for their direct contributions First, my heartfelt appreciation goes to my supervisors, Associate Professor Doctor Nguyen Van Trao and Doctor Duong Thu Mai, for their continuous and valuable support and guidance throughout these years of challenging academic work They are really caring and inspiring supervisors They have generously been sharing their wisdom, expertise, time with me since my first day with my research Their inspiration, constructive comments and strictness build me strongly in my academic life

Second, I am grateful to Doctor Huynh Anh Tuan, Dean of Postgraduate School for his instant, continuous and generous support He has listened to my problems carefully and patiently and helped me solve them out Thanks were sent to the staff in the Post-graduate School, especially to Ms Nguyen Ai Anh, for their valuable helps

Third, my special gratitude was expressed to four teacher participants at the researched university, who I do not mention their names here for the ethical considerations Without their willingness, generosity, kind-heartedness and patience, I could not be able to enjoy comfortable classroom observations and interviews for the rich data sources of the thesis Fourthly, I owe thanks to my leaders, my colleagues and my students at my university They gave me time, encouragement and understanding during the time I conducted this research

Finally, my wholehearted appreciation goes to my beloved family, especially my parents,

my mother-in-law, my brother, my husband and my two children, for their endless unconditional love and sacrifices for me not only in the hard research time, but also in all

my life Without their emotional and material support, I had no anchors to complete this thesis

ABSTRACT

Premised in the field of language testing and assessment, this thesis examined the washback of an English achievement test on the teachers at a Vietnamese university Washback was selected to research for its contribution to the fairness to students (Messick, 1996) and the education for language teachers (Cheng, 1999; Watanabe, 2004, etc.) An English achievement test (EAT) in the research context was designed in the Vietnamese MoET's demand of innovating language testing and assessment at the tertiary level in the epoch of globalisation The teachers became the informants for their key role

in generating positive washback to promote students' learning (Antineskul & Sheveleva, 2015; Bailey, 1996, 1999; etc.) Two research questions were raised on the washback effects on the teachers' perceptions and practices correspondingly The thesis conceptual framework was built up from the literature review, particularly from six washback theories proposed by Alderson and Wall (1993), Hughes (2003,) Bailey (1996), Bachman and Palmer (1996), Green (2007) and Shih (2009) Three major aspects with detailed sub-aspects were sketched out, which included washback on teachers’ perceptions and practices of the teaching contents, teaching methodology and professional development The newly-developed framework was used to review the empirical research on washback

on tertiary English language teachers The current research underwent a qualitative single case involving four teacher participants A baseline study was conducted to shed light on the background factors for the research, which were contextual factors, test factors and teacher factors The present study mainly exploited interviews, observations and follow-

up interviews as the data collection instruments Braun and Clarke (2006)’s six steps of thematic analysis were applied to the data analysis Findings and discussion were presented in terms of four aspects: (1) the teaching objectives, (2) teaching contents, (3) teaching methodology and (4) professional development under the EAT washback With regards the teaching objectives, all the participants revealed their awareness of a dual target of support of the students’ test pass in accordance with improvement of their communicative ability Their instructions in the first lessons were coherent with those

stated in the perceptions interviews In terms of the teaching contents, the core book

“Complete PET” showed its pivotal significance in both teachers’ perceptions and practices In addition, the teaching methodology was changed when the EAT comprised the four language skills rather than two skills of the previous TOEIC test The teachers stated their appreciation of the communicative language teaching while their practice was shaped with more features of the grammar-translation In terms of the last aspect in concern, i.e, the teachers’ career development, while the teachers expected more training and sharing regarding the new test, few professional activities were witnessed throughout the research time Positive washback was found in the teachers' alignment between the test contents and the taught contents, their positive feeling toward the textbook, and their motivator role, etc Negative washback evidence lay in the teachers' teaching-to-the-test, teacher-centred classes, etc Most findings supported previous washback studies New findings emerged, such as the relation between the teachers’ professional status and their perceptions and practices under the EAT The thesis has made new contributions to the washback research area both theoretically and empirically Implications for classroom pedagogy, teacher education and further research have been provided in the conclusion

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ORIGINALITY STATEMENT i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

