Strategic planning for public relations by ronald d smith J7TbEBmsUBS7eIkI8wosyt7bU0mTABCj pdf

Public Relations Situation 19Issues Management 22 Public Relations and Ethics 24 Strategic Planning Example: Analyzing the Identifying Publics 46 Strategic Planning Exercise: Identifying

Strategic Planning

for Public Relations

Strategic Planning

for Public Relations

Ronald D Smith, APR

Buffalo State College

LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS

2002

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Strategic planning for public relations / edited by Ronald D Smith.

Copyright © 2002 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc

All right reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in

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Phase Four

Step 9

Public Relations Situation 19

Issues Management 22

Public Relations and Ethics 24

Strategic Planning Example: Analyzing the

Identifying Publics 46 Strategic Planning Exercise:

Identifying Publics 47

Identifying Key Publics 49

Strategic Planning Example: Identifying Key Publics 49

Strategic Planning Exercise: Identifying Key Publics 52

Analyzing Key Publics 53

Stages of Development 54 Key Characteristics 56 Rethinking Your Publics 57 Benefit Statement 58 Strategic Planning Example: Analyzing Key Publics 59

Strategic Planning Exercise: Analyzing Key Publics 61

Objectives 71

Standards for Objectives 72

Hierarchy of Objectives 74

Writing Public Relations Objectives 77

Strategic Planning Example: Establishing

Goals and Objectives 78

Strategic Planning Exercise: Establishing

Goals and Objectives 79

Reactive Public Relations Strategies 97

Pre-emptive Action Strategy:

Prebuttal 98

Offensive Response Strategies 99

Defensive Response Strategies 100

Diversionary Response Strategies 102

Vocal Commiseration Strategies 104

Rectifying Behavior Strategies 107

Strategic Inaction: Silence 109

Strategic Planning Example: Formulating

Action and Response Strategies 109

Strategic Planning Exercise: Formulating

Action and Response Strategies 110

Strategic Planning Exercise: Identifying Message Sources 125

Logos: Appealing to Reason 126

Proposition 126 Verbal Evidence 127 Avoiding Errors of Logic 128 Visual Supporting Evidence 128

Pathos: Appealing to Sentiment 128

Positive Emotional Appeals 130 Negative Emotional Appeals 131 Strategic Planning Example: Determining Message Appeals 133

Strategic Planning Exercise: Determining Message Appeals 134

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 135

Verbal Communication 135 Nonverbal Communication 142 Strategic Planning Example: Planning Verbal/Nonverbal Communication 144 Strategic Planning Exercise: Planning Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 145

Phase T hree

Step 7

Conventional Communication Categories 153 Strategic Communication Categories 154 Interpersonal Communication

Techniques 156

The Strategy of Interpersonal Communication Tactics 156 Personal Involvement 157 Information Exchange 158 Special Events 160

Strategic Planning Example: Choosing

Interpersonal Communication

Tactics 164

Strategic Planning Exercise: Choosing

Interpersonal Communication Tactics 165

Organizational Media Tactics 167

The Strategy of Organizational

Strategic Planning Example: Choosing

Organizational Media Tactics 174

Strategic Planning Exercise: Choosing

Organizational Media Tactics 175

News Media Tactics 176

The Strategy of News Media Tactics 176

Newspapers 178

Magazines 181

Radio 182

Television 184

Serving Media Information Needs 184

Direct News Material 186

Indirect News Material 190

Opinion Material 190

Interactive News Opportunities 191

Strategic Planning Example: Choosing News

Media Tactics 193

Strategic Planning Exercise: Choosing News

Media Tactics 194

Advertising and Promotional Media Tactics 195

The Strategy of Advertising and Promotional

Media Tactics 195

Print Advertising Media 196

Electronic Media Advertising 199

Out-of-Home Advertising 201

Promotional Items 203

Strategic Planning Example: Choosing

Advertising and Promotional Tactics 204

Strategic Planning Exercise: Choosing Advertising and Promotional Tactics 205

Packaging the Communication Tactics 206

Thinking Creatively 207 Putting the Program Together 207 Strategic Planning Example: Packaging the Communication Tactics 209

Strategic Planning Exercise: Packaging Communication Tactics 210

Step 8

The Written Plan 211 The Schedule 213

Frequency of Tactics 213 Timelines of Tasks 214

The Budget 216

Budget Item Categories 217 Approaches to Budgeting 218 Managing the Budget 221 Full-Cost Budgets 223 How Much Success Is Necessary? 224 Strategic Planning Example: Implementing the Strategic Plan 224

Strategic Planning Exercise: Implementing the Strategic Plan 226

Phase Four

Step 9

Research Design: What to Evaluate 231

Design Questions 231 Evaluation Criteria 232

Timing: When to Evaluate 233

Implementation Report 233 Progress Report 236 Final Evaluation 236

Research Design 236

Methodology: How to Evaluate 238

Judgmental Assessments 239

Evaluation of Communication Outputs 241

Evaluation of Awareness Objectives 243

Evaluation of Acceptance Objectives 246

Evaluation of Action Objectives 246

Data Analysis 248

Evaluation Reports 248

Structure of the Evaluation Report 249

The Ultimate Evaluation: Value-Added

Strategic Planning for Public Relations offers college and university students a

new way to deepen their understanding of public relations and other kinds of

strategic communication It is intended for people serious about entering a

pro-fession that is rapidly changing, shedding a past that often involved merely performing

tasks managed by others and taking on a newer, more mature role in the management

of organizations

This book provides an in-depth approach to public relations planning, more

com-prehensive than can be found anywhere else It is built on a step-by-step unfolding of the

planning process most often used in public relations, with explanations, examples and

exercises that combine to guide students toward a contemporary understanding of the

profession

The approach used in Strategic Planning for Public Relations is rooted in the

author’s belief and observation that students learn best through a three-fold pattern

of being exposed to an idea, seeing it in use, and then applying it themselves This

is the rhythm of this book, its cadence if you will This is the design that takes a

complex problem-solving and decision-making process and turns it into a series of

easy-to-follow steps

Note to Students

Thank you for allowing me to share my ideas and insights into a profession that I have

found to be challenging and rewarding I wish you much success as you proceed toward

a career that I hope you, too, will discover to be exhilarating

I stumbled into public relations somewhat by accident, at least not by my own

conscious design I began my career as a newspaper reporter, and later as an editor, with

some side trips into television writing and producing I then made the transition into

public relations—at first building on a familiar base of media relations, publicity and

newsletters, and only later navigating into issues management, crisis response,

integrated communication, and a host of related areas Frankly, I wish there had been a

book like this to guide me toward an understanding of how to do public relations,

espe-cially the research and planning parts So I’m pleased to be able to share with you some

of the insights I’ve picked up along the way

With this book and the practical exercises that go with it, you are proceeding along

the road to professional success I wish you the best of luck

You should be aware that this book is intended for group development and class

activities While you certainly can use it alone, you will find that it comes more fully

alive as a text to guide group projects Even if you are not a student in a traditional

classroom, try to use this book in the context of your own project task force or

profes-sional work team

Note to Instructors

Thank you for choosing this textbook for your students Thanks especially for theopportunity to share with them some of my thoughts and observations on an excitingprofession I trust that you will find the information contained in this book to be wellwithin the framework of contemporary professional practice and academic principles

Strategic Planning for Public Relations grew out of my observation that students

seem to learn best when they understand concepts, have patterns to follow and adapt,and have the opportunity to work individually and in groups on tasks that graduallyunfold to reveal the bigger picture This is my intention with this book—to provide

a structure, yet to give you much flexibility in leading your students through theplanning process

Acknowledgments

John Dunne was right that no one is an island Neither does an author write alone, butinstead reflects in some way the insight of others in the field who write, teach andengage in the practice

Strategic Planning for Public Relations enjoys the input of many people As the

au-thor of this textbook, I’ll take personal responsibility for any errors or omissions, butI’m confident these are fewer because of the advice and assistance of many knowledge-able people who helped with this book

Collectively, my students have been major contributors to this book It is in theclassroom that I have tested and refined the ideas contained herein My students haveprodded me to articulate my ideas and to bolster them with plenty of real-worldexamples

