IELTS exam secrets study guide

In most nonfiction writing, the topic and the main idea will be stated directly, often in a sentence at the very beginning or end of the text.. When being tested on an understanding of

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IELTS

Exam

IELTS Test Review for the

International English Language

Testing System

Dear future IELTS Success Story:

Congratulations on your purchase of the most advanced test-taking manual for the IELTS Notice I did not say study guide- there are plenty of decent study guides on the market, but that was not our objective in writing this manual Our goal is to seek and exploit specific weaknesses in the IELTS assessment, and then share those secrets with our customers

Let’s be perfectly honest here- you’ve worked hard enough in the past, and if you want to spend hours in a study guide to boost your score, that’s a great thing to

do In fact, we recommend at least a brief review of some of the better study guides on the market But that’s simply not enough to do well in the high-

pressure high-stakes environment of the test day How well you do on this test will have a significant impact on your future- and we have the research and practical advice to help you execute on test day

The product you’re reading now is much more than a study guide- it is a tactical weapon designed to exploit weaknesses in the test itself, and help you avoid the most common errors students make when taking the IELTS

How to use this manual

We don’t want to waste your time This manual is fast-paced and fluff-free We suggest going through it a number of times, trying out its methods on a number

of practice tests

First, read through the manual completely to get a feel for the content and

organization Read the general success strategies first, and then proceed to the individual test sections Each tip has been carefully selected for its effectiveness

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Your success is our success

Copyright © 2016 by Mometrix Media LLC All rights reserved

Written and edited by the Mometrix Exam Secrets Test Prep Team

Printed in the United States of America

Second, read through the manual again, and take notes in the margins and

highlight those sections where you may have a particular weakness (we strongly suggest printing the manual out on a high-quality printer)

Third, go through at least one practice test with the manual at your side and apply the strategies We believe three practice tests to be the maximum benefit, the first time with all strategies except time (take as much time as you need), the second time with all strategies and time constraints, and a third time without the benefit of the open manual to refer to during the test

Finally, bring the manual with you on test day and study it before the exam begins

We would be delighted to hear your IELTS Success Story Send us an email and tell us your story Thanks for your business and we wish you continued success- Sincerely,

The IELTS Secrets Team

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOP 20 TEST TAKING TIPS 5

THE LISTENING MODULE 6

THE READING MODULE 10

R EADING C OMPREHENSION 10

I NFORMATIONAL S OURCES .30

C RITICAL T HINKING S KILLS .38

THE WRITING MODULE 49

THE SPEAKING MODULE 56

SPECIAL REPORT: HOW YOUR IELTS SCORE IS VIEWED AND WHAT THIS MEANS FOR YOU 62

SPECIAL REPORT: WHAT JOBS REQUIRE WHICH IELTS SCORES 63

SECRET KEY #1 – TIME IS YOUR GREATEST ENEMY 64

S UCCESS S TRATEGY #1 65

SECRET KEY #2 – GUESSING IS NOT GUESSWORK 67

M ONKEYS T AKE THE IELTS 67

S UCCESS S TRATEGY #2 68

S PECIFIC G UESSING T ECHNIQUES .70

S UMMARY OF G UESSING T ECHNIQUES .72

SECRET KEY #3 – PRACTICE SMARTER, NOT HARDER 73

S UCCESS S TRATEGY #3 73

SECRET KEY #4 – PREPARE, DON’T PROCRASTINATE 75

SECRET KEY #5 – TEST YOURSELF 76

S UCCESS S TRATEGY .76

GENERAL STRATEGIES 77

SPECIAL REPORT: WHAT YOUR TEST SCORE WILL TELL YOU ABOUT YOUR IQ 86

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SPECIAL REPORT: RETAKING THE TEST: WHAT ARE YOUR CHANCES AT IMPROVING YOUR

SCORE? 89

SPECIAL REPORT: HOW TO OVERCOME TEST ANXIETY 92

L ACK OF P REPARATION .92

P HYSICAL S IGNALS .93

N ERVOUSNESS .95

S TUDY S TEPS .97

H ELPFUL T ECHNIQUES 100

ADDITIONAL BONUS MATERIAL 107

Top 20 Test Taking Tips

1 Carefully follow all the test registration procedures

2 Know the test directions, duration, topics, question types, how many

questions

3 Setup a flexible study schedule at least 3-4 weeks before test day

4 Study during the time of day you are most alert, relaxed, and stress free

5 Maximize your learning style; visual learner use visual study aids, auditory learner use auditory study aids

6 Focus on your weakest knowledge base

7 Find a study partner to review with and help clarify questions

8 Practice, practice, practice

9 Get a good night’s sleep; don’t try to cram the night before the test

10 Eat a well balanced meal

11 Know the exact physical location of the testing site; drive the route to the site prior to test day

12 Bring a set of ear plugs; the testing center could be noisy

13 Wear comfortable, loose fitting, layered clothing to the testing center;

prepare for it to be either cold or hot during the test

14 Bring at least 2 current forms of ID to the testing center

15 Arrive to the test early; be prepared to wait and be patient

16 Eliminate the obviously wrong answer choices, then guess the first remaining choice

17 Pace yourself; don’t rush, but keep working and move on if you get stuck

18 Maintain a positive attitude even if the test is going poorly

19 Keep your first answer unless you are positive it is wrong

20 Check your work, don’t make a careless mistake

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The Listening Module

The Listening module of the IELTS consists of a total of 40 questions

There are four sections:

1 Social Needs – Conversation between two speakers

2 Social Needs – Speech by one speaker

3 Educational or Training – Conversation between up to four speakers

4 Educational or Training – Speech by one speaker

Main Ideas

Important words and main ideas in conversation are ones that will come up again and again Listen carefully for any word or words that come up repeatedly What words come up in nearly every statement made? These words with high frequency are likely to be in the main idea of the conversation For example, in a conversation about class size in the business department of a college, the term “class size” is likely

to appear in nearly every statement made by either speaker in the discussion

Voice Changes

IELTS expects you to be able to recognize and interpret nuances of speech Be on the alert for any changes in voice, which might register surprise, excitement, or another emotion If a speaker is talking in a normal monotone voice and suddenly raises their voice to a high pitch, that is a huge clue that something critical is being stated Listen for a speaker to change their voice and understand the meaning of what they are saying

Example:

Man: Let’s go to Wal-mart

Woman: There’s a Wal-mart in this small town?

If the woman’s statement was higher pitched, indicating surprise and shock, then she probably did not expect there to be a Wal-mart in that town

Specifics

Listen carefully for specific pieces of information Adjectives are commonly asked about in IELTS questions Try to remember any main adjectives that are mentioned Pick out adjectives such as numbers, colors, or sizes

Example:

Man: Let’s go to the store and get some apples to make the pie

Woman: How many do we need?