ABSTRACT v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS xii

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

LIST OF TABLES xiv

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale for the Study 1

1.1.1 Why language testing and assessment? 1

1.1.2 Why washback research? 2

1.1.3 Why Vietnamese teachers at the tertiary level in washback research? 3

1.2 Significance of the Study 4

1.3 Context of the Study in Vietnam 6

1.4 Research Questions 8

1.5 Scope of the Study 9

1.6 Structure of the Study 10

1.7 Chapter Summary 10

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12

2.1 Basic Testing-and-Assessment Concepts 12

2.1.1 Concepts of language testing and assessment 12

2.1.2 Achievement tests 14

2.1.3 Test usefulness 16

2.2 Washback, Teachers’ Perceptions and Teachers’ Practices 18

2.2.1 Washback 19

2.2.1.1 Conceptualization of washback 19

2.2.1.2 Conditions for washback existence 22

2.2.1.3 Washback directions 23

2.2.1.3.1 Negative washback 23

2.2.1.3.2 Positive washback 25

2.2.1.4 Washback models 29

2.2.2 Teachers’ perceptions 35

2.2.3 Teachers’ practices 39

2.2.4 The relationship between teachers’ perceptions and practices 42

2.2.5 Proposed conceptual framework for the present study 43

2.3 Empirical Research on Washback on EFL Teachers’ Perceptions and Practices at the Tertiary Level 46

2.3.1 An overview of the washback research on EFL tertiary teachers 46

2.3.2 Washback of tests on teachers’ perceptions of teaching at the tertiary level 47

2.3.3 Washback of tests on teachers’ practices of teaching at the tertiary level 52

2.4 Chapter Summary 57

Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY 58

3.1 Research Design 58

3.1.1 Rationales for the research design 58

3.1.2 Research design 61

3.2 Selection of the Case 63

3.3 Settings for the Case Study 64

3.4 Participants 66

3.5 The Researcher’s Role 68

3.6 Data Collection Instruments 70

3.6.1 The review of documents 71

3.6.2 Semi-structured interviews 73

3.6.3 Semi-structured classroom observations 75

3.6.4 Follow-up interviews 77

3.7 Data Analysis Procedures 79

3.7.1 Transcriptions 79

3.7.2 Data analysis 80

3.7.2.1 Analysis of the interview data 81

3.7.2.2 Analysis of the observation data and the post interview data 85

3.8 Trustworthiness 86

3.8.1 Credibility 87

3.8.2 Transferability 88

3.8.3 Dependability 89

3.8.4 Confirmability 90

3.9 Ethical considerations 90

3.10 Chapter summary 91

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS 92

4.1 EAT Washback on the Teachers’ Perceptions of Teaching at a University in Vietnam 94

4.1.1 The teaching objectives in the teachers’ perceptions of teaching 94

4.1.1.1 The necessity of supporting students’ success in the EAT 94

4.1.1.2 The requirement of enhancing students’ communication ability 96

4.1.2 The teaching contents in the teachers’ perceptions of teaching 98

4.1.2.1 An appreciation of the textbook for students’ success in the EAT 98

4.1.2.2 The practicality of reducing the topics in the textbook to those in the EAT 100

4.1.3 The teaching methodology in the teachers’ perceptions of teaching 101

4.1.3.1 The consolidation of communicative language teaching 102

4.1.3.2 More efforts in lesson planning in the presence of the EAT 104

4.1.3.3 A mix between English and Vietnamese as means of instruction 105

4.1.3.4 The necessity of supplying EAT skills and format and linguistic input in teaching four language skills 107

4.1.3.5 The supportive role of in-class assessment for the EAT 111

4.1.3.6 An EAT orientation in homework but a limited homework amount 113

4.1.4 The professional development in the teachers’ perceptions of teaching 114

4.1.4.1 Positive self-reflection 115

4.1.4.2 The need of more professional socialization 116

4.2 EAT Washback on the Teachers’ Practices of Teaching at a Vietnamese University 118

4.2.1 The teaching objectives in the teachers’ practices of teaching 118

4.2.2 The teaching contents in the teachers’ practices of teaching 121

4.2.3 The teaching methodology in the teachers’ practices of teaching 122

4.2.3.1 Teaching four language skills 122

4.2.3.1.1 Prioritising the speaking skill 123

4.2.3.1.2 Teaching the speaking skill 127

4.2.3.1.3 Teaching the listening skill, reading skill and writing skill 139

4.2.3.2 Treating the mock test 142

4.2.4 The professional development in the teachers’ practices of teaching 148

4.3 The Relationship between the Teachers’ Perceptions and Practices of Teaching under the Washback of the EAT at a University in Vietnam 149

4.4 Chapter Summary 153

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION 157

5.1 EAT Washback on the Teachers’ Perceptions and Practices of Teaching 157

5.1.1 EAT washback on the teachers’ perceptions of teaching of teaching 157

5.1.2 EAT washback on the teachers’ practices of teaching 161

5.2 Factors Affecting the EAT Washback on Teachers’ Perceptions and Practices of Teaching 164

5.3 Chapter Summary 167

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS 169

6.1 Summary of Key Findings 169

6.1.1 EAT washback on the teachers’ perceptions of teaching at a university in Vietnam 169 6.1.2 EAT washback on the teachers’ practices of teaching at a university in Vietnam 170

6.2 Research limitations 172

6.3 Implications for Classroom Pedagogy, Teacher Education and Research 173

6.3.1 Implications for classroom pedagogy 173

6.3.2 Implications for teacher education 174

6.3.3 Implications for research 175

REFERENCES 177

APPENDICES 194

APPENDIX A A SUMMARY TABLE OF EMPIRICAL WASHBACK RESEARCH 194

APPENDIX B INTERVIEW GUIDLINE FOR TEACHER FACTORS 197

APPENDIX C THE EAT FORMAT IN COMPARISON WITH THE PET FORMAT 198

APPENDIX D A SAMPLE OF THE EAT 203

APPENDIX E A SAMPLE OF THE TEXTBOOK CONTENTS 206

APPENDIX F A SAMPLE OF TEACHERS’ SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS 211

APPENDIX G THE SYLLABUS FOR COURSE ENGLISH 2 213

APPENDIX H INFORMED LETTER OF CONSENT 220

APPENDIX I WORKING SCHEDULES WITH PARTICIPATING TEACHERS 222

APPENDIX J1 THE FIRST INTERVIEW GUIDELINE FOR TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS

226

APPENDIX J2 THE SECOND INTERVIEW GUIDELINE FOR TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS 229

APPENDIX K A SAMPLE OF PERCEPTION INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS 235

APPENDIX L A SAMPLE OF CLASSROOM OBSERVATION TRANSCRIPTS 246

APPENDIX N A SAMPLE OF FOLLOW-UP INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS 250

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

B : Both perceptions and practices

BEC Business English Certificate

CEFR : Common European Framework for Reference

CET : College English Test

CO : Classroom Observation

EAT : English achievement test

EEE : Exit English Examination

EEU : Entrance Exam of the Universities

FI : Follow-up Interview

HEIs : Higher education institutions

HKCEE : Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination

IELTS : International English Language Testing System

Int : Interview

INUEE : Iranian National University Entrance Exam

MCQs : Multiple choice questions

MoET : Ministry of Education and Training

NMET : National Matriculation English Test

Per : Perception(s)

PD : Professional Development

PET : Preliminary English Test

Pra : Practice(s)

QĐ-TTg : Quyết định của Thủ tướng Chính phủ

SFRLV Six-Scale Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching and

Assessment for Vietnam

TACS : Tiếng Anh cơ sở

TOEIC : Test of English for International Communication

UEEs : University entrance examinations

VCEE : Vietnam’s College English Entrance Exam

VSTEP : Vietnamese Standardised Test of English Proficiency

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Correspondence among test, assessment and teaching (Brown, 2004, p 5) 13

Figure 2.2 Test usefulness (Bachman & Palmer, 1996, p.18) 16

Figure 2.3 Bailey (1996)’s washback model 31

Figure 2.4 Green (2007)’s washback model 32

Figure 2.5 Shih (2009)’s washback model 34

Figure 2.6 Conceptual framework for washback of EAT to teachers’ perceptions and practices 44

Figure 3.1 Research Design of the Present Study 62

Figure 3.2 Example of initial coding on teachers’ perceptions on Microsoft Word 83

Figure 3.3 Example of initial coding on teachers’ perceptions on Microsoft Excel 83

Figure 4.1 Time distributions among four skills by four teachers 125

Figure 4.2 Summary of research findings: Washback model of the EAT to teachers at a Vietnamese university 156

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Alderson and Wall (1993, pp 120-121)’s washback hypotheses 29 Table 3.1 Teachers’ profile 67 Table 3.2 Example of cross-case refined coding of teachers’ perceptions on Microsoft Excel 85

Table 3.3 Example of cross-case refined coding of teachers’ practices on Microsoft Excel

86

Table 4.1 Time distributions among four language skills in four teachers’ classes 124 Table 4.2 Relationship between the teachers’ perceptions and practices of teaching under the influence of the EAT 150

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

The English language research world has witnessed a fast-growing amount of research on washback in recent years to investigate how language policy makers and language teaching professionals are impacted by tests In this body of research, research on the washback of tests on teachers has made significant contributions to the field of language teacher education This study concerns the washback of an English achievement test on teachers at a Vietnamese university The first chapter in the research justifies the reasons for the research implementation, emphasises the research significance and depicts the context of the study in Vietnam It also presents the research questions, limits the research scope and frame the research structure

1.1 Rationale for the Study

In this section, the reasons why the present study is conducted are stated in three key dimensions: language testing and assessment, washback, and washback on tertiary Vietnamese teachers, which are respectively highlighted below