My academic colleagues at Buffalo State emphasize practical, applied tion, and I have benefited from ongoing professional conversations with them, MarianDeutschman in particular My professional colleagues within the Public RelationsSociety of America consistently have helped me with their insight and constructivecriticism In particular, Ann Reynolds Carden APR and Stanton H Hudson APR havehelped me refine some of my ideas

communica-Two publishing teams have been helpful and supportive throughout the progress of

Strategic Planning for Public Relations Marisa L’Heureux at NTC/Contemporary

Pub-lishing was invariably encouraging as she guided the conceptual development of thisbook After a corporate transition landed me in the lap of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Linda Bathgate fortuitously became the book’s pilot, steering it to its final form Myspecial thanks go to Elizabeth MacDonnell, who as editor has read this book far morethan anybody ought to Liz has been a gentle editor, allowing me the freedom to saywhat I believe needs to be said, while guiding me to use language clearly and effectively

If you find this book to be lucid and unconfused, much of the credit belongs to Liz.Authors appreciate the comments and criticism of their peers, and I am particu-larly grateful to faculty across the country who took time from their busy teachingschedules to review this book: Ron Anderson of University of Texas at Austin, M L

Cornette of the University of South Dakota, Rick Fischer of Memphis State University,

Larissa Grunig of the University of Maryland, Lawrence Lamb of the University of

North Carolina, Ruth Ann Weaver Lariscy of the University of Georgia, Kathleen

Martinelli of San Jose State University, Shirley Serini of Ball State University, and Bill

Sledzik of Kent State University

Personal Dedication

Like the entirety of my life, this book is dedicated to my family

Though they don’t realize it, my three sons have been an inspiration as I worked on

this book We sometimes would sit across the desk from each other, me working at my

computer, one of them at theirs

As he progressed through college and now in his job in Japan, Josh has challenged

me to explain public relations every time I suggested he consider it as a career As Aaron

maneuvers his way through college, he has settled in as a public relations major With

his writing talents and his gift of being able to analyze any situation, he’ll be good if he

pursues this field Matt is still in high school, safe for the time being from having to

make career decisions But he, too, is a fine writer and an organized thinker, skills that

will come in handy if Plan A (playing in the NBA) doesn’t work out

My greatest appreciation goes to my wife, Dawn Minier Smith During the

evolu-tion of this book, indeed during my entire teaching career, Dawn has been my sounding

board A teacher herself, she has lent her ear as I tested ideas, tried out new ways to

pre-sent lessons, and attempted to make sense of theories, cases and observations Since she

doesn’t see any domestic value in a wife fawning over her husband, Dawn’s

construc-tive criticism has been always trustworthy and thus most valuable I always take her

suggestions seriously Sometimes I’ve even had the good sense to follow them

An Invitation

This book is the result of much dialogue with others, particularly feedback from my

students But reader reaction inevitably is useful I invite all readers—students, teachers

and practitioners—to share your thoughts with me Give me comments and suggestions

for future editions Share your success stories and your frustrations with this book I also

invite you to use my Web site, where I have included an expanding number of pages and

links related to public relations and other aspects of strategic communication

Ron Smith smithrd@bscmail.buffalostate.edu faculty.buffalostate.edu/smithrd

Ronald D Smith, APR, is a professor of public communication at Buffalo State College,the largest college within the State University of New York He teaches public relationsplanning, writing and related classes to undergraduate and graduate students He also

is active as a consultant in public relations and strategic communication, assistingbusinesses and nonprofit organizations with planning, research, communicationmanagement and media training

In this book, Smith draws on considerable professional experience In addition to

12 years as an educator, he worked for 10 years as a public relations director and eightyears as a newspaper reporter and editor He also has been a Navy journalist

Smith holds a bachelor’s degree in English education from Lock Haven StateCollege and a master’s degree in public relations from Syracuse University He haspresented numerous workshops and seminars and has published research on public

relations and persuasive communication He also is the author of Becoming a Public

Relations Writer (2ndedition in press, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates) and co-author of

MediaWriting (2000, Longman).

Smith is an accredited member of the Public Relations Society of America and hasserved as president of PRSA’s Buffalo/Niagara chapter and chair of the Northeast Dis-trict In 1998, he was honored as “Practitioner of the Year” by the Buffalo chapter, whichhas given him several other awards and citations

xiv

ABC television, attack/counterattack strategy, 99

Abercrombie & Fitch, catalog, 171

Abortion protests, rhetorical strategy, 139

American Cancer Society, sunblock, 6

Amnesty International, rhetorical strategy, 139

Anita Bryant, corporate spokesperson, 122

Arnold the Pig, activist mascot, 207

AT&T, volunteerism, 88

Aunt Jemima, corporate symbol, 143

Beef Industry Council, corporate spokesperson, 122

Ben Johnson, corporate spokesperson, 122

Betty Crocker, corporate symbol, 143

Bob Dole, corporate spokesperson, 122

Boston political campaign activism, 89

Bridgewater/Firestone & rollover deaths, apology

strategy, 106

Bruce Willis, corporate spokesperson, 122

Burt Reynolds, corporate spokesperson, 122

Butt Man, political activism, 100

Caldor department stores, apology strategy, 106

Chocolate World, sponsorship, 157

Chrysler, relabeling strategy, 103

CIA, transparent communication, 96

Colorado Behavioral Healthcare Council, corporate

spokesperson, 122

Colorado Prepaid Tuition Fund, Silver Anvil campaign, 315

Continental Airlines, apology strategy, 105

Covenant House scandal, case study, 278

Cybill Shepherd, corporate spokesperson, 122

Dalai Lama, symbolic nonverbal communication, 143

Dennys restaurant, racial charges & response, 101; corrective

action strategy, 108

Department 56 Collectibles, Silver Anvil campaign, 318

Dow Corning & breast implants, attack strategy, 100; legal

strategy, 104; case study, 278

Earth First! environmental activism, 89

Ed Koch, corporate spokesperson, 122

Euro currency, pie throwing, 90

Exxon Valdez oil spill, concession strategy, 102; justification

strategy, 102; case study, 278

Federal Express, integrated communication, 6; Silver Anvil

campaign, 310

Florida Citrus Commission, corporate spokesperson, 122

Ford & rollover deaths, apology strategy, 106 Gay Games, sponsorship, 87

Goodyear, Aquatread tires, 5 Greyhound “Operation Home Free,” sponsorship, 88 Gus Macker Basketball Tournament, sponsorship, 88 Hallmark, love appeal, 130

Hershey Foods, sponsorship, 157 Hertz, corporate spokesperson, 122 Hewlett-Packard, integrated communication, 6 Hurley Haywood, corporate spokesperson, 123 Indiana government spending protest, activism strategy, 207 Intel Pentium product credibility, case study, 278

International Association of Chiefs of Police, sponsorship, 88 Iraq bombing, regret strategy, 104

Japanese emperor, regret strategy, 104 Japanese fishing vessel & U.S Navy submarine, apology strategy, 107

Japanese national anthem, nonverbal communication, 142 John McEnroe, corporate spokesperson, 123

Johnson & Johnson, Tylenol, 20; corrective action strategy, 108; case study, 278

Karl Malone, spokesperson, 123 Ketchum Employee Benefits Program, Silver Anvil campaign, 323

L.L Cool J’s Camp Cool Foundation, sponsorship, 88 Lexus, sponsorship, 87

Madonna, corporate spokesperson, 122 Makah tribe, Native American activism, 90; web site tactic, 174

MasterCard, corporate spokesperson, 122; sponsorship evaluation, 244

Maxwell House, love appeal, 130 McDonald’s customer injury, case study, 278 McDonald’s & Los Angeles riots, reputation, 6 McDonald’s McLean sandwich, new product introduction, 5 Metabolife, attack/counterattack strategy, 99

Michael Jackson, corporate spokesperson, 122 Microsoft & Bill Gates, pie throwing, 90 Mike Tyson, corporate spokesperson, 122 Mike Wallace, corporate spokesperson, 123 Missouri death penalty protests, activism strategy, 89 Mothers Against Drunk Driving, advertising tactic, 202 Motorola, integrated communication, 6

Following is an index of actual cases, organizations and events cited within Strategic Planning for Public

Relations as examples of various principles, strategies, and techniques.