Man: We’ll need five apples to make the pie

A typical question might be about how many apples were needed

Interpret

As you are listening to the conversation, put yourself in the person’s shoes Think about why someone would make a statement You’ll need to do more than just regurgitate the spoken words but also interpret them

Example:

Woman: I think I’m sick with the flu

Man: Why don’t you go see the campus doctor?

Sample Question: Why did the man mention the campus doctor?

Answer: The campus doctor would be able to determine if the woman had the flu

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Find the Hidden Meaning

Look for the meaning behind a statement When a speaker answers a question with

a statement that doesn’t immediately seem to answer the question, the response probably contained a hidden meaning that you will need to recognize and explain Man: Are you going to be ready for your presentation?

Woman: I’ve only got half of it finished and it’s taken me five hours just to do this much There’s only an hour left before the presentation is due

At first, the woman did not seem to answer the question the man presented She responded with a statement that only seemed loosely related Once you look

deeper, then you can find the true meaning of what she said If it took the woman five hours to do the first half of the presentation, then it would logically take her another five hours to do the second half Since she only has one hour until her presentation is due, she would probably NOT be able to be ready for the

presentation So, while an answer was not immediately visible to the man’s

question, when you applied some logic to her response, you could find the hidden meaning beneath

Memory Enhancers

You have scratch paper provided to you while taking the test This can be a huge help While you listen, you are free to make notes If different people are talking, use short hand to describe the main characteristics of each speaker As you hear main adjectives that you think might be hard to remember, jot them down quickly in order that you can refer to them later during the question stage Use your notes to help you remember those hard to remember facts Don’t end your test without making use of your scratch paper ally

Example:

Speaker 1: I’m Bob Thomas, and I’m majoring in business development

Speaker 2: I’m Matt Smith, and I’m majoring in chemical engineering

Speaker 3: I’m John Douglass, and I’m majoring in speech therapy

Your short hand might read:

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The Reading Module

The Reading module of the IELTS consists of a total of 40 questions

There are three passages, with a total of 2,000 to 2,750 words

Reading Comprehension

Understanding Literature

Reading literature is a different experience than reading non-fiction works Our imagination is more active as we review what we have read, imagine ourselves

as characters in the novel, and try to guess what will happen next Suspense,

surprise, fantasy, fear, anxiety, compassion, and a host of other emotions and

feelings may be stirred by a provocative novel

Reading longer works of fiction is a cumulative process Some elements of a novel have a great impact, while others may go virtually unnoticed Therefore, as novels are read with a critical eye to language, it is helpful to perceive and identify larger patterns and movements in the work as a whole This will benefit the reader

by placing characters and events in perspective, and will enrich the reading

experience greatly Novels should be savored rather than gulped Careful reading and thoughtful analysis of the major themes of the novel are essential to a clear understanding of the work

One of the most important skills in reading comprehension is the

identification of topics and main ideas There is a subtle difference between these

two features The topic is the subject of a text, or what the text is about The main idea, on the other hand, is the most important point being made by the author The topic is usually expressed in a few words at the most, while the main idea often needs a full sentence to be completely defined As an example, a short passage might

have the topic of penguins and the main idea Penguins are different from other birds

in many ways In most nonfiction writing, the topic and the main idea will be stated

directly, often in a sentence at the very beginning or end of the text When being

tested on an understanding of the author's topic, the reader can quickly skim the

passage for the general idea, stopping to read only the first sentence of each

paragraph A paragraph’s first sentence is often (but not always) the main topic sentence, and it gives you a summary of the content of the paragraph However, there are cases in which the reader must figure out an unstated topic or main idea

In these instances, the student must read every sentence of the text, and try to come

up with an overarching idea that is supported by each of those sentences

While the main idea is the overall premise of a story, supporting details

provide evidence and backing for the main point In order to show that a main idea

is correct, or valid, the author needs to add details that prove their point All texts contain details, but they are only classified as supporting details when they serve to reinforce some larger point Supporting details are most commonly found in

informative and persuasive texts In some cases, they will be clearly indicated with

words like for example or for instance, or they will be enumerated with words like

first, second, and last However, they may not be indicated with special words As a

reader, it is important to consider whether the author’s supporting details really back up his or her main point Supporting details can be factual and correct but still not relevant to the author’s point Conversely, supporting details can seem pertinent but be ineffective because they are based on opinion or assertions that cannot be proven

An example of a main idea is: “Giraffes live in the Serengeti of Africa.” A supporting detail about giraffes could be: “A giraffe uses its long neck to reach twigs and leaves on trees.” The main idea gives the general idea that the text is about giraffes The supporting detail gives a specific fact about how the giraffes eat

As opposed to a main idea, themes are seldom expressed directly in a text, so they can be difficult to identify A theme is an issue, an idea, or a question raised by

the text For instance, a theme of William Shakespeare’s Hamlet is indecision, as the

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title character explores his own psyche and the results of his failure to make bold choices A great work of literature may have many themes, and the reader is

justified in identifying any for which he or she can find support One common

characteristic of themes is that they raise more questions than they answer In a good piece of fiction, the author is not always trying to convince the reader, but is instead trying to elevate the reader’s perspective and encourage him to consider the themes more deeply When reading, one can identify themes by constantly asking what general issues the text is addressing A good way to evaluate an author’s approach to a theme is to begin reading with a question in mind (for example, how does this text approach the theme of love?) and then look for evidence in the text that addresses that question

Purposes for Writing

In order to be an effective reader, one must pay attention to the author’s

position and purpose Even those texts that seem objective and impartial, like

textbooks, have some sort of position and bias Readers need to take these positions into account when considering the author’s message When an author uses

emotional language or clearly favors one side of an argument, his position is clear However, the author’s position may be evident not only in what he writes, but in what he doesn’t write For this reason, it is sometimes necessary to review some other texts on the same topic in order to develop a view of the author’s position If this is not possible, then it may be useful to acquire a little background personal information about the author When the only source of information is the text, however, the reader should look for language and argumentation that seems to indicate a particular stance on the subject

Identifying the purpose of an author is usually easier than identifying her

position In most cases, the author has no interest in hiding his or her purpose A text that is meant to entertain, for instance, should be obviously written to please the reader Most narratives, or stories, are written to entertain, though they may

also inform or persuade Informative texts are easy to identify as well The most difficult purpose of a text to identify is persuasion, because the author has an

interest in making this purpose hard to detect When a person knows that the

author is trying to convince him, he is automatically more wary and skeptical of the argument For this reason persuasive texts often try to establish an entertaining tone, hoping to amuse the reader into agreement, or an informative tone, hoping to create an appearance of authority and objectivity

