Mức độ tự chủ trong quản lý của các trường dạy nghề ở thành phố hà nội, việt nam

khóa luận, luận văn, thạc sĩ, tiến sĩ, cao học, đề tài

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

SOUTHERN LUZON STATE

UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines

LEVEL OF AUTONOMY ON THE MANAGEMENT OF

VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS IN HANOI CITY, VIETNAM

A RESEARCH PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE SCHOOL SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY LUCBAN, QUEZON, PHILIPPINES

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY S.R VIETNAM

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

DOCTORS IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

Phạm Quang Vinh (Stone) Thai Nguyen, 2013

APPROVAL SHEET

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor in Business Administration,

this research study entitled LEVEL OF AUTONOMY ON THE MANAGEMENT OF

VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS IN HANOI CITY, VIETNAM has been submitted by Phạm

Quang Vinh (Stone) and is hereby recommended for oral examination

Adviser

Approved by the Oral Examination Committee, in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree Doctor in Business Administration offered by Southern Luzon

State University, Republic of the Philippines in collaboration with Thai Nguyen University,

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

……… ………

………

Chairman

Accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor in Business

Administration offered by Southern Luzon State University, Republic of the Philippines in

collaboration with Thai Nguyen University, Socialist Republic of Vietnam

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

In grateful recognition and sincerest thanks for the encouragement, guidance and unselfish sharing of their knowledge, time, effort and skills, and for the untiring motivation that leads to the completion of this study, the researcher acknowledges the following:

DR CECILIA N GASCON, Ph.D., President of the Southern Luzon State University

in the Republic of the Philippines, for her untiring effort and belief that this collaboration is possible thus enabling us to pursue the DBA degree;

DR DANG XUAN BINH, Ph.D., Director of the International Training Center, Thai Nguyen University of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, for his enormous pursuit to provide the Vietnamese people an opportunity to grow through education;

DR DO ANH TAI , Ph.D., his adviser, for guidance and endless support for the improvement of this study

ITC STAFF, for providing the necessary research materials;

MANAGERS and STAFF of Vocational Schools in Hanoi city, my Respondents, for

their patience and cooperation in answering the questionnaire and for other data given;

MY FAMILY and FRIENDS, for the love and support in one-way or the other; and

TO ALL who have contributed to make this study a success

Phạm Quang Vinh (Stone)

DEDICATION

This research is healthfully dedicated

To my family and to all my relatives, my colleagues, friends, classmates, administrators, staffs and employees

for Vocational Schools In Hanoi city

Phạm Quang Vinh (Stone)

Chapter II Review of Related Literatures and Studies 8

2.1 Related Concepts and Review of School Autonomy 8

Title Page Page

2.1.2 The problems of autonomy and autonomy schools 19

2.1.3.1 Structure of Vietnam education system and its actives 34

Chapter IV Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation of Data 50

Title Page Page

4.2 Assessment of the respondents on the existing level of autonomy on

management of Vocational schools in Hanoi city, Vietnam with regard to

Identifying of Organizational autonomy, financial autonomy, Staffing

autonomy, and Academic autonomy

vocational schools in Hanoi city

61

4.2.2 Finacial autonomy in public and private vocational schools in Hanoi 66 4.2.2.1 Finacial autonomy in public vocational schools 66 4.2.2.2 Finacial autonomy in private vocational schools 69 4.2.2.3 Compare Finacial autonomy in public and private vocational

schools in Hanoi

72

4.2.3 Staffing autonomy in public and private vocational schools in Hanoi 76 4.2.3.1 Staffing autonomy in public vocational schools 76 4.2.3.2 Staffing autonomy in private vocational schools 79 4.2.3.3 Compare Staffing autonomy in public and private vocational

schools in Hanoi

82

4.2.4 Academy autonomy in public and private vocational schools in Hanoi 86 4.2.4.1 Academy autonomy in public vocational schools 86 4.2.4.2 Academy autonomy in private vocational schools 89 4.2.4.3 Compare Academy autonomy in public and private vocational