1.1.1 Why language testing and assessment?

Language testing and assessment plays a vital role in language training, making the test quality aspects deserve thorough investigations Traditionally, testing or test is the more popular term to mention, while assessment is considered an inclusion of test in the modern time

Language testing and assessment has been recognised as a mainstream of applied linguistics since the 90th of the twentieth century (Bachman, 2010) with its substantial evolutions and contributions towards individual and societal demands The field has developed from testing and assessment of linguistic components to communicative competence (Bachman, 2010) Alternative language testing and assessment grows beside the traditional standardised one Plus, testing and assessment exists not for the sake of testing only, but as a determining factor of teaching, learning, informing, selecting, and employing (Alderson & Banerjee, 2002; Avivan, 1991; Bachman, 2010; Bachman & Palmer, 1996; Cheng, Sun, & Ma, 2015; Lemmetti, 2014; Shohamy, 1998) The meaning

of testing and assessment, especially traditional standardised tests, is highlighted to reach important decisions in numerous Asian countries like China, Japan and Vietnam (Sim, 2015)

Testing and assessment becomes a key component in educational theories and practices; hence, test qualities become a matter of considerations Bachman and Palmer (1996) have proposed six test qualities, including reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact and practicality The twentieth century is inclined to link test qualities to technical matters, namely reliability and validity while the social aspects of the test like impact attract less attention until the later half of that century

1.1.2 Why washback research?

Test impact can be defined narrowly as washback (Bachman & Palmer, 1996) Washback

is simply understood as test effects on teaching and learning (Bachman & Palmer, 1996; Hughes, 2003; Shohamy, 1998) Washback research has brought about two-sided effects

of the tests on teaching and learning

Washbach research has become a compelling topic in language testing and assessment since the latter half of the twentieth century, which reveals the positive or negative effects

of tests on teaching and learning (Bachman & Palmer, 1996; Hughes, 2003; Pan, 2009) Washback investigation takes place not only in non-English speaking countries (Alderson

& Wall, 1993; Shohamy, 1998; Tran, 2016; Wenyuan, 2017) but English-speaking

countries as well (Alderson & Hamp-Lyons, 1996; Read & Hayes, 2003; Wall & Horák, 2006) Research points out beneficial washback effects like teachers’ strict commitment with the teaching objectives and good teaching from good tests, and negative washback like teachers’ teaching-to-the-test and students’ limited learning points

Further washback research promises more contributions to the area of language testing and assessment, which can generate positive teaching and learning

1.1.3 Why Vietnamese teachers at the tertiary level in washback research?

Language testing and assessment stays a prestigious position in the Vietnamese culture The Vietnamese feudal society in the past normally based on test results to select the state officials The contemporary Vietnam exploits test results for more purposes than that, such as certifying a graduation condition or an eligibility of going abroad and innovating curriculum English language testing and assessment has an important role in the country since its emphasis on globalization and integration There have been changes in policies

in language testing and assessment and research on the field in the country Tertiary education which directly produces the qualified labour force for the society is assuredly affected by these changes

In terms of policies, MoET has released three important documents pertaining to the changes of language testing and assessment at the tertiary level of the Vietnamese education system Decree No 1400/QĐ-TTg (2008) officialises the National Foreign Language Project 2020 that places an emphasis on in-depth innovation in learning, teaching and assessing foreign languages at all educational levels Circular No 2961/BGDĐT- GDĐH (2010) demands HEIs to publicise standards of their educational outcomes, including the English language outcome Decree No 729/QĐ-BGDĐT (2015) publicises the Vietnamese Standardised Test of English Proficiency (VSTEP) as a local test of the international standard These national policies have been creating changes in terms of the test to follow and the content to teach The most common tests to name include International English Language Testing System (IELTS), Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC), Preliminary English Test (PET), and VSTEP A certificate of one of these tests can certify undergraduates’ graduation condition However, while these gate-keeping tests aim to align Vietnamese students’ language ability with the so-called global language standard, they have both promoted teaching-to-the-test and prevented a majority of students from reaching that standard to be eligible for their graduation (Cao, 2018; Hà, 2016; Thanh, 2018; Thuy Nhan, 2013; Vu, 2016)

In the context of such educational changes, teachers function as the key role to create positive washback in their class (Antineskul & Sheveleva, 2015; Bailey, 1996, 1999; Liauh, 2011; Onaiba, 2013; Richards & Lockhart, 2007; Spratt, 2005; Tsagari, 2011; Wang, 2010) According to Liauh (2011, p 54), teachers’ perceptions, including “their values, views of learners, attitudes toward teaching and learning, and conceptions of teachers’ roles and learners’ roles in teaching practices” have a close relation to their instruction to lead students’ success

The phenomenon of washback has been attracting several Vietnamese researchers at the higher educational level (Nguyễn, 1997, cited in Tsagari, 2011; Nguyễn Thúy Lan, 2017a, b; Nguyễn Thị Linh, 2017; Thuy Nhan, 2013; Tran, 2016) TOEIC, VSTEP, IELTS are the test instruments in the research These researchers focus on teachers and/or students at the top-tier universities in Vietnam None of them has reached washback of an English achievement test in the PET format on teachers’ perceptions and practices at a non-top-tier university in Vietnam The selected test in the current study is a new test that measures undergraduates’ English learning outcome of an English course The test mirrors PET which is supposed to be a measurement tool of at the university to meet the MoET’s demand of undergraduates’ English language outcome

The hereabove discussion about the role of language testing and assessment, the development of washback research and the role of teachers in educational changes in language testing and assessment in Vietnam has justified the adoption of research topics

in the current study: the washback of an English achievement test (EAT) on teachers’ perceptions and practices at a Vietnamese university

1.2 Significance of the Study

This research has both theoretical and practical values

Theoretically, the research contributes to reviewing the recognized washback models and generating an innovative washback framework The framework comprising a number of new elements like teachers’ professional development is expected to shed light on certain

aspects which have been hidden in previous research relating to the complicated washback operations on teachers’ perception of teaching aspects and their professional practices The research outcomes can help expand the theoretical base of the washback model on teachers’ perceptions and practices of teaching

Practically, the research can uncover hidden aspects of washback effects in the previous empirical research and can give rise to better teaching at the researched site through continual compilation of facts, diagnosing these effects and anticipating their future development The EAT is a new test of the updated course English 2 at this university It

is claimed that when new tests are introduced, abundant hindrances can occur to teachers (Peña Jaenes, 2017; Thuy Nhan, 2013; Tayeb, Abd Aziz, Ismail, & Khan, 2014) For example, the teacher can feel bad about the test quality or meet difficulty in adopting new teaching methods The conduction of the research offers the participant teachers an opportunity to reflect on their own perceptions and practices under the influence of a new achievement test in the PET format deeply and longitudinally Such insights can promote positive washback effects and hinder negative ones on teachers during their teaching as well as in their future professional practices Furthermore, the findings inform the authority at the researched university valuable data to appropriate their English language policy The research not only aims to benefit the research context but also dedicates to a wider similar context in Vietnam regarding the pedagogical innovation and future policy decisions in terms of teachers’ role and teachers’ development