An author’s purpose is often evident in the organization of the text For

instance, if the text has headings and subheadings, if key terms are in bold, and if the author makes his main idea clear from the beginning, then the likely purpose of the text is to inform If the author begins by making a claim and then makes various arguments to support that claim, the purpose is probably to persuade If the author

is telling a story, or is more interested in holding the attention of the reader than in making a particular point or delivering information, then his purpose is most likely

to entertain As a reader, it is best to judge an author on how well he accomplishes his purpose In other words, it is not entirely fair to complain that a textbook is boring: if the text is clear and easy to understand, then the author has done his job Similarly, a storyteller should not be judged too harshly for getting some facts

wrong, so long as he is able to give pleasure to the reader

The author's purpose for writing will affect his writing style and the response

of the reader In a persuasive essay, the author is attempting to change the

reader’s mind or convince him of something he did not believe previously There are several identifying characteristics of persuasive writing One is opinion presented as fact When an author attempts to persuade the reader, he often presents his or her opinions as if they were fact A reader must be on guard for statements that sound factual but which cannot be subjected to research, observation, or experiment Another characteristic of persuasive writing is emotional language An author will often try to play on the reader’s emotion by appealing to his sympathy or sense of morality When an author uses colorful or evocative language with the intent of arousing the reader’s passions, it is likely that he is attempting to persuade Finally,

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in many cases a persuasive text will give an unfair explanation of opposing

positions, if these positions are mentioned at all

An informative text is written to educate and enlighten the reader

Informative texts are almost always nonfiction, and are rarely structured as a story The intention of an informative text is to deliver information in the most

comprehensible way possible, so the structure of the text is likely to be very clear In

an informative text, the thesis statement is often in the first sentence The author may use some colorful language, but is likely to put more emphasis on clarity and precision Informative essays do not typically appeal to the emotions They often contain facts and figures, and rarely include the opinion of the author Sometimes a persuasive essay can resemble an informative essay, especially if the author

maintains an even tone and presents his or her views as if they were established fact

The success or failure of an author’s intent to entertain is determined by

those who read the author’s work Entertaining texts may be either fiction or

nonfiction, and they may describe real or imagined people, places, and events Entertaining texts are often narratives, or stories A text that is written to entertain

is likely to contain colorful language that engages the imagination and the emotions Such writing often features a great deal of figurative language, which typically

enlivens its subject matter with images and analogies Though an entertaining text is not usually written to persuade or inform, it may accomplish both of these tasks An entertaining text may appeal to the reader’s emotions and cause him or her to think differently about a particular subject In any case, entertaining texts tend to

showcase the personality of the author more so than do other types of writing

When an author intends to express feelings, she may use colorful and

evocative language An author may write emotionally for any number of reasons Sometimes, the author will do so because she is describing a personal situation of great pain or happiness Sometimes an author is attempting to persuade the reader, and so will use emotion to stir up the passions It can be easy to identify this kind of

expression when the writer uses phrases like I felt and I sense However, sometimes

the author will simply describe feelings without introducing them As a reader, it is important to recognize when an author is expressing emotion, and not to become overwhelmed by sympathy or passion A reader should maintain some detachment

so that he or she can still evaluate the strength of the author’s argument or the quality of the writing

In a sense, almost all writing is descriptive, insofar as it seeks to describe events, ideas, or people to the reader Some texts, however, are primarily concerned

with description A descriptive text focuses on a particular subject, and attempts to

depict it in a way that will be clear to the reader Descriptive texts contain many adjectives and adverbs, words that give shades of meaning and create a more

detailed mental picture for the reader A descriptive text fails when it is unclear or vague to the reader On the other hand, however, a descriptive text that compiles too much detail can be boring and overwhelming to the reader A descriptive text will certainly be informative, and it may be persuasive and entertaining as well

Descriptive writing is a challenge for the author, but when it is done well, it can be fun to read

Writing Devices

Authors will use different stylistic and writing devices to make their meaning more clearly understood One of those devices is comparison and contrast When

an author describes the ways in which two things are alike, he or she is comparing

them When the author describes the ways in which two things are different, he or

she is contrasting them The “compare and contrast” essay is one of the most

common forms in nonfiction It is often signaled with certain words: a comparison

may be indicated with such words as both, same, like, too, and as well; while a

contrast may be indicated by words like but, however, on the other hand, instead, and

yet Of course, comparisons and contrasts may be implicit without using any such

signaling language A single sentence may both compare and contrast Consider the

sentence Brian and Sheila love ice cream, but Brian prefers vanilla and Sheila prefers

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strawberry In one sentence, the author has described both a similarity (love of ice

cream) and a difference (favorite flavor)

One of the most common text structures is cause and effect A cause is an act

or event that makes something happen, and an effect is the thing that happens as a result of that cause A cause-and-effect relationship is not always explicit, but there

are some words in English that signal causality, such as since, because, and as a

result As an example, consider the sentence Because the sky was clear, Ron did not bring an umbrella The cause is the clear sky, and the effect is that Ron did not bring

an umbrella However, sometimes the cause-and-effect relationship will not be

clearly noted For instance, the sentence He was late and missed the meeting does not

contain any signaling words, but it still contains a cause (he was late) and an effect (he missed the meeting) It is possible for a single cause to have multiple effects, or for a single effect to have multiple causes Also, an effect can in turn be the cause of another effect, in what is known as a cause-and-effect chain

Authors often use analogies to add meaning to the text An analogy is a

comparison of two things The words in the analogy are connected by a certain, often undetermined relationship Look at this analogy: moo is to cow as quack is to duck This analogy compares the sound that a cow makes with the sound that a duck makes Even if the word ‘quack’ was not given, one could figure out it is the correct word to complete the analogy based on the relationship between the words ‘moo’ and ‘cow’ Some common relationships for analogies include synonyms, antonyms, part to whole, definition, and actor to action

Another element that impacts a text is the author's point of view The point

of view of a text is the perspective from which it is told The author will always have

a point of view about a story before he draws up a plot line The author will know what events they want to take place, how they want the characters to interact, and how the story will resolve An author will also have an opinion on the topic, or series

of events, which is presented in the story, based on their own prior experience and beliefs

The two main points of view that authors use are first person and third

person If the narrator of the story is also the main character, or protagonist, the text

is written in first-person point of view In first person, the author writes with the

word I Third-person point of view is probably the most common point of view that authors use Using third person, authors refer to each character using the words he

or she In third-person omniscient, the narrator is not a character in the story and

tells the story of all of the characters at the same time

A good writer will use transitional words and phrases to guide the reader

through the text You are no doubt familiar with the common transitions, though

you may never have considered how they operate Some transitional phrases (after,

before, during, in the middle of) give information about time Some indicate that an

example is about to be given (for example, in fact, for instance) Writers use them to compare (also, likewise) and contrast (however, but, yet) Transitional words and phrases can suggest addition (and, also, furthermore, moreover) and logical

relationships (if, then, therefore, as a result, since) Finally, transitional words and phrases can demarcate the steps in a process (first, second, last) You should

incorporate transitional words and phrases where they will orient your reader and illuminate the structure of your composition