MTV, sponsorship, 88

National Rifle Association, trade show, 158

Nestlé infant formula controversy, 102; case study, 278

New York City environmental activism, 89

NYPD, recruiting campaign, 200

O.L Simpson, corporate spokesperson, 122

Odwalla & e.coli contamination, response strategy, 105

Oldsmobile, “Not Your Father’s” campaign, 71

Oscar de la Renta, pie throwing, 90

Owens-Corning fiberglass, symbol strategy, 143

Patagonia, catalog, 171

Pentagon terrorist attack, patriotic appeal, 130;

symbolism, 143

People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, spokespeople, 97

Pepsi, corporate spokesperson, 122

Pepsi, syringe hoax; 19; excuse strategy, 101; VNR tactic,

189; case study, 278

Pfizer Pharmaceuticals, Viagra, 6; corporate

spokesperson, 122

Pie throwing, activism strategy, 90

Pope, symbolic nonverbal communication, 143

Porsche, corporate spokesperson, 123

President Clinton, pre-emptive strategy, 98; Lewinsky

scandal, 104

Proctor & Gamble, pie throwing, 90

Pro-life protests, rhetorical strategy, 123

Radio Rocks the Vote, 88

Race for the Cure, sponsorship, 88

Rogaine, corporate spokesperson, 123

Rural/Metro Ambulance Service, promotional tactic, 207

Rush Limbaugh, corporate spokesperson, 122

San Francisco Mayor Willie Brown, pie throwing, 90 Saturn, integrated communication, 6

Seagrams, corporate spokesperson, 122 Susan G Komen Breast Cancer Foundation, sponsorship, 88 Telletubby, criticism & response, 100

Three Mile Island, case study, 278 Trailways “Operation Home Free,” sponsorship, 88 TWA Flight 800 tragedy, CIA report, 96; rhetorical strategy, 139; case study, 278

Tylenol, 20; corrective action strategy, 108; case study, 278 U.S Immigration and Naturalization Service amnesty program, reputation, 87

U.S Navy SEALS, recruiting commercial, 200 U.S Navy submarine & Japanese fishing vessel, apology strategy, 107

U.S Navy Tailhook scandal, case study, 278 Union of American Hebrew Congregations, video tactic, 85 United Negro College Fund, advertising campaign, 200 United Parcel Service, promotional tactic, 207 United Way of America scandal, case study, 278 ValuJet crash, condolence strategy, 104 Volkswagen France, religious controversy, 102 Walt Disney Corporation, coalition, 86 Watergate break-in, rhetorical strategy, 139 World Cup Soccer Championship, sponsorship evaluation, 244

World Trade Center terrorist attack, patriarch appeal, 130; symbolism, 143

World Trade Organization, pie throwing, 90 Xerox, integrated communication, 6

Introduction

Why a book on strategic planning for public relations? Because effective and

creative planning is at the heart of all public relations and related activity

And because the field is changing

No longer is it enough merely to know how to do things Now the effective

com-municator needs to know what to do, why and how to evaluate its effectiveness Public

relations professionals used to be called upon mainly for tasks such as writing news

releases, making speeches, producing videos, publishing newsletters, organizing

displays and so on Now the profession demands competency in conducting research,

making decisions and solving problems The call now is for strategic communicators

To put it another way, communication technicians traditionally focus on tasks to be

accomplished These technician-level specialists in public relations and marketing

communication perform entry-level jobs or specialized tasks, often directed by others

Communication managers, meanwhile, make decisions Consider the complementary

roles of two categories of communications managers: tactical and strategic

Tactical managers make day-to-day decisions on many practical and specific

issues Should they send a news release or hold a news conference? Are they better off

with a brochure or a web page? Should they develop a mall exhibit, or would it be more

effective to create a computer presentation? Do they need another advertisement, and if

so, for which publication or station, and with what message using which strategy?

Strategic managers, on the other hand, are concerned with management, trends,

issues, policies and corporate structure What problems are likely to face the

organiza-tion over the next several years, and how might they be addressed? What is the crisis

readiness of the organization? Should senior personnel be offered an advanced level of

media training? What should be the policies for the Web page?

In the workplace, public relations practitioners often find themselves functioning in

both the technician and the managerial roles, but the balance is shifting Today’s

environment—and more importantly, tomorrow’s—calls for greater skill on the

man-agement side of communication The job of strategic communication planning calls for

four particular skills: (1) understanding research and planning, (2) knowing how to

make strategic choices, (3) making selections from an expanding inventory of tactical

choices and (4) completing the process by evaluating program effectiveness

A premise underlying this book is that public relations and marketing

communication are becoming more strategic, more scientific It is this strategic

perspective that will differentiate the effective practitioner from the one who simply

performs tasks and provides basic services

Strategic Planning for Public Relations is about making such decisions—not

by hunches or instinct, but by solid and informed reasoning that draws on the science

of communication as well as its various art forms This book tries to make the

complex process of strategic communication easily understandable by taking youthrough the process step by step You’ll find nine steps, each presented with threebasic elements:

1. Explanations that are clear and understandable, drawn from contemporary

theory and current practice

2. Examples that help you see the concept in action, drawn from both nonprofit

and forprofit organizations

3. Hands-on exercises in both short form and expanded versions that help you

apply the process in your own situation

Experience shows that this hybrid format—part textbook, part workbook—can make it

easier to learn about the planning process because it helps you think, see and do gic Planning for Public Relations gives you a solid, proven process that works It does-

Strate-n’t offer any secrets of the trade, because there really are no secrets Effective managers

in public relations and marketing communication use this kind of a process everyday,and that’s not much of a secret This book makes field-tested procedures available to you

in an understandable way so you can apply them yourself

Strategic Communication

Ask executives in business and nonprofit organizations what kind of employee theyvalue, and they’ll probably refer to someone who can effectively and creatively solveproblems and exploit opportunities

An effective practitioner understands a problem and manages it to its successfulconclusion How do we manage problems? Sometimes by making them go away.Sometimes just by helping them run their course with the least harm to the organization.Public relations practitioners face all kinds of problems: low visibility, lack of publicunderstanding, opposition from critics and insufficient support from funding sources.Marketing communicators face similar problems: unfamiliarity of companies or prod-ucts, apathy among consumers, product recalls and other liabilities Both may deal withindifference among workers and misunderstanding by regulators

Practitioners also deal with opportunities, such as promoting new products andservices or enhancing already effective programs In most organizations, it is thispositive communication that accounts for most of the time practitioners spend on thejob Meanwhile, forward-looking practitioners try to transform even obstacles intoopportunities for their organizations and clients

Strategic communication is the name for such planned communication

cam-paigns More specifically, it is intentional communication undertaken by a business ornonprofit organization, sometimes by a less structured group It has a purpose and aplan, in which alternatives are considered and decisions are justified Invariably, strate-gic communication is based on research and subject to eventual evaluation It operateswithin a particular environment, which involves both the organization and groups ofpeople who affect it in some way

Old, Yet New

The ancient and enduring wisdom that nothing is

new under the sun applies even to contemporary

communication.

Building credibility, maintaining trust, repairing

misunderstandings and promoting ideas are part of the

human impulse Today’s public relations practitioner deals with the same kind of problems that faced our predecessors last year, last decade, last century Noth- ing is new but the timing, the tools and perhaps our insight into the problem-solving process.