Various washback research sites can reveal various washback effect operations to enrich the washback study domain (Green, 2013; Tayeb et al, 2014) Therefore, this washback research on teachers’ perceptions and practices in the context of a Vietnamese university hopes to shed a new light on washback in the research field of language testing and assessment for future investigations and further effective EFL trainings

1.3 Context of the Study in Vietnam

A detailed description of the context of the study can provide the readers with the contextual information in relevance to testing and assessment as well as confirm

transferability, i.e., “the demonstration of the generalizability, or applicability of the

result of a study in one setting to another context, or other contexts” (Brown, 2001, p 226) This section illustrates the context in terms of both the macro-level beyond the institution and the micro-level at the institution as Cheng (1999) suggests

On the macro-level, MoET has shifted the testing and assessment quality assurance from the traditional national standard to the global framework and then to the renewed national framework Decree No 1400/QĐ-TTg (2008) on the National Foreign Language Project

2020 (now extended to 2025) encourages the use of the Common European Framework

of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching and Assessment (CEFR) as the tool to measure the Vietnamese users of the English language In 2010, circular No2961/BGDĐT - GDĐH placed the requirement that undergraduates should reach a minimum of B1 English level in CEFR Certificates of globally-recognised international examinations like IELTS, TOEFL, TOEIC and PET were adopted at HEIs for the graduation condition Many Vietnamese HEIs adopted TOEIC more than other tests, for example, Foreign Trade University, Danang University and Ho Chi Minh Law University However, the required TOEIC score of 400, 450 or 500 threw teachers and students into a big mess (Cao, 2018; Ha, 2015; Thanh Hung, 2018; Thuy Nhan, 2013;

Vu, 2016) Only 10-15% students of a university reached the expected TOEIC score to be eligible for English graduation condition in 2015 (Cao, 2018) Thuy Nhan (2013) reveals teachers’ voices that TOEIC was far beyond the average students’ capacity To make the matter worse, the universities only exploited two receptive skills of TOEIC, i.e., listening and reading and excluded productive skills of speaking and writing Bachman and Palmer (1996) state that there is a misconception to assume that a single test fits any circumstance since the test-takers are diversified in terms of their characteristics,

background, input and so on The patriot test developers in Vietnam blamed on the commercial nature and exotic contents of those international tests Then the CEFR was localised to become the Six-Scale Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching and Assessment for Vietnam (SFRLV) in 2014 (Circular 01/2014/QĐ-BGDĐT), resulting in VSTEP (Decree 729/QĐ-BGDĐT) Ten universities are officially authorised for designing and administering VSTEP as well as issuing the English language proficiency certificates The year 2017 witnessed an amount of research on the validity and washback of VSTEP in the research context of the cradle of this test - University of Languages and International Studies (ULIS) (Nguyễn Thúy Lan, 2017a, b; 2018; Nguyễn Thị Linh, 2017; Nguyen, 2017) Only one research paper presented by

Nguyễn Thúy Lan (2017a) concerns teachers’ attitude towards the enactment of VSTEP The author shows teachers’ high appreciation of the positive washback of the test

Also on the macro-level, the undergraduates’ academic ability is worth being considered

in meeting MoET’s demand of English language ability From 2012 backwards, the door

to tertiary education was so narrow that only around 10% of high-school graduates were eligible for colleges and universities (Le, 2011) Since 2013, MoET has been practicing

an open-door tertiary education policy that allows a far larger number of enrolments HEIs, then, may include the students who are less ready for higher education than their before-2012 cohorts There exist conflicts between students’ language ability and the English outcome demand The situation strongly affects English language teachers’ perceptions and practices They encounter difficulty in deciding what to teach and how to teach to help students meet the demands

On the micro-level, the researched university has made significant changes in its English language education policies and practices to accommodate the MoET’s policy changes in English language testing and assessment It first adopted two-skilled TOEIC, but the students majoring in physical education or primary school education, for example, seemed to face enormous challenges with TOEIC Then, VSTEP-simulated tests replaced

that test type; however, at that time, the university found very limited VSTEP resources

to support teaching and learning Consequently, PET was introduced to the updated English training programme in 2018 on the arguments that PET tested general language knowledge and was one of the international standardised tests Before taking the PET as a major tool to measure their English graduation condition, undergraduates underwent two English courses in which course English 2 had its final English achievement test (EAT)

in the shortened form of PET The EAT is an internally-developed one that seems to be in line with Bachman and Palmer’s (1996) requirement of specific tests for specific contexts It is noted that while the new test was applied, no training for teachers to exploit the tests in their teaching was provided

From the recapitulation of the contextual features, it becomes clear that MoET has made significant changes in their policies of English language testing and assessment to meet the international standard Under the MoET’s direction, the researched university has transformed its policies and practices of English language testing and assessment At this university, the EAT is a new test that mirrors the PET, which is assumed to be the graduation condition test Not only is the graduation condition test important, but the achievement test of each semester on the way to the gate-keeping test does matter Nonetheless, challenges remain when the students are of low English language proficiency and the teachers attain no training In documentation, little scientific research

on washback of these tests to teachers’ perceptions and practices has been published to shed light on the situation To fill in the gap in the context, the present study aims to advance the washback framework, methodology and findings through the teachers’ perceptions of teaching and practices of teaching under the influence of the EAT at a Vietnamese university

1.4 Research Questions

The overarching aim of the research is to investigate the washback effects of the EAT on the teachers at a university in Vietnam In details, it targets washback of the EAT to the

teachers’ perceptions of teaching and practices of teaching Therefore, the overarching question is “How does the EAT exert its washback on teachers at a university in Vietnam?”

To be specific, two sub-research questions are formulated as follows:

1 How does the EAT exert its washback on teachers’ perceptions of teaching at the university in Vietnam?

2 How does the EAT exert its washback on teachers’ practices of teaching at the university in Vietnam?

1.5 Scope of the Study

The current study sets its scope in accordance with the test, the participants, the research questions and the research time First, the study is limited to the washback of a final English achievement test on four teachers’ perceptions and practices of teaching at a multi-disciplinary university in the North of Vietnam An English achievement test of course English 2 in the second semester for non-English majored freshmen at the target university was selected as a key instrument for the study It is noted that course English 2 prepared the students for an English graduation condition test The test measures students’ outcomes of a course that has been reformed in the orientation of PET The test

is necessary to prepare the students for an external PET with an expected score used to certify their graduation condition of B1 English level Second, a thorough investigation of the subject matter on four teachers of a purposive sampling in a particular HEI can tell a true deep story of this issue in the context of testing and assessment in Vietnam at the current time The depth of the study can make an amendment for the limited number of participants and the narrow research context Third, the study formulates two research questions on teachers’ perceptions of teaching and on their practices of teaching correspondingly No question on the relationship between teachers’ perceptions and practices is raised herein since this issue naturally exists as suggested in the two research questions (Section 1.4) The first research question concerns the teachers’ teaching

reported through their perceptions and the second question copes with their teaching in reality These two aspects are intended to be investigated later on the same criteria (Figure 2.6) Therefore, the correlation will occur naturally and are taken into consideration when necessary Last but not least, the research focuses on the prior-test time period with interviews and observations of teachers’ thoughts and actions to prepare for the EAT In addition, the study lasted through a four-month period from February