Types of Passages

A narrative passage is a story Narratives can be fiction or nonfiction

However, there are a few elements that a text must have in order to be classified as a narrative To begin with, the text must have a plot That is, it must describe a series

of events If it is a good narrative, these events will be interesting and emotionally engaging to the reader A narrative also has characters These could be people, animals, or even inanimate objects, so long as they participate in the plot A

narrative passage often contains figurative language, which is meant to stimulate the imagination of the reader by making comparisons and observations A

metaphor, which is a description of one thing in terms of another, is a common piece

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of figurative language The moon was a frosty snowball is an example of a metaphor:

it is obviously untrue in the literal sense, but it suggests a certain mood for the reader Narratives often proceed in a clear sequence, but they do not need to do so

An expository passage aims to inform and enlighten the reader It is

nonfiction and usually centers around a simple, easily defined topic Since the goal of exposition is to teach, such a passage should be as clear as possible It is common for

an expository passage to contain helpful organizing words, like first, next, for

example, and therefore These words keep the reader oriented in the text Although

expository passages do not need to feature colorful language and artful writing, they are often more effective when they do For a reader, the challenge of expository passages is to maintain steady attention Expository passages are not always about subjects in which a reader will naturally be interested, and the writer is often more concerned with clarity and comprehensibility than with engaging the reader For this reason, many expository passages are dull Making notes is a good way to

maintain focus when reading an expository passage

A technical passage is written to describe a complex object or process

Technical writing is common in medical and technological fields, in which

complicated mathematical, scientific, and engineering ideas need to be explained simply and clearly To ease comprehension, a technical passage usually proceeds in

a very logical order Technical passages often have clear headings and subheadings, which are used to keep the reader oriented in the text It is also common for these passages to break sections up with numbers or letters Many technical passages look more like an outline than a piece of prose The amount of jargon or difficult

vocabulary will vary in a technical passage depending on the intended audience As much as possible, technical passages try to avoid language that the reader will have

to research in order to understand the message Of course, it is not always possible

to avoid jargon

A persuasive passage is meant to change the reader’s mind or lead her into

agreement with the author The persuasive intent may be obvious, or it may be quite difficult to discern In some cases, a persuasive passage will be indistinguishable

from an informative passage: it will make an assertion and offer supporting details However, a persuasive passage is more likely to make claims based on opinion and

to appeal to the reader’s emotions Persuasive passages may not describe alternate positions and, when they do, they often display significant bias It may be clear that a persuasive passage is giving the author’s viewpoint, or the passage may adopt a seemingly objective tone A persuasive passage is successful if it can make a

convincing argument and win the trust of the reader

A persuasive essay will likely focus on one central argument, but it may make many smaller claims along the way These are subordinate arguments with which the reader must agree if he or she is going to agree with the central argument The central argument will only be as strong as the subordinate claims These claims should be rooted in fact and observation, rather than subjective judgment The best persuasive essays provide enough supporting detail to justify claims without

overwhelming the reader Remember that a fact must be susceptible to independent verification: that is, it must be something the reader could confirm Also, statistics are only effective when they take into account possible objections For instance, a statistic on the number of foreclosed houses would only be useful if it was taken over a defined interval and in a defined area Most readers are wary of statistics, because they are so often misleading If possible, a persuasive essay should always include references so that the reader can obtain more information Of course, this means that the writer’s accuracy and fairness may be judged by the inquiring

reader

Opinions are formed by emotion as well as reason, and persuasive writers often appeal to the feelings of the reader Although readers should always be

skeptical of this technique, it is often used in a proper and ethical manner For

instance, there are many subjects that have an obvious emotional component, and therefore cannot be completely treated without an appeal to the emotions Consider

an article on drunk driving: it makes sense to include some specific examples that will alarm or sadden the reader After all, drunk driving often has serious and tragic consequences Emotional appeals are not appropriate, however, when they attempt

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to mislead the reader For instance, in political advertisements it is common to emphasize the patriotism of the preferred candidate, because this will encourage the audience to link their own positive feelings about the country with their opinion

of the candidate However, these ads often imply that the other candidate is

unpatriotic, which in most cases is far from the truth Another common and

improper emotional appeal is the use of loaded language, as for instance referring to

an avidly religious person as a “fanatic” or a passionate environmentalist as a “tree hugger.” These terms introduce an emotional component that detracts from the argument

History and Culture

Historical context has a profound influence on literature: the events,

knowledge base, and assumptions of an author’s time color every aspect of his or her work Sometimes, authors hold opinions and use language that would be

considered inappropriate or immoral in a modern setting, but that was acceptable in the author’s time As a reader, one should consider how the historical context

influenced a work and also how today’s opinions and ideas shape the way modern readers read the works of the past For instance, in most societies of the past,

women were treated as second-class citizens An author who wrote in 18th-century England might sound sexist to modern readers, even if that author was relatively feminist in his time Readers should not have to excuse the faulty assumptions and prejudices of the past, but they should appreciate that a person’s thoughts and words are, in part, a result of the time and culture in which they live or lived, and it

is perhaps unfair to expect writers to avoid all of the errors of their times

Even a brief study of world literature suggests that writers from vastly

different cultures address similar themes For instance, works like the Odyssey and

Hamlet both tackle the individual’s battle for self-control and independence In

every culture, authors address themes of personal growth and the struggle for maturity Another universal theme is the conflict between the individual and society

In works as culturally disparate as Native Son, the Aeneid, and 1984, authors

dramatize how people struggle to maintain their personalities and dignity in large, sometimes oppressive groups Finally, many cultures have versions of the hero’s (or heroine’s) journey, in which an adventurous person must overcome many obstacles

in order to gain greater knowledge, power, and perspective Some famous works

that treat this theme are the Epic of Gilgamesh, Dante’s Divine Comedy, and Don

Quixote

Authors from different genres (for instance poetry, drama, novel, short story) and cultures may address similar themes, but they often do so quite differently For instance, poets are likely to address subject matter obliquely, through the use of images and allusions In a play, on the other hand, the author is more likely to

dramatize themes by using characters to express opposing viewpoints This

disparity is known as a dialectical approach In a novel, the author does not need to express themes directly; rather, they can be illustrated through events and actions

In some regional literatures, like those of Greece or England, authors use more irony: their works have characters that express views and make decisions that are clearly disapproved of by the author In Latin America, there is a great tradition of using supernatural events to illustrate themes about real life In China and Japan, authors frequently use well-established regional forms (haiku, for instance) to organize their treatment of universal themes