schools in Hanoi

92

4.3 The autonomy factors were enjoined much or least of the vocational 96

Title Page Page

schools as perceived by respondents

4.3.1 Determining importance of Organization autonomy in vocational

schools

96

4.3.2 Determining importance of Financial autonomy in vocational schools 98 4.3.3 Determining importance of Staffing autonomy in vocational schools 100 4.3.4 Determining importance of Academy autonomy in vocational schools 102 4.3.5 Sum up of importance of autonomy factors in vocational schools 104 4.4 Factors should be the extent of autonomy on the given indicators that

may be spelled out by Private and Public vocational schools

106

4.5 Testing a significant differences between profile of respondents and their

perception on the level of autonomy on management of Vocational schools in

Hanoi city, Vietnam

5.2.3 The autonomy factors were enjoined much or least of the vocational

schools as perceived by respondents

123

5.2.4 Items should be extent of autonomy on the given indicators that may

be spelled out by Private and Public vocational schools

Title Page Page

in Hanoi

5.2.3 Planning to support the autonomy to develop the vocational schools 128

List of Figures

Figures Title Page

2.5 Research model for assessment of level of autonomy on the

management of vocational schools in Hanoi, Vietnam 45

List of Table

Table Title Page

2.1 Requirements for implementing autonomy, assessment and

2.4 Restrictions on senior academic staff recruiment 29

3.2 Ratting scale for respondent’s perception on contents in autonomy

3.3 Type of data and methods of gatherning and processing 49

4.1.1 Frequency Distribution of Respondent’s Profile as Indicated by Age,

4.1.2 Frequency Distribution of Respondent’s Profile as Indicated by Length of

Services in the department, and working division 51

4.2.1

Mean Distribution of Responses on the existing level of autonomy on

management of Public Vocational schools in Hanoi city in terms of to

Identifying of Organizational autonomy

53

4.2.2

Mean Distribution of Responses on the existing level of autonomy on

management of Private Vocational schools in Hanoi city in terms of to

Identifying of Organizational autonomy

57

4.2.3

Composite of Mean Distribution of Responses on the existing level of

autonomy on management of Vocational schools in Hanoi city in terms

of to Identifying of Organizational autonomy

61

4.2.4

Mean Distribution of Responses on the existing level of autonomy on

management of Public Vocational schools in Hanoi city in terms of to

Identifying of Financial autonomy

66

Table Title Page

4.2.5

Mean Distribution of Responses on the existing level of autonomy on

management of Private Vocational schools in Hanoi city in terms of to

Identifying of Financial autonomy

69

4.2.6

Composite of Mean Distribution of Responses on the existing level of

autonomy on management of Vocational schools in Hanoi city in terms

of to Identifying of Financial autonomy

73

4.2.7

Mean Distribution of Responses on the existing level of autonomy on

management of Public Vocational schools in Hanoi city in terms of to

Identifying of Staffing autonomy

76

4.2.8

Mean Distribution of Responses on the existing level of autonomy on

management of Private Vocational schools in Hanoi city in terms of to

Identifying of Staffing autonomy

79

4.2.9

Composite of Mean Distribution of Responses on the existing level of

autonomy on management of Vocational schools in Hanoi city in terms

of to Identifying of Staffing autonomy

82

4.2.10

Mean Distribution of Responses on the existing level of autonomy on

management of Public Vocational schools in Hanoi city in terms of to

Identifying of Academic

86

4.2.11

Mean Distribution of Responses on the existing level of autonomy on

management of Private Vocational schools in Hanoi city in terms of to

Identifying of Academic

89

4.2.12

Composite of Mean Distribution of Responses on the existing level of

autonomy on management of Vocational schools in Hanoi city in terms

of to Identifying of Academic

92

4.3.1

Mean Distribution of Responses on the importance of Organization

autonomy in public vocational schools in Public Vocational schools in

Hanoi city

97

4.3.2 Mean Distribution of Responses on the importance of financial

autonomy in public vocational schools in Public Vocational schools in 99

Table Title Page

there is significant in relation between respondent’s working