2019 to May 2019

1.6 Structure of the Study

The present study consists of six Chapters: Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Findings, Discussions, Conclusion and Implications The first Chapter introduces the rationales, significance, context of the study in Vietnam, research questions and scope of the study Chapter Literature Review presents key concepts and theories as well as findings of the previous studies in relevance to the current research topic of washback of a test on teachers’ perceptions and practices The Chapter scaffolds the conceptual framework that guides the current study Chapter Methodology displays the research design with specific research steps involving the time-bound and the research methods Research participants, instruments, and measures against the threat to the research trustworthiness are included Chapter Findings presents the fresh meaningful data collected from the data collection phase in themes Chapter Discussion addresses the research questions on a theoretical level The last Chapter of Conclusion and Implications summerises key prominent findings answering the research questions, followed by recommendations for key stake-holders to mediate teaching and assessment to promote beneficial washback in and beyond, if possible, the research context Research limitations and recommendations are pointed out in this final chapter

1.7 Chapter Summary

The Introduction Chapter has introduced the rationales, significance, context, research questions, scope, and structure of the present study In terms of the research rationales,

the emergence of testing and assessment at large and washback research in particular and the role of the tertiary Vietnamese teachers in the current washback research have provoked the study “Washback of an English achievement test on teachers: A study at a university in Vietnam” The study is meaningful both theoretically and the empirically While it contributes to the theory of washback research, it provides the valuable information for the researched university’s authorities and teachers to reflect their English language policies and practices for a better quality assurance in their English language education Furthermore, the potential findings can be transferred to similar contexts for compare and contrast for useful lessons related to English education improvement In the context of assessment of undergraduates’ English proficiency at higher education in Vietnam since 2008, different test formats have been applied The EAT was designed at the researched university to help the students approach the international standardised PET as their English graduation condition The research questions concern how the EAT exerts its washback on the teachers’ perceptions and practices of teaching at the university This study is limited to four English teachers only who taught Course English 2 which measured the students’ final English achievement by the EAT

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter provides the readers with a theoretical background of the present research, which comprises three themes The first theme (2.1) names the basic testing-and-assessment concepts including language testing and assessment, achievement tests, and test usefulness The second theme (2.2) is washback in terms of its definitions, existence conditions, directions, frameworks, teachers’ perceptions and practices This step helps scaffold the conceptual washback model of the present study The third theme (2.3) is a critical review of previous empirical studies on tertiary teachers’ perceptions and practices under the test influences

2.1 Basic Testing-and-Assessment Concepts

This literature review section embraces three parts The first part (2.1.1) reviews general concepts of language testing and assessment, the second part (2.1.2) focuses on the definitions of achievement tests, and the last part (2.1.3) gives a brief presentation of test usefulness that includes washback as a quality

2.1.1 Concepts of language testing and assessment

Testing and assessment, currently in common parlance in language teaching, pertain to not only individuals but also curriculum, schools and educational policies The concepts

of testing, assessment and their relationship is presented below

Firstly, the distinction between testing and assessment will be reviewed Assessment

refers to an ongoing systematic process or strategy to gather the information both qualitatively and quantitatively to make decisions about individuals (Brown, 2004; Czech, 2010; Messick, 1996; Nunan, 2003) Popham (2002, p 4) states: “Educational assessment is a formal attempt to determine students’ status with respect to educational variables of interest.” The process is “formal” because it takes place professionally and systematically in the classroom context The phrase “educational variables ofinterests” suggests the acceptance of variations in degree of knowledge, learning styles and attitudes

It has diversified educational practices such as case studies, presentations which are conducted

by different agents including teachers, students and their peers (Alderson & Hughes, 1981;

Brown, 1996) Testing, on the other hand, is one

of the assessment procedures using an instrument

named a test, i.e a method or an instrument of

measuring a person’s ability, knowledge, or performance in a given domain by using either a numerical scale or a classification scheme

(Bachman, 2010; Nunan, 2003) A language test

is a “procedure for gathering evidence of general

or specific language abilities from performance on tasks designed to provide a basis for predictions about an individual’s use of those abilities in real world contexts” (McNamara, 2000, p.11)

Figure 2.1 visualises the correlation between a test and assessment Both are embraced in the process of teaching, backing its efficiency by informing students’ achievements and deficiencies from which pedagogical actions will be adjusted, but a test has a smaller scale than assessment All kinds of tests are formal assessment but formal assessment is not necessarily a test (Brown, 2004) Assessment can be either formative or summative Formative assessment, in other words, ongoing assessment, is conducted throughout a course time in various forms like a classroom poll, a quick response or small research for feedback It helps monitor the learning process along the time On the other hand, summative assessment often attains the information through a test An English achievement test is a salient example of summative assessment in a language classroom

to reflect the teaching and training results

The review has shown that language testing has a language test as an instrument and a test is one form of assessment which collects information about test-takers by measuring their language ability The result can be used in the process of evaluation from which further educational decisions can be made In Bachman and Palmer (1996)’s view, teachers’ literacy of the test is especially important to design and to use the test appropriately This brief coverage of testing and assessment definitions expects to contribute to language teachers’ very basic testing and assessment literacy

2.1.2 Achievement tests

Language tests are divided into different types, based on different criteria such as test purposes or test methods This part classifies tests according to purposes and then defines achievement tests – the focus of this study

In terms of the language content coverage, achievement tests and proficiency tests occur

as a pair in a test purpose classification (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2010; Brown, 2013, Bachman, 1990; Hughes, 2003; McNamara, 2000) While proficiency tests are theory-based, i.e testing test-takers’ “can-dos” in real life in accordance with a given language proficiency theory, achievement tests are syllabus-based and assess the curriculum objectives (Bachman, 1995; Bailey, 1996; Brown, 2013; Brown & Hudson, 2002; Cheng, Watanabe & Curtis, 2004; Hughes, 2003) The compliance with the syllabus of the achievement tests allow them to be better at reflecting the effectiveness of teaching and learning in a course