Strategic communication often is either informational or persuasive Its common

purpose is to build understanding and support for ideas and causes, services and

products

Where do we find examples of strategic communication? They’re all around us

Public relations is the most common embodiment of strategic communication, so much

so that this book uses the two terms interchangeably Actually, however, strategic

communication is the concept and public relations is its primary example In earlier

days, much public relations activity was haphazard and reactive But most current

public relations activity is strategic, and most practitioners see themselves as strategic

communicators

However, not all strategic communicators practice public relations Marketing

communication also is an embodiment of the concept of strategic communication

Still other examples are public health and social marketing campaigns, diplomacy and

international relations, constituent relations, political campaigns, and ecumenical or

interreligious affairs

Meanwhile, public relations itself is sometimes known by alternative names,

often linked to subsidiary areas such as media relations, or employee communication

Nevertheless, a research-based strategic planning process is necessary for effective

management of all the various aspects of public relations—regardless of their

names—including community relations, special events planning and promotion,

political campaigns, nonprofit events, and fund-raising and development (Austin and

Pinkleton, 2001) To that list we can add other elements of strategic public relations:

public affairs, issues management, crisis communication, public information,

consumer and customer relations, lobbying, investor relations, and so on

Addition-ally, there are some new names on the field: litigation public relations, risk

communi-cation and reputation management

Regardless of the label, we look to public relations for leadership and insight in the

practice of strategic communication, because most of the related fields and specialties

have adopted the set of skills and approaches that public relations has developed over

the last 75 years or so (Botan, 1997; Botan & Soto, 1998) Meanwhile, public relations

is beginning to more cousciously borrow some of the techniques and approaches

developed by other fields, particularly marketing and one of its primary

communica-tion tools, advertising

Integrated Communication

Public relations and marketing are distinct yet overlapping fields Each has its own focusand its own particular tools, and each discipline fulfills different purposes within an or-ganization Yet more and more, it is becoming evident that the coordination of publicrelations and marketing communication can increase an organization’s efficiency andeffectiveness Let’s look first at the common distinctions between public relations andmarketing communication and then at how they complement each other

In its classic sense, public relations focuses on long-term patterns of interaction

between an organization and all of its various publics, both supportive and ive Public relations seeks to enhance these relationships, thus generating mutual under-

nonsupport-standing, goodwill and support Marketing communication focuses more immediately

on products and services that respond to the wants and needs of consumers It seeks tofoster an economic exchange between the organization and its consumers

Both disciplines deserve a seat at the management table Both identify wants, ests, needs and expectations of key groups of people, and both structure ways tocommunicate with them Both disciplines rely on research and are rooted in the organi-zation’s mission and directed toward its “bottom line.” Finally, public relations andmarketing communication share a concern about both the short-term and long-terminterests of the organization

inter-The lines between marketing and public relations have never been neat and clean.Laypeople and the media use the terms more or less interchangeably, and distinctionshave been built more on stereotypes than on a reality Consider, for example, the stalenotions that advertising is solely a marketing tool or that public relations is only aboutpublicity In truth, public relations traditionally has engaged in public service advertis-ing, and it is a public relations perspective that drives image and advocacy advertising.Marketing, meanwhile, has used media relations, publicity and special events whilelaunching new or modified products, and many marketing concepts have proven useful

to public relations practitioners in nonprofit organizations attempting to recruitvolunteers or participants, lobby regulators and raise funds

Some organizations are consciously blending the concepts and the tools of publicrelations and marketing communication, not always smoothly Purists argue againstdiluting the disciplines, often fearing that integration will demote public relations to justanother piece of the marketing mix or subsume public relations under the advertisingtent Others accept integration in principal but dread lopsided implementation, such asthe “full-service” advertising agency that claims to offer integrated communicationwhile allocating most of the client’s budget to advertising

And guaranteed to send shivers down the spines of most public relations practitionersare articles such as one about a British survey reporting that public relations is “no longer aperipheral activity when it comes to marketing communication” but rather “an integral part

of the marketing ethos” and “one of the most important aspects of the marketing mix”(Gray, 1998) Such language can ignite turf battles because it portrays public relations asmerely a part of marketing that is finally being recognized as valuable Yet this same

“Future of Public Relations” study by Countrywide Porter Novelli, one of the United

Kingdom’s top five public relations agencies, reports some positive trends Among

mar-keting and corporate affairs directors, 92 percent said public relations is integral to

busi-ness objectives, 58 percent said public relations is of equal importance with advertising

and 66 percent expect to increase public relations spending over the next three years

Conflicting advice has come from the academic community A report by the

Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) suggested

integrating public relations and advertising into a shared curriculum to reflect new

practices in the field The Educational Affairs Committee of the Public Relations

Society of America (PRSA) reacted quickly to oppose such a blending

Controversy exists even on naming rights Some people call the blending

“integrated marketing communication.” Others dub it “integrated communication,”

“marketing public relations” or “total communication.” Some bulky new terms being

kicked around are “marketing-based public relations” and “integrated communications

(advertising and public relations).”

One study reports that while the educational community may have mixed

feel-ings about integrating the disciplines, practitioners seem to be accepting, even

embracing, the opportunities it can bring That was the observation of two

practitioners-turned-professors at Florida International University: Debra Miller, a former PRSA

president, and Patricia Rose, former president of the Miami Advertising Federation The

two reported that “public relations professionals support integrated marketing

commu-nications and accept it as a reality and necessity” because it makes sense and leads to

broader skills that can enhance their careers (Miller & Rose, 1994)

The 1998 appointment of a public relations executive to head Young & Rubicam’s

international advertising network dispelled some fears within the public relations

community about integrated communication Thomas Bell, former head of Y&R’s sister

agency, Burson-Marsteller Worldwide, vowed to be “someone who can deliver

integrated thinking” so the ad agency will consider “all the persuasive disciplines” in

servicing clients (Holmes, 1998)

Some people are working mightily to coordinate the complementary fields while

maintaining the autonomy and distinctive role of each Interestingly, some of these

peo-ple are outside the formal structures of public relations and marketing They include

CEOs who direct their marketing and public relations teams to collaborate in a

new-product campaign, and university presidents who enjoin their media relations

people to be attentive to recruiting and fund-raising needs

As organizations set out to create such a cooperative environment, the political task

can be dicey, but the potential rewards are huge Often it is enlightened organizational

leaders who see the big picture, recognizing the value of a coordinated and strategic

approach to communication Some of the most successful corporations in North

America integrate their communication, blending the traditional disciplines of public

relations and advertising to creatively present a clear and consistent message to their

various publics For example, when McDonald’s introduced its McLean sandwich, it

first used public relations to create awareness through the media, followed by

advertis-ing messages to reinforce the publicity and promotion Additionally, it was publicity

that enabled Goodyear to sell 150,000 new Aquatred tires before the first advertisements

ran Meanwhile, Pfizer used publicity alone to sell $250 million of Viagra before anyconsumer advertising began.

The integrated approach also has been used by nonprofit organizations such as theAmerican Cancer Society in its campaign for sunblock The approach has been adopted

by more loosely organized social campaigns dealing with bicycle safety, teen smoking,animal rights, birth control, utility deregulation and AIDS research One studysuggested that nonprofit organizations are particularly open to the coordinated use ofpublic relations and marketing communication techniques (Nemec, 1999)

Communication integration seems to be happening globally Philip Kitchen andDon Schultz (1999) reported that the concept is gaining momentum not only inthe United States but also in the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia and India.The integrated model, they observe, has become “acceptable,” though not yet the

“established norm.”

Gronstedt (2000) cited Saturn, Xerox, Motorola, Hewlett-Packard and FederalExpress as examples of companies that have effectively integrated their communication.Companies such as these use integrated communication on three levels: external com-munication, focusing on customers; vertical internal communication between seniormanagement and frontline workers; and horizontal internal communication acrossdepartments, business units and geographic boundaries (Hiebert, 2000)

Some folks say the concept of integrated communication is wrapped in the history

of public relations itself Porter Novelli vice president Helen Ostrowski (1999) believesthat marketing-based public relations lies at the very roots of public relations After all,public relations founding father Edward Bernays engineered the debutante march inNew York City’s Easter parade to make smoking fashionable among women so LuckyStrike could sell more cigarettes

Tom Harris is a leading proponent of integrated communication, which he calls anoutside-in process that begins with an understanding of the consumer publics,particularly their wants, interests, needs and lifestyles Harris (2000) pointed out thatpublic relations is particularly effective in building brand equity, which is based on theorganization’s reputation The practical benefit of reputation is seen in the 1992 LosAngeles riots, when none of the 30 McDonalds restaurants in the riot area were touchedwhile more than 2,000 buildings were destroyed Harris said that is because McDonaldshad long been involved and visible in the community

In their influential book, Managing Public Relations, James Grunig and Todd Hunt

(1984) identified four now-famous evolutionary models of public relations The firsttwo—exemplified by press agentry and public information—rely on one-way dissemi-nation of information The latter models—an asymmetrical one associated with persua-sion, a symmetrical model dealing with dialogue and relationship-building—featuretwo-way communication for both dissemination and research/feedback Each of themodels is evident today, often used by the same organization Each can be effective inachieving particular organizational objectives

An interesting tug-of-war exists between the persuasion and relationship models Insubsequent research, Grunig (1992) himself noted that many organizations still prima-rily practice the persuasion model With only anecdotal evidence, it seems safe to

Attributes of a Strategic Communication Program

Rather than manufacture definitions, Strategic

Plan-ning for Public Relations focuses on the characteristics

of strategic communication An effective

communica-tion program includes the following attributes, which

apply equally to corporations and nonprofit

organiza-tions and to large and small endeavors:

● Spurred both by regulation and customer

de-mand, organizations must be accountable to

their publics Most publics are increasing their

expectations for quality performance and open

communication Organizations are successful

in the long run only to the extent that they have

high performance, delivering quality products

and services Strategic communication

en-hances reputations by accurately reflecting the

organization’s performance.