division and their perception on school autonomy in item of

Hanoi city

4.3.3

Mean Distribution of Responses on the importance of Staffing

autonomy in public vocational schools in Public Vocational schools in

Hanoi city

101

4.3.4

Mean Distribution of Responses on the importance of Academic

autonomy in public vocational schools in Public Vocational schools in

Hanoi city

103

4.3.5 Composite off Mean Distribution of Responses on the importance of

autonomy factors in vocational schools in Hanoi city 105

4.4.1

Mean Distribution of Responses on the Factors should be the extent of

autonomy on the given indicators that may be spelled out by Private and

Public vocational schools in Hanoi city

107

4.5.1a

Significant Difference between the Respondent’s position and their Perception

on the level of autonomy on management of Public vocational schools in

Hanoi city, Vietnam

108

4.5.1b

Significant Difference between the Respondent’s position and their Perception

on the level of autonomy on management of Private vocational schools in

Hanoi city, Vietnam

109

4.5.2a

Significant Difference between the Respondent’s age bracket and their

Perception on the level of autonomy on management of Public Vocational

schools in Hanoi city, Vietnam

110

4.5.2b

Significant Difference between the Respondent’s age bracket and their

Perception on the level of autonomy on management of Private Vocational

schools in Hanoi city, Vietnam

111

4.5.3a

Significant Difference between the Respondent’s Education and their

Perception on the level of autonomy on management of Public Vocational

schools in Hanoi city, Vietnam

112

Table Title Page

4.5.3b

Significant Difference between the Respondent’s Education and their

Perception on the level of autonomy on management of Private Vocational

schools in Hanoi city, Vietnam

113

4.5.4a

Significant Difference between the Respondent’s Gender and their Perception

on the level of autonomy on management of Public Vocational schools in

Hanoi city, Vietnam

114

4.5.4b

Significant Difference between the Respondent’s Gender and their Perception

on the level of autonomy on management of Private Vocational schools in

Hanoi city, Vietnam

115

4.5.5a

Significant Difference between the Respondent’s Experience and their

Perception on the level of autonomy on management of Public Vocational

schools in Hanoi city, Vietnam

116

4.5.5b

Significant Difference between the Respondent’s Experience and their

Perception on the level of autonomy on management of Private Vocational

schools in Hanoi city, Vietnam

117

4.5.6a

Significant Difference between the Respondent’s working division and their

Perception on the level of autonomy on management of Public Vocational

schools in Hanoi city, Vietnam

118

4.5.6b

Significant Difference between the Respondent’s working division and their

Perception on the level of autonomy on management of Private Vocational

schools in Hanoi city, Vietnam

119

4.5.7

Significant Difference between Public and Private School’s Evaluation on the

level of autonomy on management of Vocational schools in Hanoi city,

Vietnam

120

Abstract

This dissertation with the title "LEVEL OF AUTONOMY ON THE MANAGEMENT

OF VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS IN HANOI CITY, VIETNAM ", the objective of this study is

to evaluate the reality autonomy of schools in vocational schools in Hanoi, review of literatures about the autonomy of schools in general and in vocational schools in particular This study reviews operational status of autonomy in vocational schools in Hanoi through groups such as the basic criterion to determine the real situation and the key element for autonomy in vocational school in Hanoi This study used methods of descriptive statistics, the method of comparison statistics and analysis of variance through the selection of two types of vocational school in Hanoi It's public and private vocational schools There are two groups of respondent in each type of school have been chosen to measure their perceptions about managing the operation autonomy in schools Research has shown that the operating autonomy of the vocational school in Hanoi in the first phase of the cultural autonomy of schools The concept, content and the policy on school autonomy has not been publicized Hypothesis test results also show that there is not much difference in the perception of the respondent group about the status of content management autonomy in vocational schools in Hanoi