Responding to Literature

When reading good literature, the reader is moved to engage actively in the

text One part of being an active reader involves making predictions A prediction

is a guess about what will happen next Readers are constantly making predictions based on what they have read and what they already know Consider the following

sentence: Staring at the computer screen in shock, Kim blindly reached over for the

brimming glass of water on the shelf to her side The sentence suggests that Kim is

agitated and that she is not looking at the glass she is going to pick up, so a reader

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might predict that she is going to knock the glass over Of course, not every

prediction will be accurate: perhaps Kim will pick the glass up cleanly Nevertheless, the author has certainly created the expectation that the water might be spilled Predictions are always subject to revision as the reader acquires more information

Test-taking tip: To respond to questions requiring future predictions, the student's answers should be based on evidence of past or present behavior

Readers are often required to understand text that claims and suggests ideas

without stating them directly An inference is a piece of information that is implied

but not written outright by the author For instance, consider the following

sentence: Mark made more money that week than he had in the previous year From

this sentence, the reader can infer that Mark either has not made much money in the previous year or made a great deal of money that week Often, a reader can use information he or she already knows to make inferences Take as an example the

sentence When his coffee arrived, he looked around the table for the silver cup Many

people know that cream is typically served in a silver cup, so using their own base of knowledge they can infer that the subject of this sentence takes his coffee with cream Making inferences requires concentration, attention, and practice

Test-taking tip: While being tested on his ability to make correct inferences,

the student must look for contextual clues An answer can be right but not correct

The contextual clues will help you find the answer that is the best answer out of the given choices Understand the context in which a phrase is stated When asked for the implied meaning of a statement made in the passage, the student should

immediately locate the statement and read the context in which it was made Also, look for an answer choice that has a similar phrase to the statement in question

A reader must be able to identify a text’s sequence, or the order in which

things happen Often, and especially when the sequence is very important to the

author, it is indicated with signal words like first, then, next, and last However,

sometimes a sequence is merely implied and must be noted by the reader Consider

the sentence He walked in the front door and switched on the hall lamp Clearly, the

man did not turn the lamp on before he walked in the door, so the implied sequence

is that he first walked in the door and then turned on the lamp Texts do not always proceed in an orderly sequence from first to last: sometimes, they begin at the end and then start over at the beginning As a reader, it can be useful to make brief notes

to clarify the sequence

In addition to inferring and predicting things about the text, the reader must

often draw conclusions about the information he has read When asked for a

conclusion that may be drawn, look for critical “hedge” phrases, such as likely, may, can, will often, among many others When you are being tested on this knowledge,

remember that question writers insert these hedge phrases to cover every

possibility Often an answer will be wrong simply because it leaves no room for exception Extreme positive or negative answers (such as always, never, etc.) are usually not correct The reader should not use any outside knowledge that is not gathered from the reading passage to answer the related questions Correct

answers can be derived straight from the reading passage

Literary Genres

Literary genres refer to the basic generic types of poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfiction Literary genre is a method of classifying and analyzing literature There are numerous subdivisions within genre, including such categories as novels,

novellas, and short stories in fiction Drama may also be subdivided into comedy, tragedy, and many other categories Poetry and nonfiction have their own distinct divisions

Genres often overlap, and the distinctions among them are blurred, such as that between the nonfiction novel and docudrama, as well as many others However, the use of genres is helpful to the reader as a set of understandings that guide our responses to a work The generic norm sets expectations and forms the framework within which we read and evaluate a work This framework will guide both our understanding and interpretation of the work It is a useful tool for both literary criticism and analysis

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Fiction is a general term for any form of literary narrative that is invented or

imagined rather than being factual For those individuals who equate fact with truth, the imagined or invented character of fiction tends to render it relatively

unimportant or trivial among the genres Defenders of fiction are quick to point out that the fictional mode is an essential part of being The ability to imagine or discuss what-if plots, characters, and events is clearly part of the human experience

Prose is derived from the Latin and means “straightforward discourse.” Prose

fiction, although having many categories, may be divided into three main groups:

 Short stories: a fictional narrative, the length of which varies, usually under

20,000 words Short stories usually have only a few characters and generally describe one major event or insight The short story began in magazines in the late 1800s and has flourished ever since

 Novels: a longer work of fiction, often containing a large cast of characters

and extensive plotting The emphasis may be on an event, action, social

problems, or any experience There is now a genre of nonfiction novels

pioneered by Truman Capote’s In Cold Blood in the 1960s Novels may also be

written in verse

 Novellas: a work of narrative fiction longer than a short story but shorter

than a novel Novellas may also be called short novels or novelettes They originated from the German tradition and have become common forms in all

of the world's literature

Many elements influence a work of prose fiction Some important ones are:

 Speech and dialogue: Characters may speak for themselves or through the narrator Dialogue may be realistic or fantastic, depending on the author’s aim

 Thoughts and mental processes: There may be internal dialogue used as a device for plot development or character understanding

 Dramatic involvement: Some narrators encourage readers to become

involved in the events of the story, whereas others attempt to distance readers through literary devices

 Action: This is any information that advances the plot or involves new

interactions between the characters

 Duration: The time frame of the work may be long or short, and the

relationship between described time and narrative time may vary

 Setting and description: Is the setting critical to the plot or characters? How are the action scenes described?

 Themes: This is any point of view or topic given sustained attention

 Symbolism: Authors often veil meanings through imagery and other literary constructions

Fiction is much wider than simply prose fiction Songs, ballads, epics, and narrative poems are examples of non-prose fiction A full definition of fiction must include not only the work itself but also the framework in which it is read Literary fiction can also be defined as not true rather than nonexistent, as many works of historical fiction refer to real people, places, and events that are treated

imaginatively as if they were true These imaginary elements enrich and broaden literary expression

When analyzing fiction, it is important for the reader to look carefully at the work being studied The plot or action of a narrative can become so entertaining that the language of the work is ignored The language of fiction should not simply

be a way to relate a plot—it should also yield many insights to the judicious reader Some prose fiction is based on the reader's engagement with the language rather than the story A studious reader will analyze the mode of expression as well as the narrative Part of the reward of reading in this manner is to discover how the author uses different language to describe familiar objects, events, or emotions Some works focus the reader on an author’s unorthodox use of language, whereas others may emphasize characters or storylines What happens in a story is not always the

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critical element in the work This type of reading may be difficult at first but yields great rewards

The narrator is a central part of any work of fiction, and can give insight

about the purpose of the work and its main themes and ideas The following are important questions to address to better understand the voice and role of the

narrator and incorporate that voice into an overall understanding of the novel:

 Who is the narrator of the novel? What is the narrator's perspective, first person or third person? What is the role of the narrator in the plot? Are there changes in narrators or the perspective of narrators?