● All organizations operate in a competitive

environment Publics besought by rivals will

remain loyal to those organizations that earn

loyalty consistently and continuously.

● Effective communication involves cooperation

between public relations and marketing Just as

each knight was an equal participant at the

round table in King Arthur’s court, so too at

today’s management table both disciplines

have effective and equal voices.

● The consumer philosophy has taken hold of

all aspects of society, and organizations must

answer with a customer-driven response,

focusing on benefits for their publics People

support organizations they believe serve their

interests and needs.

● Organizational communication adheres to

high ethical standards of honesty, accuracy,

decency, truth, public interest and mutual

good Growing numbers of organizations have

developed clear credos or codes of ethics.

● Mergers, downsizing and restructuring have

led both businesses and nonprofits to seek

ways to operate with lean resources, and the

duplication that exists amid the isolation of

marketing from public relations often is too great a price for organizations to pay.

● Strategic communication is part of an

organi-zation’s management function and

decision-making process, based on careful planning that identifies issues, gathers data, considers alter- natives and determines action It is rooted in the organization’s mission as lived out through its bottom line Note that this bottom line goes beyond money earned or raised; it focuses on the organization’s fundamental purpose or mis- sion Organizational goals and positioning statements are carried out through specific and measurable objectives that chart the course for desired levels of awareness, acceptance and action Strategists plot courses and measure results.

● Many media changes are affecting the way

or-ganizations communicate The “mass media”

have fragmented to the point that none rules supreme anymore Lines are blurring between news and entertainment Meanwhile, increas- ing advertising costs and tighter promotional budgets have led organizations to look at the more cost-effective communication and promotional tools from the public relations side of the house.

● Strategic communication uses multiple tools,

drawing from all communication-related plines to talk with various groups of people.

disci-New technologies make it easier to supplement general media with more personal and interper- sonal targeted communication vehicles.

● The strategy of choice in a competitive

environment is proactive, two-way

communica-tion, in which organizations plan for and

initiate relationships with the people important

to their success, emphasizing dialogue over monologue and using various techniques to interact with their publics and markets.

● Organizations are successful to the extent

they enjoy a strong reputation, which results

suggest that most of today’s public relations agencies are hired to engage in persuasion

on behalf of their clients, who believe their problems can be solved if only they can gainthe support of their publics Persuasion isn’t necessarily bad: The same principles andtechniques that persuade people to buy this CD or that perfume can be deployed onbehalf of responsible sexual behavior or nutritional literacy, volunteerism or other socialvirtues Public relations students are exposed to this model through case studies andcampaigns courses, through practicums and senior seminars, and especially throughprofessional internships

Perhaps we need to envision public relations anew, seeing it as serving the persuasiveneeds of client organizations as well as fostering more productive and beneficialrelationships between organizations and their various publics Public relations practition-ers should be prepared to help organizations engage their publics both in word and deed

This is the vision that guides Strategic Planning for Public Relations The planning

process this book presents can be used for persuasion or dialogue, because each is astrategic activity and each helps practitioners influence behavior and generate consen-sus The planning process also can help organizations both overcome obstacles andcapitalize on opportunities Additionally, the process works equally well for businessesand nonprofits, whether they be large or small, international or grassroot, richlyendowed or impoverished

Nine Steps of Strategic Public Relations

Most textbooks dealing with public relations encourage a four-phase process Some usethe RACE acronym (research, action, communication, evaluation) articulated by John

Marston (1963) in The Nature of Public Relations In Public Relations Cases, Jerry

Hendrix (2000) used the acronym ROPE (research, objectives, programming,

evalua-tion) In Public Relations Campaign Strategies, Robert Kendall (1992) offered another

formula—RAISE (research, adaptation, implementation strategy, evaluation)

Most public relations textbooks, however, simply refer to a four-stage processwithout constraining it with an acronym Marketing communication books also present

a step-by-step process, but with little consistency about the number of steps involved.While acronyms can be useful mnemonic devices, they can be too confining The fourstages of public relations planning are more complex than the acronyms indicate

from neither accident nor luck Strategic

plan-ning can identify and evaluate an organization

visibility and reputation No organization can

afford to be a “best-kept secret” among a

relatively small number of supporters;

contin-uing effectiveness requires the development

and maintenance of a strong and positive

reputation.

● All kinds of organizations are realizing more keenly the need for long-term, mutually benefi-

cial relationships between the organization and

its various publics and market segments lic relations practitioners long have recognized this, and marketing more recently has been dis- cussing the need for relationship marketing.

Strategic Planning for Public Relations offers a model that seems a bit more

logi-cal The steps are grouped into four phases that are both descriptive and accurate, but

their names don’t lend themselves to an acronym So without a great deal of fanfare, this

model is called, simply, the Nine Steps of Strategic Public Relations

Phase One: Formative Research

Step 1: Analyzing the Situation

Step 2: Analyzing the Organization

Step 3: Analyzing the Publics

Phase Two: Strategy

Step 4: Establishing Goals and Objectives

Step 5: Formulating Action and Response Strategies

Step 6: Using Effective Communication

Phase Three: Tactics

Step 7: Choosing Communication Tactics

Step 8: Implementing the Strategic Plan

Phase Four: Evaluative Research

Step 9: Evaluating the Strategic Plan

The process of these steps is deliberate, and they must be taken in sequence After

identifying a problem, our tendency too often is to skip ahead to seeking solutions,

leaping over research and analysis This can result in unwarranted assumptions that later

prove to be costly, counterproductive and embarrassing Careful planning leads to

programs that are proactive and preventative, rather than to activities that are reactive

and remedial At the same time, the steps in this process are flexible enough to allow for

constant monitoring, testing and adjusting as needed

Ask experienced communication managers, and you may find that they don’t

necessarily articulate their planning specifically along the lines of these nine steps But

talk with them about their work, and you are likely to find that they go through a process

pretty much like the one being presented here, whether they identify “steps” or not

A few practitioners may admit (somewhat guiltily) that they don’t do much

planning If they are being honest, they’ll tell you they know they’ve been lucky so far

with their hunches Perhaps they don’t do formal planning because they don’t have the

time or because the environment is so unstable that all they can do is react Some

practitioners may tell you their bosses and clients want action rather than planning

(though such shortsighted bosses and clients often don’t remain in business very long) If

you could observe how professionals work, however, you’d probably find that effective

communication managers do plan The good ones have learned how to build the research

and planning components into their work and “sell” it to their clients and bosses

Formative Research

During the first phase of the nine steps, Formative Research, the focus is on the

preliminary work of communication planning, which is the need to gather information

and analyze the situation In three steps, the planner draws on existing information

available to the organization and, at the same time, creates a research program forgaining additional information needed to drive the decisions that will come later in theplanning process.