BPNT Basic Psychological Needs Theory

CET Cognitive Evaluation Theory

GDV General Department of Vocational

MOET Ministry of Education and Training

MOLISA Ministry of Labour - Invalids - Social Affairs

NO Norway

OEI Occupational Education Institution

OIT Organism Integration Theory

PIED Professional Intermediate Education Department

PIS Professional Intermediate School

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

1.1 Introduction

Autonomy is a topic of great interest, which is often mentioned in the forums of education - training in Vietnam It is most concerned by the schools as well as the state management agencies with many opinions and conflicting viewpoints Although the general direction is bold autonomy and self-responsibility of the schools to increase their flexibility, many specific issues that are given out to discuss such as: Licensing and how to license; How

is the mechanism of state control to let off without relinquishing management while enhancing the effective operation of the school, etc

Autonomy of institutions in the field of education is understood as self-determination and self-responsibility under the laws and the requirements of society for all its activities such

as finance, personnel and organizational structure, training programs, strategic planning, etc

Under the provisions of Vietnam laws, the level of autonomy of the education and training institutions (collectively, the schools) depends on the type of school Currently in Vietnam, the system of Occupational Education includes the Professional Intermediate Schools, Vocational Schools, Vocational Colleges, and some Colleges and Universities,

which has Vocational Education models (after here, referred to as Vocational School) under

two different types (Nguyen Duc Toan, 2010):

- Private Schools: all of them are full autonomy

- Public Schools: three kinds that are none autonomy, partial autonomy, and full autonomy

Each type of school is influenced by the different legal documents and regulations on its autonomy

Autonomy does not mean relinquishing management from the state In contrast, autonomy given to schools is considered as one of the most important solutions to bring motivations, new life for training institutions to improve the efficiency, educational quality and social responsibility of the schools

Vietnam is in the process of institutional transformation from the planning - bureaucracy - subsidy economy to the market economy completely Accordingly, education

and training is not only seen as a public utility sector, but also considered an important service sector that has been contributing significantly to the sustainable development of market economy Ensuring autonomy for training institutions is a prerequisite for these institutions to adjust their activities in accordance with market mechanism, which requires the dynamic, creation, activeness and accepts the changes frequently

The scope of this study will try to approach a relative full - autonomy of the occupational education institutions and its impacts on the activities of these schools; This study also will try to compare the existing legal provisions issue with some experiences of developed countries to put forward some recommendations to improve and enhance the effectiveness of the policy framework for Occupational Education field as well as the

advancement of each school

1.2 Background of the study

The developments towards a different model of governance in many advanced societies have been characterized with the phrase “regulatory state” (Moran 2002), i.e a state where direct public ownerships is replaced by regulating more autonomous units Higher education is subject to similar changes and is waiting for a systematic analysis from a regulatory approach (King 2007) As a general rule, vocational schools have become more autonomous – free from line-itemized budgets, input control, and detailed prescriptions on curricula (Santiago et al 2008) The greater autonomy is at the same time balanced by new accountability mechanisms (Santiago et al 2008) Therefore, the autonomy of the schools is limited to make the selection of the training majors as well as to determine the suitable training model upon requests of the labour markets and training capacities of schools actively With the Circular No115/2010/ND-CP dated 24/12/2010 of the Government, this responsibility has been transferred to the local Education & Training departments However, these departments are also getting many embarrassments and difficulties in dealing with this new task which leads to the delays, lack of the uniformity on the steps of approving the procedures to open new majors and giving the annual recruitment quantity, GOV (2010)

At present, Vietnam doesn’t have enough the particular laws to encourage the enterprises and schools to cooperate closely so as to train students to meet the demands of the labour market Schools still train students with their own programs without being concerned much about what the labour market requires The stagnations, the inactiveness of the schools

are affected directly by the management methods, which are lack of the motivation and exist the bureaucracies of the managers and leaders

The Vietnam Educational Law still remains the classification of the state management function in the area of occupational education for the MOET (manage the intermediate professional schools) and MOLISA (manage the vocational schools, vocational colleges) This separation has caused the inequality, dispersion and reduced effectiveness of the resources invested in the occupational education area Moreover, it also limits the autonomy

of the occupational education institutions to diversify the training programs, levels of training, and the links among the training programs and levels of training Beside, being lack of the financial resources is one of the main reasons that cause the limitations of the autonomy of the occupational education institutions, especially the autonomy and self - responsibilities for the training quality