 Does the narrator explain things in the novel, or does meaning emerge from the plot and events? The personality of the narrator is important She may have a vested interest in a character or event described Some narratives follow the time sequence of the plot, whereas others do not A narrator may express approval or disapproval about a character or events in the work

 Tone is an important aspect of the narration Who is actually being addressed

by the narrator? Is the tone familiar or formal, intimate or impersonal? Does the vocabulary suggest clues about the narrator?

A character is a person intimately involved with the plot and development of

the novel Development of the novel's characters not only moves the story along but will also tell the reader a lot about the novel itself There is usually a physical

description of the character, but this is often omitted in modern and postmodern novels These works may focus on the psychological state or motivation of the

character The choice of a character’s name may give valuable clues to his role in the work

Characters are said to be flat or round Flat characters tend to be minor figures in the story, changing little or not at all Round characters (those understood from a well-rounded view) are more central to the story and tend to change as the plot unfolds Stock characters are similar to flat characters, filling out the story without influencing it

Modern literature has been greatly affected by Freudian psychology, giving rise to such devices as the interior monologue and magical realism as methods of understanding characters in a work These give the reader a more complex

understanding of the inner lives of the characters and enrich the understanding of relationships between characters

Another important genre is that of drama: a play written to be spoken aloud

The drama is in many ways inseparable from performance Reading drama ideally involves using imagination to visualize and re-create the play with characters and settings The reader stages the play in his imagination, watching characters interact and developments unfold Sometimes this involves simulating a theatrical

presentation; other times it involves imagining the events In either case, the reader

is imagining the unwritten to re-create the dramatic experience Novels present some of the same problems, but a narrator will provide much more information about the setting, characters, inner dialogues, and many other supporting details In drama, much of this is missing, and we are required to use our powers of projection and imagination to taste the full flavor of the dramatic work There are many empty spaces in dramatic texts that must be filled by the reader to fully appreciate the work

When reading drama in this way, there are some advantages over watching the play performed (though there is much criticism in this regard):

 Freedom of point of view and perspective: Text is free of interpretations of actors, directors, producers, and technical staging

 Additional information: The text of a drama may be accompanied by notes or prefaces placing the work in a social or historical context Stage directions may also provide relevant information about the author’s purpose None of this is typically available at live or filmed performances

 Study and understanding: Difficult or obscure passages may be studied at leisure and supplemented by explanatory works This is particularly true of

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older plays with unfamiliar language, which cannot be fully understood without an opportunity to study the material

Critical elements of drama, especially when it is being read aloud or

performed, include dialect, speech, and dialogue Analysis of speech and dialogue is important in the critical study of drama Some playwrights use speech to develop their characters Speeches may be long or short, and written in as normal prose or blank verse Some characters have a unique way of speaking which illuminates aspects of the drama Emphasis and tone are both important, as well Does the author make clear the tone in which lines are to be spoken, or is this open to

interpretation? Sometimes there are various possibilities in tone with regard to delivering lines

Dialect is any distinct variety of a language, especially one spoken in a region

or part of a country The criterion for distinguishing dialects from languages is that

of mutual understanding For example, people who speak Dutch cannot understand English unless they have learned it But a speaker from Amsterdam can understand one from Antwerp; therefore, they speak different dialects of the same language This is, however, a matter of degree; there are languages in which different dialects are unintelligible

Dialect mixtures are the presence in one form of speech with elements from different neighboring dialects The study of speech differences from one

geographical area to another is called dialect geography A dialect atlas is a map showing distribution of dialects in a given area A dialect continuum shows a

progressive shift in dialects across a territory, such that adjacent dialects are

understandable, but those at the extremes are not

Dramatic dialogue can be difficult to interpret and changes depending upon the tone used and which words are emphasized Where the stresses, or meters, of dramatic dialogue fall can determine meaning Variations in emphasis are only one factor in the manipulability of dramatic speech Tone is of equal or greater

importance and expresses a range of possible emotions and feelings that cannot be

readily discerned from the script of a play The reader must add tone to the words

to understand the full meaning of a passage Recognizing tone is a cumulative

process as the reader begins to understand the characters and situations in the play Other elements that influence the interpretation of dialogue include the setting, possible reactions of the characters to the speech, and possible gestures or facial expressions of the actor There are no firm rules to guide the interpretation of dramatic speech An open and flexible attitude is essential in interpreting dramatic dialogue

Action is a crucial element in the production of a dramatic work Many

dramas contain little dialogue and much action In these cases, it is essential for the reader to carefully study stage directions and visualize the action on the stage Benefits of understanding stage directions include knowing which characters are on the stage at all times, who is speaking to whom, and following these patterns

through changes of scene

Stage directions also provide additional information, some of which is not

available to a live audience The nature of the physical space where the action

occurs is vital, and stage directions help with this The historical context of the period is important in understanding what the playwright was working with in terms of theaters and physical space The type of staging possible for the author is a good guide to the spatial elements of a production

Asides and soliloquies are devices that authors use in plot and character

development Asides indicate that not all characters are privy to the lines This

may be a method of advancing or explaining the plot in a subtle manner

Soliloquies are opportunities for character development, plot enhancement, and to

give insight to characters motives, feelings, and emotions Careful study of these elements provides a reader with an abundance of clues to the major themes and plot

of the work

Art, music, and literature all interact in ways that contain many opportunities for the enrichment of all of the arts Students could apply their knowledge of art and music by creating illustrations for a work or creating a musical score for a text

engagement of the text Much of period literature lends itself to the analysis of the prevailing taste in art and music of an era, which helps place the literary work in a more meaningful context

Informational Sources Informational sources often come in short forms like a memo or recipe, or longer forms like books, magazines, or journals These longer sources of

information each have their own way of organizing information, but there are some similarities that the reader should be aware of

Most books, magazines, and journals have a table of contents at the

beginning This helps the reader find the different parts of the book The table of contents is usually found a page or two after the title page in a book, and on the first few pages of a magazine However, many magazines now place the table of contents

in the midst of an overabundance of advertisements, because they know readers will have to look at the ads as they search for the table The standard orientation for

a table of contents is the sections of the book listed along the left side, with the initial page number for each along the right It is common in a book for the prefatory material (preface, introduction, etc.) to be numbered with Roman numerals The contents are always listed in order from the beginning of the book to the end

A nonfiction book will also typically have an index at the end so that the

reader can easily find information about particular topics An index lists the topics

in alphabetical order The names of people are listed with the last name first For

example, Adams, John would come before Washington, George To the right of the

entry, the relevant page numbers are listed When a topic is mentioned over several

pages, the index will often connect these pages with a dash For instance, if the subject is mentioned from pages 35 to 42 and again on 53, then the index entry will

be labeled as 35-42, 53 Some entries will have subsets, which are listed below the

main entry, indented slightly, and placed in alphabetical order This is common for subjects that are discussed frequently in the book For instance, in a book about Elizabethan drama, William Shakespeare will likely be an important topic Beneath