Step 1: Analyzing the Situation. Your analysis of the situation is the crucial ning to the process It is imperative that all involved—planner, clients, supervisors, keycolleagues and the ultimate decision makers—are in solid agreement about the nature ofthe opportunity or obstacle to be addressed in this program

begin-Step 2: Analyzing the Organization. This step involves a careful and candid look

at three aspects of the organization: (1) its internal environment (mission, performanceand resources), (2) its public perception (reputation) and (3) its external environment(competitors and opponents, as well as supporters)

Step 3: Analyzing the Publics. In this step you identify and analyze your keypublics—the various groups of people who interact with your organization on the issue

at hand Strategic Planning for Public Relations provides an objective technique for

setting priorities among the various publics, helping you select those most important onthe particular issue being dealt with This step includes an analysis of each public interms of their wants, needs and expectations about the issue, their relationship to theorganization, their involvement in communication and with various media, and a variety

of social, economic, political, cultural and technological trends that may affect them

Strategy

The second phase of the planning process, Strategy, deals with the heart of planning:making decisions dealing with the expected impact of the communication, as well as thenature of the communication itself

The Jargon of Strategic Public Relations

Consider the following terms that distinguish among

various types of public relations activities:

● Projects are single and usually short-lived public

relations activities designed to meet an objective.

Examples: A news release or a few closely

re-lated tactics surrounding an open house.

● Programs are ongoing public relations

activi-ties dealing with several objectives associated

with a goal Programs have a continuing

com-mission within the organization and focus on its

relationship with a particular public Examples:

An organization’s programs in community tions or employee relations.

rela-● Campaigns are systematic sets of public

rela-tions activities, each with a specific and finite purpose, sustained over a length of time and dealing with objectives associated with a par- ticular issue Examples: A campaign to reduce accidents associated with drunk driving, or a campaign to improve employee morale and productivity.

Step 4: Establishing Goals and Objectives. Step 4 focuses on the ultimate position

being sought for the organization and for the product or service This step helps you

develop clear, specific and measurable objectives that identify the organization’s

hoped-for impact on the awareness, acceptance and action of each key public A good deal of

attention is given to objectives dealing with acceptance of the message, because this is

the most crucial area for public relations and marketing communication strategists

Step 5: Formulating Action and Response Strategies. A range of actions is

avail-able to the organization, and in this step you consider what you might do in various

situations This section includes typologies of initiatives and responses

Step 6: Using Effective Communication. Step 6 deals with the various decisions

about the message, such as the sources who will present the message to the key publics,

the content of the message, its tone and style, verbal and nonverbal cues, and related

is-sues Lessons from research about persuasive communication and dialogue will be

applied for the ultimate purpose of designing a message that reflects the information

gained through Step 3

Tactics

During the Tactics phase, various communication tools are considered and the visible

elements of the communication plan are created

Step 7: Choosing Communication Tactics. This inventory deals with the various

communication options Specifically, the planner considers four categories: (1)

face-to-face communication and opportunities for personal involvement, (2) organizational

me-dia (sometimes called controlled meme-dia), (3) news meme-dia (uncontrolled meme-dia) and (4)

advertising and promotional media (another form of controlled media) While all of

these tools can be used by any organization, not every tool is appropriate for each issue

Following the menu review, the planner packages the tactics into a cohesive

communi-cation program

Step 8: Implementing the Strategic Plan. In Step 8, you develop budgets and

schedules and otherwise prepare to implement the communication program This step

turns the raw ingredients identified in the previous step into a recipe for successful

public relations and marketing communication

Evaluative Research

The final phase, Evaluative Research, deals with evaluation and assessment, enabling

you to determine the degree to which the stated objectives have been met and thus to

modify or continue the communication activities

Step 9: Evaluating the Strategic Plan. This is the final planning element,

indicat-ing specific methods for measurindicat-ing the effectiveness of each recommended tactic in

meeting the stated objectives

Effective Creativity

Before we begin putting a plan together, a word about creativity Most communicationsprofessionals are creative people, visual or verbal artists who bring imaginative ideas tothe task at hand But mere novelty doesn’t guarantee success We all have seen peoplewhose creative ideas seem to flop around without any sense of direction, artists whocan’t seem to apply their artistic concept For creativity to be effective, it must have rel-evance; innovative ideas need to serve a purpose Too many campaigns never get off theground because they are built more on novelty than on effectiveness Some are just toocute for words; others are downright bizarre An inside joke in the advertising industry

is that sometimes agencies win creative awards but lose the account, because their vative advertising programs didn’t sell the product or their imaginative approach didn’tachieve the desired results

inno-In the not-so-distant past, some practitioners worried that strategic planning mightinterfere with their creativity But things are changing In a crowded field of competitorsall courting the same audiences, communication professionals have turned to greater use

of research as a complement to the creative approach Practitioners who once flew bythe seat of their pants have found that careful planning can raise an organization’smessages above the commotion of everyday life

One thing has become clear: it really is counterproductive to separate creative andresearch people, because each can help the other They share the common purpose ofhelping their client or their organization solve a problem Research can nurture creativeinspiration, develop ideas, keep things on target and evaluate the effectiveness of thecreative endeavors

Strategic Planning for Public Relations is built on two notions that can help make

you creatively effective First, a step-by-step system of planning is essential to learninghow to develop an effective communication program And second, effective creativity ismore likely to result from careful and insightful planning than from a bolt of inspiration.This book is for people who appreciate road maps A map doesn’t tell you whereyou must go; rather, it helps you explore possibilities You consider options, makechoices, select alternatives and develop contingencies In short, you plan Then youimplement the plan by getting behind the wheel and beginning the road trip

Creativity and Structure

Are you easily creative? Strategic Planning for Public

Relations will help transform your artistry, insight and

spontaneity into something more than mere novelty It

will lead you to consider every aspect of a strategic

communication plan, helping you be creative within

an effective framework.

Are you analytical and well organized? This book will enhance your innate sense of organization and structure, freeing your creativity to enhance your program effectiveness.

So it is with Strategic Planning for Public Relations This book won’t tell you what

has to be done to develop your communication program, but it will lead you through the

various decision points and options The resulting program will be as unique as each

in-dividual student or practitioner and as tailored as each organization needs it to be It will

be a comprehensive, well thought-out program that is both deliberate and creative Use

this book to nurture your creativity and channel it to make your work more effective

Every person is both deliberate and creative, each to a greater or lesser degree

Strategic Planning for Public Relations tries to help you cultivate both qualities It helps

creative people become more organized in their planning, and it helps methodical

peo-ple bring more creative energy to their work This book gives you a model—one to be

considered, adapted to fit your particular circumstances and used to the extent that it

helps you be both effective and creative in your communication planning

Citations and Recommended Readings

Austin, E W., & Pinkleton, B E (2001) Strategic public relations management: Planning and

managing effective communication programs Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Botan, C H (1997) Ethics in strategic communication campaigns: The case for a new approach

to public relations Journal of Business Communication, 34 (2), 188–202.

Botan, C H & Soto, F (1998) A semiotic approach to the internal functioning of publics:

Im-plications for strategic communication and public relations Public Relations Review, 24

(1), 21–44.

Burnett, J & Moriarty, S (1998) Introduction to marketing communications: An integrated

ap-proach Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Caywood, C L (1995) International handbook of public relations and corporate

communica-tions Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Caywood, C L (1997) The handbook of strategic public relations and integrated

communica-tions New York: McGraw-Hill.

Cutlip, S M., Center, A H., & Broom, G M (2000) Effective public relations (8th ed.) Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Goldman, J (1984) Public relations in the marketing mix: Introducing vulnerability relations.

Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Business.

Gray, R (1998) PR does the business Marketing (June 11), 24–26.

Gronstedt, A (2000) The customer century: Lessons from world class companies in integrated

marketing and communications New York: Routlege.

Grunig, J E (Ed.) (1992) Excellence in public relations and communication management.

Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Grunig, J E & Hunt, T (1984) Managing public relations New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston Harris, T L (2000) Value added public relations: The secret weapon of integrated marketing.

Chicago IL: NTC Business.

Harris, T L (1991) The marketer’s guide to public relations: How today’s top companies are

using the new PR to gain a competitive edge New York: Wiley.

Hendrix, J (2000) Public relations cases (5th ed.) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Hiebert, R W (2000) The customer century: Lessons from world class companies in integrated

marketing and communications Public Relations Review, Fall, 26 (3), 381.

Holmes, P (1998) With Bell’s appointed, Y&R’s commitment to integration now goes beyond

lip service Inside PR (Sept 28), 5 (9), 2,10.