In addition, the effectiveness of the financial investments for occupational education area

is not high, not focused, and hasn’t encouraged the schools to improve the quality The private occupational education institutions will encounter a lot of difficulties in dealing with the procedures to ask for permission to open new school, being provided with lands to build school, approving the training programs They are not behaved as equally as the public schools and it is difficult for them to approach supported policies for the development of occupational education from the Government Therefore, the autonomy of the private schools

in Vietnam is considered like the laxity and lack of support at some points Some major problems exist in occupational education policy in Vietnam at present: The classification and allocation of the state management in the occupational education are inappropriate There are many different points between the MOET and MOLISA on development policy of the occupational education system that hasn’t been solved properly (Nguyen Van Khoi , 2012)

The unbalanced allocation of investment projects to develop vocational capacity between vocational schools and intermediate professional schools The development of the intermediate professional education system is not paid attention properly by MOET It is lack of transparency and consistency in decentralized management occupational education sector between the state management agencies These problems cause a lot of obstacles and embarrassing for the occupational educational institutions in implementing their autonomy

The coexistence of two systems of the state management in occupational education leads

to inconsistencies, inequalities among different models of schools

It does not only creates the legal barriers related to the links among the levels of training

of the National Education System, but also limits the autonomy of the schools in building their training programs that can meet the requirements of the labour market

Beside the challenges and difficulties mentioned above, there are some basic advantages, which are the Government's policies on enhancing the autonomy and self-responsibility of the educational organizations, including occupational education establishments

Currently, autonomy is inevitable trend of the policy orientation in the development of education and occupational education sector in Vietnam Autonomy can be considered as a key tool to reform and revive the occupational education system in Vietnam

This research will study on the current status of the autonomy of the occupational educational institutions to point out the critical issues that are existing in the occupational education system related to the autonomy of the schools in Hanoi city It will also raise some recommendations to improve the legal framework towards increasing autonomy and social responsibility of the occupational educational institutions Based on that, this study will give out useful lessons to develop the policy framework of occupational education sector in Vietnam

1.3 Objective of study

1.3.1 General objective of study

The goal of this study is focus on the evaluation of management status of the autonomy of at the vocational schools in Hanoi city, Vietnam and then this study will to point out the recommend and solution that have improved the problems and limited in managing autonomy at the Vocational schools in Hanoi city

1.3.2 General objective of study

Determine respondent’s perception on Autonomy in the operation of public and private vocational schools in Hanoi city

Determine and compare the level of autonomy between the public and private vocational schools

Determine which of the areas is perceived as the top priority for autonomy between public and private vocational schools in Hanoi city

1.4 Statement of the Problem

1.4.1 The basic information exploited from the interviewees under the angles of:

− Ages

− Qualifications

− Job positions

− Gender

− Working experiences in education & training field

1.4.2 What is the existing level of autonomy on management of vocational schools in

Hanoi city, Vietnam in items of:

− Organisational autonomy

− Financial autonomy

− Staffing autonomy

− Academic autonomy

1.4.3 Which of the autonomy factors were enjoined much or least of the vocational

schools as perceived by respondents?

1.4.4 What should be the extent of autonomy on the given indicators that may be spelled

out by Private and Public vocational schools?

1.4.5 What plan program can be developed to support the autonomy to develop the

vocational schools?

1.5 Hypotheses

There is no significant different on perceived autonomy by group of respondent and their profile

1.6 Significance of the study

For the researched organization: Autonomy for Education and Training institutions

will be an opportunity to make their own orientation in accordance with the characteristics

and circumstances of each school

For the managers: There are helpful hints in the uses of effective autonomy as a tool

to improve the quality of the schools and the effectiveness of the state management in the occupational education system

For the researcher: Apply obtained knowledge to do research and the researcher is

also the leader of a professional secondary school, therefore the school will also get the benefits from the results of this study