Shakespeare’s name in the index, there might be listings for death of, dramatic works

of, life of, etc These more specific entries help the reader refine his search

Many informative texts, especially textbooks, use headings and

subheadings for organization Headings and subheadings are typically printed in

larger and bolder fonts, and are often in a different color than the main body of the text Headings may be larger than subheadings Also, headings and subheadings are not always complete sentences A heading announces the topic that will be

addressed in the text below Headings are meant to alert the reader to what is about

to come Subheadings announce the topics of smaller sections within the entire section indicated by the heading For instance, the heading of a section in a science

textbook might be AMPHIBIANS, and within that section might be subheadings for

Frogs, Salamanders, and Newts Readers should always pay close attention to

headings and subheadings, because they prime the brain for the information that is about to be delivered, and because they make it easy to go back and find particular details in a long text

Sources of Information

Books, journals, and magazines offer a lot of information to a reader at once Other types of informational sources are targeted at a specific audience for a more limited purpose One such type of informational source is the labeling of foods and medicines The Food and Drug Administration has strict mandates for the

information that must be included on these labels For instance, a food label must

list the corresponding food’s number of calories, total fat, cholesterol, sodium,

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protein, and carbohydrates, among others Also, a food label will usually contain a list of the vitamins that can be found in the product Most importantly, a food label lists the serving size, which is the portion of the product for which the vitamin and nutrient values are true Some food manufacturers use odd serving sizes to make it look as if a product is healthier than it is When making a comparison, one should always calculate the amount of nutrients per unit of measure (grams or fluid ounces, for example) to account for these serving size distortions

Medicine labels contain a wealth of information that can be used to make

comparisons and informed purchases Every medicine label must have detailed and comprehensive instructions regarding dosage, including how much and how often the medicine should be taken A label will also include warning information, and what to do in case of overdose or adverse reaction Medicine labels will have a complete list of ingredients, but will isolate the active ingredients, which are those that accomplish the advertised purpose of the product Often, generic versions of a medicine have the same active ingredients as more expensive name-brand versions Finally, a label will specify when a medication should not be taken by certain people, like the elderly or pregnant women When comparing medicines, it is important to isolate the most crucial information: dosage schedule, active ingredients, and

counter-indications

A slightly different type of informational source is a memo Memos are

generally short, official messages written by and for members of the same

organization They usually contain a plan of action, a request for information on a specific topic, or a response to such a request There is a standard format for these documents It is typical for there to be a heading at the top indicating the author, date, and recipient In some cases, this heading will also include the author’s title and the name of his or her institution Below this information will be the body of the memo Many memos are organized with numbers or bullet points, which make it easier for the reader to identify key ideas

Announcements are another type of written communication that gives

information to readers People post announcements for all sorts of occasions Many

people are familiar with notices for lost pets, yard sales, and landscaping services In order to be effective, these announcements need to contain all of the information the reader requires to act on the message For instance, a lost pet announcement needs

to include a good description of the animal and a contact number for the owner A yard sale notice should include the address, date, and hours of the sale, as well as a brief description of the products that will be available there When composing an announcement, it is important to consider the perspective of the audience: what will they need to know in order to respond to the message? Although a posted

announcement should try to use color and decoration to attract the eye of the

passerby, it must also convey the necessary information

Classified advertisements, or ads, are used to sell or buy goods, to attract

business, to make romantic connections, and to do countless other things They are

an inexpensive, and sometimes free, way to make a brief pitch Classified ads used to

be found only in newspapers or special advertising circulars, but there are now many famous online listings as well The style of these ads has remained basically the same An ad usually begins with a word or phrase indicating what is being sold

or sought Then, the listing will give a brief description of the product or service Because space is limited and costly in newspapers, classified ads there will often contain abbreviations for common attributes For instance, two common

abbreviations are bk for black, and obo for or best offer Classified ads will then

usually conclude by listing the price (or the amount the seeker is willing to pay), followed by contact information like a telephone number or email address

A student must be able to find information in various sources A road atlas is

one such source that is designed specifically for drivers It is a collection of maps that are useful for finding the distances between places, the correct roads and

highways for reaching a given destination, and the relative positions of places in a certain geographic area Most road atlases have a table at the beginning that

illustrates the distance in miles between any two major cities These tables are set

up like a grid, with cities listed along the left and top sides To find the distance between two places, follow the row of the first place perpendicular from the left

indicate the different dots and squares that are used to indicate towns of various sizes The legend may contain information about the map’s scale, though this may be elsewhere on the map Many legends will contain special symbols, such as a picnic table indicating a campground

Another source of information is the card catalog Although rarely seen in

the physical world anymore, card catalogs they still exist in most libraries in an online, digital format These catalogs contain a wealth of information about the contents of the library A typical card catalog entry contains the title, name of the author, year of publication, publisher, number of pages, and reference number in the Library of Congress Most importantly, perhaps, card catalogs contain a brief

summary of the book, so that a potential reader or researcher can get an idea of its contents Many online card catalogs allow easy navigation to books on the same subject, by the same author, or close by on the library shelves In any case, the card catalog entry will contain the library call number so that the researcher can find the book

An owner’s manual is the appropriate source of information for a purchased

product An owner’s manual is mainly devoted to the operation and maintenance of the product It will often begin with a brief outline of the product’s parts and method

of operation Most manuals will contain the products specifications: that is, the precise details about its components and features For the most part, though, the owner’s manual will be devoted to the routine repairs and care that a non-expert owner can be expected to provide In the owner’s manual for a car, for instance, there will be instructions for tasks like changing the oil, replacing windshield

wipers, and presetting stations on the radio An owner’s manual is unlikely to

contain instructions for complex repairs that require special equipment Finally, the owner’s manual will often detail the service warranty associated with the product

The Yellow Pages of the phone book contain commercial listings for

businesses that provide services to the general public The listings are organized according to the type of service being offered: there are sections for florists, auto mechanics, and pizza restaurants These categories are placed in alphabetical order, and within each category, the listings are in alphabetical order A basic listing in the yellow pages will include the name of the business, the address, and the phone number However, some merchants elect to pay extra and have large

advertisements alongside their listing in the yellow pages For instance, a restaurant might buy enough space to print their entire menu

Sometimes informational and technical passages will require the reader to follow a set of directions For many people, especially those who are tactile or visual

learners, this can be a difficult process It is important to approach a set of

directions differently than other texts First of all, it is a good idea to scan the

directions to determine whether special equipment or preparations are needed Sometimes in a recipe, for instance, the author fails to mention that the oven should

be preheated first, and then halfway through the process, the cook is supposed to be baking After briefly reading the directions, the reader should return to the first step When following directions, it is appropriate to complete each step before moving on

to the next If this is not possible, it is useful at least to visualize each step before reading the next