Kendall, R (1999) Public relations campaign strategies: Planning for implementation (3rd ed).

New York: HarperCollins.

Kitchen, P J & Schultz, D E (1999) A multi-country comparison of the drive for IMC

Jour-nal of Advertising Research, 39 (7), 21–38.

Marston, J E (1963) The nature of public relations New York: McGraw-Hill.

McElreath, M (1997) Managing systematic and ethical public relations campaigns (2nd ed.).

Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.

Miller, D A & Rose, P B (1994) Integrated communications: A look at reality instead of

theory Public Relations Quarterly, 39 (11), 13–16.

Nemec, R (1999) PR or advertising: Who’s on top? Communication World, 16 (3), 25–28.

Newsom, D., Turk, J V., & Kruckeberg, D (1999) This is PR: The realities of public relations

(7th ed.) Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Ostrowski, H (1999) Moving the measurement needle The Public Relations Strategist, 5 (2),

37–39.

Schultz, D E., Tannenbaum, S I., & Lauterborn, R F (1993) Integrated marketing

communi-cations: Pulling it together and making it work Lincolnwood, IL: NTC Business.

Seitel, F P (1998) The practice of public relations (7th ed.) Upper Saddle River NJ:

Prentice-Hall.

Simon, R & Zappala, J (1996) The public relations workbook: Writing and techniques

Lincol-nwood, IL: NTC Business.

Sirgy, M J (1998) Integrated marketing communications: A systems approach Upper Saddle

River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Wilcox, D L., Ault, P H., Agee, W K & Cameron, G T (2000) Public relations: Strategies

and tactics (6th ed.) New York: Longman.

Wilson, L (2000) Strategic program planning for effective public relations campaigns

(3rd ed.) Dubuque, IA: Kendall-Hunt.

FORMATIVE RESEARCH

Have you heard the phrase “shooting in the dark”? It refers to trying to hit a target

without being able to see it As a reference to strategic communication

plan-ning, “shooting in the dark” means trying to design a program without doing

any research In more common language, it means not doing your

homework In any context, it’s not a good idea!

Research is the planner’s homework It’s the foundation of every

effective campaign for public relations and marketing communication

Your communication tactics might be innovative, but they will probably

be ineffective if you don’t have adequate research Without research,

you will probably end up sending messages of little value to your

or-ganization and little interest to your publics (who most likely won’t be

listening anyway)

How common is research in public relations and marketing

com-munication? In a special issue of his professional newsletter pr

re-porter, Patrick Jackson summarized information from Ketchum Public

Relations The newsletter noted that 75 percent of practitioners use

search to plan new programs, 58 percent to monitor progress and make mid-course

re-visions and 58 percent to measure outcomes (Jackson, 1994) Even during crises, when

reaction time is minimal, 36 percent do research to get a quick read on public opinion

Virtually all practitioners report that they are doing more research than ever before

The first of the four phases of the strategic planning process deals specifically with

gathering and analyzing formative research, which is the data on which you will build

your communication program Fran Matera and Ray Artigue (2000) call this strategic

research, the systematic gathering of information about issues and publics that affect

organizations, particularly as the organization engages in the two-way models of public

relations that were outlined in the Introduction of this book In contract, they also note

a second category, tactical research, which is information obtained to guide the

pro-duction and dissemination of messages Whereas tactical research helps public relations

practitioners do their job effectively, strategic research more directly impacts on the

organization’s overall mission

Step 1

Analyzing the Situation

Step 2

Analyzing the Organization

Step 3

Analyzing the Publics

To accomplish this, you will gather information in three key areas: (1) the issue youare facing, (2) your organization or client, and (3) your intended publics Specifically,you will obtain background information on the issue, assess the organization’s perform-ance and reputation and catalogue its resources, and identify and analyze key publics.Don’t let the idea of research scare you Research begins with informal and oftensimple methods of gathering relevant information Often you can look to a three-prongresearch program for most public relations projects:

● Casual Research. Recollect what is already known Think about the situation;

“pick the brains” of clients, colleagues and other helpful individuals Interviewother people with experience and expertise Brainstorm alone or with otherplanners

● Secondary Research. Look for existing information Investigate tional files to learn what already exists on the issue Search the library forinformation from books, periodicals and special reports Check for similarmaterial on the Internet (but be wary about the validity of what you find outthere) Review and analyze how other organizations handled similar situations

organiza-● Primary Research. If necessary, conduct your own research Appendix A:Applied Research Techniques will help with the basic primary research tech-niques such as surveys, focus groups and content analysis The appendix alsodiscusses the ethics of research

As you conduct formative research, keep one thing in mind: The information youobtain through research will help in planning, but research does not offset the need forcommon sense Your professional judgment remains the strongest resource you bring tothe planning process Use research to inform your professional judgment, but makedecisions on relevant information as well as on your own reliable experience and pro-fessional insight

Let’s look at the three areas in which you will conduct your research, starting with

an analysis of the issue

18

Step 1

19

Analyzing the Situation

The first step in any effective public relations plan or marketing communication

pro-gram is to carefully and accurately identify the situation facing your organization This

seems simple enough Common sense, right? But sense isn’t all that common, and

people sometimes have different ideas about what the situation is

Public Relations Situation

Put simply, a situation is a set of circumstances facing an organization A situation is

similar in meaning to a problem, if by “problem” you use the classic definition of a

question needing to be addressed For example, a situation for an automotive

manufacturer might be the availability of side air bags (rather than front placement) in

its new model-year cars For a small nonprofit organization dealing with at-risk youth, a

situation might be the misunderstanding and fear that some people have of these youths

Without an early and clear statement of the situation to be addressed, you will not

be able to conduct efficient research or define the goal of your communication program

later in the planning process

Note that situations are stated as nouns—availability of air bags, fear of youths.

Later when we talk about organizational goals, we will add the verbs to indicate how we

want to impact on these situations—promoting consumer acceptance of the air bags,

dispelling the notion that all at-risk youth are dangerous For now, simply identify the

situation without commenting on it

A situation is approached in either a positive or negative vein That is to say, it may

be identified as an opportunity to be embraced because it offers a potential advantage to

the organization or its publics (such as the side air bags), or it may be an obstacle to be

overcome because it limits the organization in realizing its mission (such as the fear of

at-risk youth) Depending on how they assess the situation and its potential impact on

the organization, two planners may look differently at the same situation—one calling it

an obstacle, the other an opportunity

Even in crisis situations, obstacles can be approached as opportunities—if the

problem was not self-inflicted Organizations under attack may use the public attention

generated by the crisis to explain their values and demonstrate their quality Pepsi fought

the 1993 syringe hoax by issuing video news releases showing how its production

process made it impossible to contaminate the product before it left the plant Similarly,

Whether the issue is viewed as an opportunity, as an obstacle or simply as an alized potential, the communication team and the organization’s or client’s leadershipmust come to a common understanding of the issue before it can be adequately ad-dressed Consider the following example of mixed signals: The executive director of anagency dealing with drug abuse wanted a public relations consultant to focus on com-munication between the agency and external publics such as the courts, police and pro-bation personnel The board of directors, on the other hand, wanted a plan for bettercommunication among the board, staff and executive director Significantly differentexpectations, to say the least! How do you think you might handle this?

unre-In this case, the consultant asked both the director and the board to reach consensusabout the central issue and to re-think what they wanted They asked themselves whatthe real issues were and concluded that the focus should be on the agency’s visibilityand reputation with its external publics Once this was clarified, the consultant devel-oped a strategic plan and helped the agency implement it The Strategic PlanningExercise on page 25 will help you clarify the issue at hand for your organization.Ongoing communication with the research client is imperative In their book

Applied Research Design, Terry Hedrick, Leonard Bickman and Debra Rog (1993)

recommended at least four research touch points:

1. An initial meeting with the client to develop a common understanding of theclient’s research needs, resources and expected uses

The Zen of Public Relations

Sometimes a new paradigm—a different perspective—

can enhance our understanding And what could be

farther from the practicality of public relations than

spirituality? To better understand an important

public relations concept, consider the principle of

interconnectedness—the duality in which everything is

related What appears to be opposite is not separate; it

is only the other end of the pole, the other side of

the lake.