For the other researchers: Result report of this study is a useful reference for

the other researchers to study the similar problems in the future

1.7 Scope and Limitations

This study is descriptive researches that will assess the status of school autonomy at vocational school in Hanoi city through analyzing impact of factors that relevant to autonomy actives in vocation public and private schools in Hanoi city of Vietnam Autonomy actives in

vocational schools in Hanoi will be evaluated based on the following variables as Academic autonomy, financial autonomy, Organizational autonomy, and Staffing autonomy

The respondents will be multi sectors, the manager, teacher, and Lecturer who have been working at vocational schools in Hanoi city and they will be subjected on the use of questionnaire check list and Interview Previous studied on autonomy in schools will also use for check and balances purposes

Due to limited time and other resources, the researcher just collected a total of 539 respondents from public and private vocational school in Hanoi city based on a formula for calculating total sample

A five-point scale was used to determine the perception of respondents on the existing level of autonomy on management of vocational schools

1.8 Definition of terms

Autonomy is as old as the tradition of higher education Complete autonomy implies

that the higher education institutions concerned are self-governing communities with no control from governments or other outside bodies on their internal activities

Academic autonomy refers to a school’s ability to decide on various academic issues,

such as student admissions, academic content, quality assurance, the introduction of degree programmers and the language of instruction

Financial autonomy refers to a school’s ability to decide freely on its internal

financial affairs The ability to manage its funds independently enables an institution to set and realize its strategic aims

Organizational autonomy is an art practice as a Not For Profit Organization, whose

projects are subject to the oversight of a Board of Directors It is a device for fragmenting the authoritarian vision of the artist through a collective process, and aligning with and redefining what it means to work in the public interest

Staffing autonomy refers to a school’s ability to decide freely on issues related to

human resources management, including recruitments, salaries, dismissals and promotions

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATUES AND STUDIES

This chapter will present concepts and theories that have significant effects on the conduct of the study The review of related literatures and study would present what had been written about the subject Finally a Conceptual framework that will aid the conduct of this

research work will be established

2.1 Related Concepts and Review of School Autonomy

2.1.1 Concept on Education and Vocational school

2.1.1.1 Education

According to Maarja Beerkens (2006), Education is the very nature of life to strive to continue in being Since this continuance can be secured only by constant renewals, life is a self-renewing process What nutrition and reproduction are to physiological life, education is

to social life? This education consists primarily in transmission through communication Communication is a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common possession It modifies the disposition of both the parties who partake in it That the ulterior significance of every mode of human association lies in the contribution, which it makes to the improvement

of the quality of experience is a fact most easily recognized in dealing with the immature That is to say, while every social arrangement is educative in effect, the educative effect first becomes an important part of the purpose of the association in connection with the association

of the older with the younger As societies become more complex in structure and resources, the need of formal or intentional teaching and learning increases As formal teaching and training grow in extent, there is the danger of creating an undesirable split between the experience gained in more direct associations and what is acquired in school This danger was never greater than at the present time, on account of the rapid growth in the last few centuries

of knowledge and technical modes of skill

2.1.1.2 Education as National and as Social

As soon as the first enthusiasm for freedom waned, the weakness of the theory upon the constructive side became obvious Merely to leave everything to nature was, after all, but

to negate the very idea of education; it was to trust to the accidents of circumstance Not only was some method required but also some positive organ, some administrative agency for carrying on the process of instruction The "complete and harmonious development of all powers," having as its social counterpart an enlightened and progressive humanity, required

definite organization for its realization Private individuals here and there could proclaim the gospel; they could not execute the work A Pestalozzi could try experiments and exhort philanthropically inclined persons having wealth and power to follow his example But even Pestalozzi saw that any effective pursuit of the new educational ideal required the support of the state The realization of the new education destined to produce a new society was, after all, dependent upon the activities of existing states The movement for the democratic idea inevitably became a movement for publicly conducted and administered schools (Teresa Garciaa, Paul R Pintrichb, 2002)