Reference Materials

Knowledge of reference materials such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, and

manuals are vital for any reader Dictionaries contain information about words A

standard dictionary entry begins with a pronunciation guide for the word The entry will also give the word’s part of speech: that is, whether it is a noun, verb, adjective,

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etc A good dictionary will also include the word’s origins, including the language from which it is derived and its meaning in that language This information is known

as the word’s etymology

Dictionary entries are in alphabetical order Many words have more than one definition, in which case the definitions will be numbered Also, if a word can be used as different parts of speech, its various definitions in those different capacities may be separated A sample entry might look like this:

WELL: (adverb) 1 in a good way (noun) 1 a hole drilled into the earth

The correct definition of a word will vary depending on how it is used in a sentence When looking up a word found while reading, the best way to determine the relevant definition is to substitute the dictionary’s definitions for the word in the text, and select the definition that seems most appropriate

Encyclopedias used to be the best source for general information on a range

of common subjects Many people took pride in owning a set of encyclopedias, which were often written by top researchers Now, encyclopedias largely exist online Although they no longer have a preeminent place in general scholarship, these digital encyclopedias now often feature audio and video clips A good

encyclopedia remains the best place to obtain basic information about a well-known topic There are also specialty encyclopedias that cover more obscure or expert information For instance, there are many medical encyclopedias that contain the detail and sophistication required by doctors For a regular person researching a subject like ostriches, Pennsylvania, or the Crimean War, an encyclopedia is a good source

A thesaurus is a reference book that gives synonyms of words It is different

from a dictionary because a thesaurus does not give definitions, only lists of

synonyms A thesaurus can be helpful in finding the meaning of an unfamiliar word when reading If the meaning of a synonym is known, then the meaning of the

unfamiliar word will be known The other time a thesaurus is helpful is when

writing Using a thesaurus helps authors to vary their word choice

A database is an informational source that has a different format than a

publication or a memo They are systems for storing and organizing large amounts

of information As personal computers have become more common and accessible, databases have become ever more present The standard layout of a database is as a grid, with labels along the left side and the top The horizontal rows and vertical columns that make up the grid are usually numbered or lettered, so that a particular square within the database might have a name like A3 or G5 Databases are good for storing information that can be expressed succinctly They are most commonly used

to store numerical data, but they also can be used to store the answers to yes-no questions and other brief data points Information that is ambiguous (that is, has multiple possible meanings) or difficult to express in a few words is not appropriate for a database

Often, a reader will come across a word that he does not recognize The reader needs to know how to identify the definition of a word from its context This means defining a word based on the words around it and the way it is used in a

sentence For instance, consider the following sentence: The elderly scholar spent his

evenings hunched over arcane texts that few other people even knew existed The

adjective arcane is uncommon, but the reader can obtain significant information

about it based on its use here Based on the fact that few other people know of their existence, the reader can assume that arcane texts must be rare and only of interest

to a few people And, because they are being read by an elderly scholar, the reader can assume that they focus on difficult academic subjects Sometimes, words can even be defined by what they are not For instance, consider the following sentence:

Ron’s fealty to his parents was not shared by Karen, who disobeyed their every

command Because someone who disobeys is not demonstrating fealty, the word can

be inferred to mean something like obedience or respect

When conducting research, it is important to depend on reputable primary sources A primary source is the documentary evidence closest to the subject being

studied For instance, the primary sources for an essay about penguins would be photographs and recordings of the birds, as well as accounts of people who have

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studied penguins in person A secondary source would be a review of a movie about penguins or a book outlining the observations made by others A primary source should be credible and, if it is on a subject that is still being explored, recent One way to assess the credibility of a work is to see how often it is mentioned in other books and articles on the same subject Just by reading the works cited and

bibliographies of other books, one can get a sense of what are the acknowledged authorities in the field

The Internet was once considered a poor place to find sources for an essay or article, but its credibility has improved greatly over the years Still, students need to exercise caution when performing research online The best sources are those affiliated with established institutions, like universities, public libraries, and think tanks Most newspapers are available online, and many of them allow the public to browse their archives Magazines frequently offer similar services When obtaining information from an unknown website, however, one must exercise considerably more caution A website can be considered trustworthy if it is referenced by other sites that are known to be reputable Also, credible sites tend to be properly

maintained and frequently updated A site is easier to trust when the author

provides some information about him or herself, including some credentials that indicate expertise in the subject matter

Critical Thinking Skills

Opinions, Facts, & Fallacies

Critical thinking skills are mastered through understanding various types of writing and the different purposes that authors have for writing the way they do Every author writes for a purpose Understanding that purpose, and how they accomplish their goal, will allow you to critique the writing and determine whether

or not you agree with their conclusions

Readers must always be conscious of the distinction between fact and

opinion A fact can be subjected to analysis and can be either proved or disproved

An opinion, on the other hand, is the author’s personal feeling, which may not be

alterable by research, evidence, or argument If the author writes that the distance from New York to Boston is about two hundred miles, he is stating a fact But if he writes that New York is too crowded, then he is giving an opinion, because there is

no objective standard for overpopulation An opinion may be indicated by words

like believe, think, or feel Also, an opinion may be supported by facts: for instance,

the author might give the population density of New York as a reason for why it is overcrowded An opinion supported by fact tends to be more convincing When authors support their opinions with other opinions, the reader is unlikely to be moved

Facts should be presented to the reader from reliable sources An opinion is what the author thinks about a given topic An opinion is not common knowledge or proven by expert sources, but it is information that the author believes and wants the reader to consider To distinguish between fact and opinion, a reader needs to look at the type of source that is presenting information, what information backs-up

a claim, and whether or not the author may be motivated to have a certain point of view on a given topic For example, if a panel of scientists has conducted multiple studies on the effectiveness of taking a certain vitamin, the results are more likely to

be factual than if a company selling a vitamin claims that taking the vitamin can produce positive effects The company is motivated to sell its product, while the scientists are using the scientific method to prove a theory If the author uses words such as “I think…”, the statement is an opinion

In their attempt to persuade, writers often make mistakes in their thinking patterns and writing choices It’s important to understand these so you can make an informed decision Every author has a point of view, but when an author ignores reasonable counterarguments or distorts opposing viewpoints, she is demonstrating

a bias A bias is evident whenever the author is unfair or inaccurate in his or her

presentation Bias may be intentional or unintentional, but it should always alert the reader to be skeptical of the argument being made It should be noted that a biased author may still be correct However, the author will be correct in spite of her bias,