When we think of public relations issues, our

ten-dency often is to identify them as either obstacles or

opportunities But such words mask an important

rela-tionship The spirituality associated with Zen values

harmony A problem is not necessarily something ative but rather something lacking harmony, a point of yet-unrealized potential An obstacle puts us at a cross- roads, allowing us to go this way or that, with conse- quences based on the choice we make

neg-The ultimate public relations problem is a crisis Yet even that word gives us philosophical pause.

Interestingly, the Chinese term wei ji and the parallel Japanese word kiki, both of which translate as “crisis,”

are made up of two characters—one meaning

“danger,” the other meaning “opportunity.” A crisis, then, is a decision point where choices point to consequences.

Phase One

Step 1

2. A meeting to agree on the scope of the project, particularly its costs and other

resources

3. Following an initial review of literature and other secondary sources, a meeting to

refine the research questions and discuss potential approaches and limitations

4. A meeting for agreement on the proposed study approach

The Background of Issues Management

F J Aguilar (1967) explained environmental scanning

as a process of seeking “information about events and

relationships in a company’s outside environment, the

knowledge of which would assist top management in its

task of charting the company’s future course of action.”

W Howard Chase (1977) coined the term “issues

management,” though the concept has been around

since the days of Ivy Lee But Chase pushed the

con-cept forward, away from a catch-as-catch-can approach

and toward a more systematic technique, which he

out-lined in five steps (Jones & Chase, 1979) Raymond

Ewing (1997) expanded this into a seven-step process.

Here is a newer synthesis of the various steps in

issues management:

1. Identify future issues that are likely to affect an

organization Develop an early warning

scan-ning system that considers where the

organiza-tion wants to go and looks at potential

road-blocks and other outside economic, political,

technological, social and other kinds of

pres-sures on the organization Look for forces that

could help move the organization along its path.

2. Research and analyze each issue Carefully

gather as many facts as possible about these

issues Consult specialists who are

particu-larly familiar with the issues.

3. Consider options in responding to each issue.

Use creative problem-solving techniques to

discover as many alternatives as possible to

deal with the issue at hand Establish your

standards for success and the criteria that your

organization should use to make choices

among the various alternatives.

4. Develop an action plan for the best option lect the most appropriate alternative, usually

Se-in terms of cost-effectiveness, practicality and organizational fit Then develop a specific plan to address the issue.

5. Implement this plan, giving as much energy and resources as it warrants.

6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the response, both during its implementation when there is still time to make appropriate adjustments and when the program is completed.

Archie Boe (1979), then CEO of Allstate ance Companies, explained that “issues management and strategic planning are both born of the dynamic tradition in American business management that re- jects the passive approach of hoping to know the future and merely adjusting to it, for an affirmative

Insur-posture of creating the future and fitting the corporate

enterprise into it.”

After interviewing 248 public relations managers, Martha Lauzen (1997) found a link between two-way public relations and both the early detection and accu- rate diagnosis of issues: “The answer lies in the conflu- ence of public relations and issues management as they become true boundary-spanning functions, acting as the eyes and ears of organizations, serving as parts of

an early warning system.”

For practitioners, the conclusion is that two-way public relations, which inherently involves issues man- agement, leads to more effective outcomes and ulti- mately will move the practitioner into the “dominant coalition” of managers who wield power and make decisions within organizations.

Issues ManagementIssues are situations that present matters of concern to organizations Issues manage- ment is the process by which an organization tries to anticipate emerging issues and

respond to them before they get out of hand Like many other aspects of public relations,issues management involves potential change For example, insurance companies, hos-pitals and health maintenance organizations all are trying to predict trends within thehealth-care industry and to have some kind of impact on the future

Some organizations use a “best practices” approach as they weigh their options ing issues management This approach to organizational problem-solving, also known

dur-as benchmarking, involves research into how other organizations have handled similar

situations Peter Schwartz and Blair Gibb (1999) note three benefits of benchmarking:(1) the organizational initiative that prevents internal inertia from taking over, (2) thecontinual awareness of innovations coming from competitors, and (3) the introduction

of fresh air from outside the organization

Despite its name, issues management does not focus on control; neither does itinvolve one-way communication nor manipulation of a public Rather, issues manage-ment helps the organization interact with its publics It helps an organization settle theissue early or divert it, or perhaps even prevent its emergence More likely, however, theorganization will have to adjust itself to the issue, trying to maximize the benefits or atleast minimize the negative impact Public relations often drives this early warningsystem within an organization

The purpose of issues management, as noted above, is to deal with issues before

they get out of hand When that happens, the issue becomes a crisis Crisis management

is the name given to the process by which an organization deals with out-of-controlissues But “management” is a bit of a misnomer It’s more about coping with crises.Consider this analogy: Issues management is like steering a sailboat You run withthe wind when it happens to be blowing in the direction you want to go, and you tack tomake some progress against the wind Sometimes you stall when there is no wind Butalways, you adapt to an ever-changing environment In a crisis situation, the analogy ismore like trying to ride out a storm Often the best you can do is drop your sail, hang on,and hope the vessel is strong enough to survive without too much damage

One thing to remember about crises: They may be sudden and unpredicted, but theyseldom are unpredictable Crises are more like volcanoes that smolder for awhile beforethey erupt Warning signs abound, at least to the trained eye

A study by the Institute for Crisis Management found that only 14 percent of panies’ crises burst suddenly onto the scene, while 86 percent had been smoldering sit-uations that eventually popped Catastrophes represented only 9 percent of the cases.The biggest crisis categories were white-collar crime, labor disputes and mismanage-ment Environmental problems, defects and recalls, and class-action lawsuits were othersignificant categories All of these represent areas in which organizations should bepaying attention to the quality of their performance and its impact on their reputation

com-An organization committed to the concept of strategic communication is probablyengaged in an ongoing issues management program that identifies crises in their early

Step

1

Phase One

Step 1

stages Less nimble organizations that always seem to be in reactive mode are the ones

likely to be caught off guard by a crisis

Preparedness, then, is the key to effective issues management, particularly in crisis

situations James Lukaszewski (1997) focuses on a six-step program of preparedness,

including early and competent leadership, a prioritized approach, strategies to preserve

and/or recover the organization’s reputation, implementation of effective plans,

pre-authorization for the organization to act quickly on its own, and a response based on

openness, responsiveness, truthfulness and empathy

The strategic approach to crisis management might be encompassed in the

following six principles

1. Principle of Existing Relations. During a crisis, communicate with

employ-ees, volunteers, stockholders, donors, community leaders, customers,

govern-ment and professional authorities, and other constituent groups, as well as with

colleagues Minimally, keep everyone informed, because their continued

sup-port will be imsup-portant in your rebuilding activities following the crisis Ideally,

enlist the help of some of these publics during the crisis to communicate

credibly and effectively

2. Principle of Media-as-Ally. Crises invite scrutiny because they have a

poten-tial impact on a large number of people So treat the news media as allies that

provide opportunities to communicate with key publics If the media become

intrusive and/or hostile, this often is because the organization has not been

forth-coming in providing legitimate information to the media and its other publics

A good pre-existing program of media relations can minimize media hostility

3. Principle of Reputational Priorities. Your top priority after safety issues is

to your own reputation Remembering this can help you focus on doing what’s

best for your customers, employees and other key publics Set objectives that

deal with maintaining (or if necessary, restoring) your credibility Use the

cri-sis as an opportunity to enhance your reputation for social responsibility with

your various publics

4. Principle of Quick Response. Be accessible to your publics as quickly as

pos-sible A standard guideline for crises that capture the immediate attention of the

news media is the one-hour rule Within an hour of learning about a crisis, the

organization should have its first message available to its publics, particularly

the media (which generally is the most compelling public in the early stages of

an active crisis) For less attention-getting crises, an organization might be able

to prepare for five or six hours before going public

5. Principle of Full Disclosure. Silence is not an acceptable response during a

crisis Without admitting fault and without speculating about facts not yet

known, the organization should provide as much information as possible The

presumption should be that everything the organization knows should be made

available Specific justification should be considered internally for not

releasing certain information