Achievement tests along with its familiarity to almost all teachers and learners play a central role in assessing students' accomplishment by the end of a unit or a programme (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2010, p 9; McNamara, 2000, p 12; Walberg, 2011, p 2) Its principal purpose is to announce the standard achievement for all stake-holders like students, teachers, authorities, or parents from which appropriate decisions pertaining to learning and teaching reforms or mastery certification are made (Brown & Abeywickrama; 2010; Hughes, 2003) By definition, achievement tests evaluate the

fulfilled amount of course contents pertaining to the course objectives (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2010; Brown, 2013; Hughes, 2003; McNamara, 2000) Hughes (2003)

classifies achievement tests into two types: final and progress ones in terms of the

administration time He provides sound arguments on the final achievement test approaches Final achievement tests at the course end can follow either the syllabus content or the objectives The syllabus-content based approach appeals fair to students since tests cover what students have learned in the course Nonetheless, if the syllabus or the material in particular is badly developed, the test result can mislead the students’ language ability For instance, a high score in the English test of the old K12-English course book which is deficient of the listening test cannot signify the test-takers’ true language ability Moreover, achievement tests can measure linguistic competence, but not communicative performance (Morrow, 1979; Carroll, 1980; Weir, 1988, cited in Fareen, 2016) Hirsh (2017, cited in Fareen, 2016) states that teachers should be content – specific for students’ achievement, but they should be responsile for lightening their communicative competence The second approach aligns the test content with the course objectives By this way, course objectives are made explicit to all course designers, teachers and students Hughes (2003) believes that final achievement tests aligning with course objectives can interpret students’ language ability better; therefore, more positive washback can be created However, choosing appropriate materials for established objectives is demanding Plus, course objectives are more challenging to reach than course contents This challenge can cause students’ dissatisfaction of test results This approach emerges the blur between achievement tests and proficiency tests Hughes (2003) argues: “If a test is based on the objective of a course, and these are equivalents to the language needs on which a proficiency is based, there is no reason to expect a difference between the form and content of the two tests” (p 14) Final achievement tests are usually standardised since all the tests follow the same structures Test writers and developers should ground on specific course objectives to design tests

Besides final achievement tests of the summative meaning, progressive achievement tests

of the formative purpose are popular in language classrooms to measure how much progress students have made This achievement test runs into two streams The first one administers final achievement tests repeatedly with an expectation of rising scores as indicators of progress This is blamed to be impractical, especially when students have insufficient syllabus exposure The second one aims at short-term objectives, which matches the limited volume of the contents students have learned Feedback or reflection

is fairly important for both teachers and students to adapt their teaching and learning correspondingly The achievement test in the current research is characterised as the second type that intends to gauge the sum of knowledge and skills that non-English majored freshmen have attained in English course 2 in the second semester The current study aims to investigate both teachers’ perceptions and practices under the influence of a final English achievement test to fill in the research gap

2.1.3 Test usefulness

Both proficiency and achievement tests should be examined for quality Test usefulness,

or test qualities should be the central interest of test developers, test users and test-takers because it can help to measure the test-takers’ language ability well The test usefulness

is largely discussed in research by Bachman (1995), Bachman and Palmer (1996), Fulcher and Davison (2007), Shohamy (1993) Bachman and Palmer (1996, p 18) propose a framework of test usefulness with six qualities as reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact and practicality as presented in Figure 2.2

Usefulness = Reliability + Construct validity +

Authenticity + Interactiveness + Impact + Practicality

Figure 2.2 Test usefulness (Bachman & Palmer, 1996, p.18)

Six qualities of a test are both distinctive and integrative Reliability is a crucial feature of

a test which denotes the consistency of measurement To illustrate, a test-taker should achieve the same test score in different settings The same score should happen again if

two versions of the same test is administered To increase the reliability of a test, it is advised to gauge a restricted range of language competence or constructs (Bachman & Palmer, 1996) and use a clarified scoring key (Hughes, 2003)

Then, another key term in testing is construct that is the specific ability definition used as

the basis for designing a test task and interpreting scores gained from the task (Bachman

& Palmer, 1996) Hence, construct validity denotes the degree for a test score to be

interpreted and generalised to indicate the construct or ability in measurement (Bachman

& Palmer, 1996) Construct validity is qualified both qualitatively and quantitatively (Bachman & Palmer, 1996; Messick, 1996; Weir, 2005) Validating a test is an on-going and complicated process Reliability is considered an essential condition for construct validity

The next concept is authenticity that means the extent of correlation between the

characteristics of test tasks and the target language use (Bachman & Palmer, 1996) Authenticity links the test tasks to the general language use in a non-test condition; therefore, it supports the generability of test score interpretation, which is construct validity Authenticity is so important because it can predict the test-takers’ real life use of language

Interactiveness of a test is defined as the commitment of test-takers’ individual

characteristics to accomplish a test task (Bachman & Palmer, 1996) The characteristics are defined as the language ability, topical knowledge and affective schemata When interactiveness refers to language ability, it is also integrated in validity

The next quality of a test is impact on both the society and individuals A test is used for

a specific purpose which serves the needs of an educational institution or the society at large; therefore it has significant consequences on the stakeholders (Cheng, 2008; Latimer, 2009; Taylor, 2005) Impact on the micro level, i.e the classroom context, is

referred to as washback (Bachman & Palmer, 1996) It acts as an external link of the test

to stakeholders or social effects of the test on stakeholders

The last quality of a test is practicality, which is distinguished from the other five

qualities in such a way that it does not pertain to the uses of the test core, but the method the test is developed and implemented in a certain situation It is the relationship between the available resources and the required resources (Bachman & Palmer, 1996) These factors are interwoven in the test operation These qualities are integrative although the degree can vary in differing contexts A high-stakes test puts more emphasis on reliability and validity while a classroom test can have more elements of authenticity, interactiveness and impact Reliability and validity are core measurement qualities of a test because they are closely reflected by the score interpretation, while four other components concern more the societal aspects of a test It is also argued that no test is 100% reliable, valid, authentic, interactive, impactful and practical (Bachman & Palmer, 1996; Messick, 1996); hence, a good balance is the goal to design and implement a test

In research, reliability, validity, and impact/washback are dominant, compared to the remaining components, and they are also studied together in many contexts (Alderson & Wall, 1993; Cheng et al 2015; Choi, 1999; Fulcher, 1997; Hitotuzi, 2002(Choi, 1999)(Choi, 1999); Kane, 2001; Messick, 1996; Pan & Newfields, 2012; Sims, 2015; Zahedkazemi, 2015) Aside from two technical measurement issues of the test, i.e reliability and validity, washback has been attracting more researchers since the twenty-first century (Alderson & Banerjee, 2001; Alderson & Banerjee, 2001, 2002; Cheng, 2008; Cheng, Andrews & Yu, 2011; Nguyễn Thị Linh, 2017; Nguyễn Thúy Lan, 2017a,

b, 2018; Hsu, 2009; Pan & Newfields, 2012; Salamoura et al, 2014; Shohamy, 1993; Spratt, 2005; Zafarghandi & Nemati, 2015)

2.2 Washback, Teachers’ Perceptions and Teachers’ Practices

This section elaborates on reviews the concepts that are very closely related to the current study, which are the concepts of washback – the last test qualities in the previous section (2.2.1), teachers’ perceptions (2.2.2) and teachers’ practices (2.2.3) as well as the relationship between teachers’ perceptions and practices (2.2.4) More importantly, the

review reaches the conceptual framework (2.2.5) which guides the data collection, analysis, findings and discussion of the study