So far as Europe was concerned, the historic situation identified the movement for a state-supported education with the nationalistic movement in political life a fact of incalculable significance for subsequent movements Under the influence of German thought

in particular, education became a civic function and the civic function was identified with the realization of the ideal of the national state The "state" was substituted for humanity; cosmopolitanism gave way to nationalism To form the citizen, not the "man," became the aim of education (Anderson, D & Johnson, R 2003) The historic situation to which reference is made is the after-effects of the Napoleonic conquests, especially in Germany The German states felt (and subsequent events demonstrate the correctness of the belief) that systematic attention to education was the best means of recovering and maintaining their political integrity and power Externally they were weak and divided Under the leadership of Prussian statesmen they made this condition a stimulus to the development of an extensive and thoroughly grounded system of public education

This change in practice necessarily brought about a change in theory The individualistic theory receded into the background The state furnished not only the instrumentalities of public education but also its goal When the actual practice was such that the school system, from the elementary grades through the school faculties, supplied the patriotic citizen and soldier and the future state official and administrator and furnished the means for military, industrial, and political defense and expansion, it was impossible for theory not to emphasize the aim of social efficiency And with the immense importance attached to the nationalistic state, surrounded by other competing and more or less hostile states, it was equally impossible to interpret social efficiency in terms of a vague cosmopolitan humanitarianism Since the maintenance of a particular national sovereignty required subordination of individuals to the superior interests of the state both in military defense and in struggles for international supremacy in commerce, social efficiency was

understood to imply a like subordination The educational process was taken to be one of disciplinary training rather than of personal development Since, however, the ideal of culture

as complete development of personality persisted, educational philosophy attempted a reconciliation of the two ideas The reconciliation took the form of the conception of the

"organic" character of the state The individual in his isolation is nothing; only in and through absorption of the aims and meaning of organized institutions does he attain true personality What appears to be his subordination to political authority and the demand for sacrifice of himself to the commands of his superiors is in reality but making his own the objective reason manifested in the state - the only way in which he can become truly rational The notion of development, which we have seen to be characteristic of institutional idealism (as in the Hegelian philosophy) was just such a deliberate effort to combine the two ideas of complete realization of personality and thoroughgoing "disciplinary" subordination to existing institutions (Teresa Garciaa, Paul R Pintrichb (2002)

The extent of the transformation of educational philosophy, which occurred in Germany in the generation occupied by the struggle against Napoleon for national independence, may be gathered from Kant, who well expresses the earlier individual-cosmopolitan ideal In his treatise on Pedagogies, consisting of lectures given in the later years of the eighteenth century, he defines education as the process by which man becomes man Mankind begins its history submerged in nature - not as Man who is a creature of reason, while nature furnishes only instinct and appetite Nature offers simply the germs which education is to develop and perfect The peculiarity of truly human life is that man has

to create himself by his own voluntary efforts; he has to make himself a truly moral, rational, and free being This creative effort is carried on by the educational activities of slow generations Its acceleration depends upon men consciously striving to educate their successors not for the existing state of affairs but so as to make possible a future better humanity But there is the great difficulty Each generation is inclined to educate its young so

as to get along in the present world instead of with a view to the proper end of education: the promotion of the best possible realization of humanity as humanity Parents educate their children so that they may get on; princes educate their subjects as instruments of their own purposes

Who, then, shall conduct education so that humanity may improve? We must depend upon the efforts of enlightened men in their private capacity "All culture begins with private men and spreads outward from them Simply through the efforts of persons of enlarged

inclinations, who are capable of grasping the ideal of a future better condition, is the gradual approximation of human nature to its end possible Rulers are simply interested in such training as will make their subjects better tools for their own intentions." Even the subsidy by rulers of privately conducted schools must be carefully safeguarded For the rulers' interest in the welfare of their own nation instead of in what is best for humanity, will make them, if they give money for the schools, wish to draw their plans We have in this view an express statement of the point’s characteristic of the eighteenth century individualistic cosmopolitanism The full development of private personality is identified with the aims of humanity as a whole and with the idea of progress In addition we have an explicit fear of the hampering influence of a state-conducted and state-regulated education upon the attainment

of these ideas But in less than two decades after this time, Kant's philosophic successors, Fichte and Hegel, elaborated the idea that the chief function of the state is educational; that in particular the regeneration of Germany is to be accomplished by an education carried on in the interests of the state, and that the private individual is of necessity an egoistic, irrational being, enslaved to his appetites and to circumstances unless he submits voluntarily to the educative discipline of state institutions and laws In this spirit, Germany was the first country

to undertake a public, universal, and compulsory system of education extending from the primary school through the school, and to submit to jealous state regulation and supervision all private educational enterprises (EU, 2011)