2.2.1 Washback

2.2.1.1 Conceptualization of washback

Washback has appeared in language testing since the 80s of the twentieth century (Bailey,

1996; Cheng et al., 2004) The interest in the area has emerged strongly over the past 20 years (Cheng et al., 2015) In this section, the concept of washback is elaborated in comparison with other relevant concepts

Washback is frequently mentioned beside backwash, consequences and impact Washback and backwash refer to the same phenomenon (Cheng, et al 2004; Cheng & Tsagari, 2017; Hughes, 2003) while it is not fully synonymous with consequences and impact (Bachman & Palmer, 1996, Cheng et al, 2015, Pan, 2009) Consequences belong

to general education measurement, pertaining to the matter of validity, i.e consequential validity which happens after the test event to various stakeholders (Cheng et al., 2015;

Morrow, 1986; Pan, 2009) In the Messickan view (1989, 1996), consequential validity covers the use of the test, the impact of testing on teachers and learners, the interpretation

of test scores Morrow (1986) raises the first concept of “washback validity” to describe

the quality of the relationship between a test and teaching It is also consequential validity Messick (1996) regards washback as “only one form of testing consequence that needs to be weighted in evaluating validity, and testing consequences are only one aspect

of construct validity needing to be addressed” (p 243) Washback and impact, on the other hand, are narrowed down to the area of applied linguistics (Cheng et al., 2015) The former affects teaching and learning within the training context, and the latter operates beyond the classroom scale (society) and relates to all stakeholders (students, teachers, parents, administrators, and policy-makers) (Bachman & Palmer, 1996; Cheng et al., 2015; McNamara, 2000) Impact, on its micro level of the classroom context, is called

washback (Bachman & Palmer, 1996) Hughes (2003, p 53) defines washback as “a part

of the impact a test may have on learners and teachers, on educational systems in general, and on society at large” From another perspective, washback operates in both the narrow and the wide context (Alderson & Banerjee, 2001, 2002; Alderson & Wall, 1993; Bachman & Palmer, 1996; Manjarrés, 2004) Alderson and Wall (1993) and Bachman and Palmer (1996) distinguish washback from impact but still assert that washback does not limit its effect on teaching and learning but is a very complicated phenomenon which

spreads its impact beyond the school context While viewing washback as the test impact

on teaching and learning, Shohamy (1993) states that measurement-driven instruction means test-driven learning; curriculum alignment refers to the testing-teaching correspondence; and systemic validity sees the introduction of a new test should

systemically enhance learning It can be interpreted that these terms differ in terms of scale, and washback is a covering concept Berry (1994, p 34) and Pierce (1992, p 687)

add to the wash back definition that washback effect means systematic validity To be

brief, the concept of washback is being formed along with the distinguishing of its

synonyms, embracing impact, consequences/consequential validity, measurement driven instruction, curriculum alignment and systematic validity It can be seen that impact and

validity are two prominent concepts pertaining to washback Despite the varied theoretical conceptualizations, so far, in practice, washback and impact have often been used interchangeably regardless its distinction of the operating scale

This research concerns washback in the narrow sense, limited to individuals in the classroom context This conceptualization of washback has been further specified in the literature Generally, Buck (1988, p 17, cited in Bailey, 1999) introduces washback first

as a “natural tendency for both teachers and students to tailor their classroom activities to the demand of the test” or “the influence of the test on the classroom” Other general concepts of washback can be provided as “the effect of testing on teaching and learning” (Hughes, 2003, p.1); “the impact of external language tests to affect and drive foreign language learning in the school context” (Shohamy, 1992, p 153); “the direct impact of

testing on individuals” (Bachman & Palmer, 1996, p 30) or the force for “teachers and learners to do things they would not necessarily otherwise do because of the test” (Alderson & Wall, 1993, p.1) If these definitions sound fairly general, other authors provided more specific definitions of washback in the classroom Cohen (1994, p 41) claims that washback clarifies “how assessment instruments affect educational practices and beliefs” Messick (1996, p 4) considers washback “the extent to which the introduction and use of a test influences language teachers and learners to do things they would not otherwise do that promote or inhibit language learning” Other researchers extend the definition by identifying factors and participants involving into the change Pierce (1992, p 687) adds washback as “the impact a test has on classroom pedagogy, curriculum pedagogy, curriculum development and educational policy” Pearson (1988,

p 7) states washback from the psychological perspective that “Public examinations influence the attitudes, behaviours, and motivation of teachers, learners, and parents, and because the examinations often come at the end of a course, this influence is seen working in a backward direction, hence the term, washback.” Nonetheless, he admits that this direction can operate forward since tests can lead teaching and learning Cheng (2008, p.8) sees washback in its opposite directional influence of intended or unintended (accidental) direction and function of curriculum change on aspects of teaching and learning by means of a change of public examination Bullock (2017, slide 3) states very clearly that washback effect is “the influence of the format or content of tests or examinations on the methods and content of teaching and learning leading up to the assessment” It is noted that the effects are only washback if they can be linked to the introduction and use of the targeted test (Messick, 1996)

The above analysis yields a new shape of washback Washback denotes the test influence

on teachers’ and students’ psychological mechanism and actions to reach the educational goals of teaching, learning and testing In the washback process, teachers are “the ‘front-line’ conduits for the washback processes related to instruction” (Bailey, 1999, p 17)

They are supposed to introduce tests to students and leads them to the goal Plus, washback effects, according to Alderson and Wall (1993) and Cheng and Curtis (2012),

do not result from the test quality but the way teachers perceive and react to it The present research endeavors to examine the washback mechanism of the EAT to teachers

at a Vietnamese university to figure out how the test exerts its influence on the teachers’ perception of professional practicing and how they actually act in and for their English class

2.2.1.2 Conditions for washback existence

“Does washback exist?” is the question raised by Alderson and Wall (1993) That question presents a task for washback researchers to find out whether the test in their research meets the washback conditions posed by previous researchers

Firstly, washback is said to occur to important tests (Alderson & Wall, 1993) or tests that are introduced and used purposefully (Messick, 1996) Washback can be tracked when:

(1) the same teacher teaches the exam-preparation class differently from preparation class differently, and (2) different teachers teach different classes of exam preparations the same (Watanabe, 2004, p.28) The first condition can only be tested

non-exam-when the participant teacher teaches both class types The second condition can be checked when a programme recruits more than one teacher Then, Hughes (1994, pp 2- 3) also lists six conditions for possible washback, which can be summarized into two major factors including the importance of students’ success to both students and teachers, and their familiarity with the test and the availability of necessary test resources Bailey (1996, pp 276-277) also mentions the participants’ understanding of the test, especially the test purpose and the intended test result use, and the participants’, including teachers’ and students’ investment into the assessment procedures Like Bachman and Palmer (1996), Bailey (1996) is concerned about the quality of the test and she moves to the correspondence between the test and the set course goals Her highlighted points are backed up by many other washback researchers (Alderson & Wall, 1993; Brown and

Abeywickrama, 2010; Cheng, 1999; Cheng & Curtis, 2012; Hsieh, 2017; Hughes, 2003; Pan, 2009; Shohamy, 1993) Alderson and Banerjee (2001), Bailey (1996), Cheng et al (2004), Peña Jaenes (2017), and Shohamy (1998) widen the operation of washback on not only high-stakes tests but low-stakes ones as well Antineskul and Sheveleva (2015) and Tajeddin and Dabbagh (2015), for example, find out obvious constructive effects of achievement tests on teachers and students

The test in the current study meets many conditions of the existence of the washback effects as presented above The EAT satisfies Messick (1996)’s demand of a specific test introduced to a specific English training programme As discussed in part 1.2 and 1.3, the EAT was introduced and used purposely to prepare for the students’ approaching a very meaningful PET as a graduation condition test In addition, Wantanabe (2004) demands more than one teacher teaching the same programme This is true at the researched site Other conditions will be uncovered through the research (see 3.2, 3.3, 3.4)

When tests are overused as teaching and learning instruments within limited class hours, the content of the test and the type of tasks will be focused, which restricts learning

experience as well as the stretch to the real world (Bachman, 2010, Alderson & Lyons, 1996; Pan, 2009; Shohamy, 1998; Watanabe, 2004) Globally-recognised tests like TOEFL and IELTS with their huge test banks impact their test tasks strongly in teachers’ class (Peña Jaenes, 2017; Read and Hayes, 2003; Shohamy, 1998; Saif, 2006; Tsagari, 2011; Wall & Horák, 2006) There are worries that examinations may promote traditional or dull teaching in class: a) teacher centered; b) teacher-to-whole-class oriented; c) focused on the learning of discrete facts; d) product oriented (Gorsuch, 1999, cited in Onaiba, 2013) Teaching-to-the-test can make teachers’ teaching skills for real life communication blunt, but transform them into test trainers of test-taking tips For practicality and reliability, most language tests exploit discrete points (i.e., MCQs or true-false items) and eliminate integrative tasks (Furaidah et al 2015) These tests have negative washback rather than positive washback on teachers They encourage route learning and lower-ordered thinking skills of memorizing and understanding (Onaiba,

Hamp-2003, p 47; Özmen, 2011, p 223,) Anxiety and pressure threaten both teachers and learners when they are required to reach the goals Negative psychological conditions are reported largely (Hughes, 2003; Shohamy, 1993, 1998; Mahmoudi; 2013; Onaiba, 2013; Tayeb et al, 2018; Tsagari, 2007; Wang, 2010) Hughes (2003), Shohamy (1993), Tayeb

et al (2018), Thuy Nhan (2013) find teachers’ negative attitudes toward the test because

it caused their tensions and anxiety The leaders have high demand while the students possess low-proficiency Plus, the teachers have no role in test design Students, on the other hand, are threatened, too when the success in the test has a significant meaning to them (Onaiba, 2013, p 59) Furthermore, external forces like parents’ or employers’ expectation, usually in the form of test scores, put a heavy burden on the process of reaching the goal (Hsieh, 2017, p 2; Shohamy, 1993, p 6) Amrein-Beardsley (2010), cited in Onaiba (2013, p 59) even sees teachers’ cheating under pressure with either intended actions of misdoings or careless attitudes Therefore, the course objective can be violated and replaced to help learners get an expected test score (Cheng, 2008) Learning-to-the-test just raises students’ test wiseness Cramming for the exam can be a nightmare

to language students, killing their motivation for progressive courses Many students, under tremendous pressure, have to spend huge amount of time, money and effort in coaching class, which can be described as “a disaster to some children and to schools” (Wiseman, 1961, p 158, cited in Nguyen et al., 2008) Hsu (2009) and Tasi and Tsu (2009, cited in Hsieh, 2017) report that high-stakes language tests pose pressure and anxiety on low-proficiency learners, especially those who are technical students More seriously, no one can be sure that the performance of the test truly reflects learners’ language ability Here and there we can face a person having a remarkable IELTS score, for example, but lacking many qualities of a communicator like confidence and natural

speaking skills Test score pollution is what Haladyna et al (1991, cited in Onaiba, 2003)

call out Test violation, for example cheating, can happen in test preparation and conduction; therefore, the test score reflects no more than a deceptive picture of students’ achievement Plus, teaching and learning to the test may lead to a superficial outcome of both language contents and cultural knowledge of the language The pressure not only burdens teachers and learners but the whole educational system when decision makers consider the test a motive for innovation of curriculum and teaching methodology The report on results can impact the school reputation Frustration will be widespread when the expected score is hard to get

All the negative evidence presented above comes from high-stake tests, for which students’ successful score in the exam is of great importance to almost all stakeholders

In those classrooms, activities closely in relevance to the test dominate teaching, learning and assessment

2.2.1.3.2 Positive washback

Albeit to the existence of negative washback, positive washback is the key interest of language educators by large and washback researchers in particular because new tests are introduced not for only the sake of an expected score achievement but the improvement

in language competence Pan (2009, p.61) summarises three beneficial washback effects:

(1) teachers’ strict alignment with the teaching contents and the time frame, (2) students’ efforts and achievements, and (3) good teaching from good tests Totch (2006) and Haggies (2008), cited in Onaiba (2013) praise the economy in the administration of discrete-point tests, but this should be considered deleterious effects because this test form may destroy communicative competence

Opposing the idea of negative washback due to curriculum narrowing, Bachman (1995), Messick (1996), and Turner (2005) own another interesting perspective that positive washback occurs when there is a good match between contents and teaching activities articulated in the curriculum and contents and tasks of the test When the curriculum, with the test format and construct, becomes obvious, teachers have a way to help students explore the subject more thoroughly Teachers can follow a strict timeframe to complete the syllabus Lessons become more structured Teachers can base on the test content, test tasks and test format to design more appropriate learning activities for students in terms

of their interest and motivation (Pearson, 1988, p 107) Plus, the high-stakes test can impulse students to work harder and more intensively, through which they can gain immense knowledge and skills (Pan, 2009) Globally recognized tests like IELTS or TOEFL are exploited in many language classes as beneficial teaching resources, which can cater students with real life situations For example, students can practice language of discussion and negotiation with their classmates Students can practice expressing their views persuasively and systematically Tests with authentic tasks largely contribute to enhancing students’ language competence Their achievement in score is a concomitant

of their potential success in real-life communication The bridge from tests to life, if done

on a holistic educational view, will bring about immense merits for language users because it can even sample life skills like goal orientation, source exploration and utilization Chen (2008), cited in Hsieh (2015), and Nguyen (2017b) point out the positive washback of high-stakes tests in increasing English language proficiency of learners from top-tier universities in such a way that it engages teachers and students