Two results should stand out from this brief historical survey, the first is that such terms as the individual and the social conceptions of education are quite meaningless taken at large, or apart from their context Plato had the ideal of an education which should equate individual realization and social coherency and stability His situation forced his ideal into the notion of a society organized in stratified classes, losing the individual in the class The eighteenth century educational philosophy was highly individualistic in form, but this form was inspired by a noble and generous social ideal: that of a society organized to include humanity, and providing for the indefinite perfectibility of mankind The idealistic philosophy

of Germany in the early nineteenth century endeavored again to equate the ideals of a free and complete development of cultured personality with social discipline and political subordination It made the national state an intermediary between the realization of private personality on one side and of humanity on the other Consequently, it is equally possible to state its animating principle with equal truth either in the classic terms of "harmonious development of all the powers of personality" or in the more recent terminology of "social

efficiency." All this reinforces the statement, which opens this chapter: The conception of education as a social process and function has no definite meaning until we define the kind of society we have in mind

These considerations pave the way for our second conclusion One of the fundamental problems of education in and for a democratic society is set by the conflict of a nationalistic and a wider social aim The earlier cosmopolitan and "humanitarian" conception suffered both from vagueness and from lack of definite organs of execution and agencies of administration

In Europe, in the Continental states particularly, the new idea of the importance of education for human welfare and progress was captured by national interests and harnessed to do a work whose social aim was definitely narrow and exclusive The social aim of education and its national aim were identified, and the result was a marked obscuring of the meaning of a social aim

This confusion corresponds to the existing situation of human intercourse On the one hand, science, commerce, and art transcend national boundaries They are largely international in quality and method They involve interdependencies and cooperation among the peoples inhabiting different countries At the same time, the idea of national sovereignty has never been as accentuated in politics as it is at the present time Each nation lives in a state of suppressed hostility and incipient war with its neighbors Each is supposed to be the supreme judge of its own interests, and it is assumed as matter of course that each has interests which are exclusively its own To question this is to question the very idea of national sovereignty, which is assumed to be basic to political practice and political science This contradiction (for it is nothing less) between the wider sphere of associated and mutually helpful social life and the narrower sphere of exclusive and hence potentially hostile pursuits and purposes, exacts of educational theory a clearer conception of the meaning of "social" as

a function and test of education than has yet been attained

Is it possible for an educational system to be conducted by a national state and yet the full social ends of the educative process not be restricted, constrained, and corrupted? Internally, the question has to face the tendencies, due to present economic conditions, which split society into classes some of which are made merely tools for the higher culture of others Externally, the question is concerned with the reconciliation of national loyalty, of patriotism, with superior devotion to the things, which unite men in common ends, irrespective of national political boundaries Neither phase of the problem can be worked out by merely negative means It is not enough to see to it that education is not actively used as an

instrument to make easier the exploitation of one class by another School facilities must be secured of such amplitude and efficiency as will in fact and not simply in name discount the effects of economic inequalities, and secure to all the wards of the nation equality of equipment for their future careers Accomplishment of this end demands not only adequate administrative provision of school facilities, and such supplementation of family resources as will enable youth to take advantage of them, but also such modification of traditional ideals of culture, traditional subjects of study and traditional methods of teaching and discipline as will retain all the youth under educational influences until they are equipped to be masters of their own economic and social careers The ideal may seem remote of execution, but the democratic ideal of education is a farcical yet tragic delusion except as the ideal more and more dominates our public system of education

The same principle has application on the side of the considerations, which concern the relations of one nation to another It is not enough to teach the horrors of war and to avoid everything, which would stimulate international jealousy and animosity The emphasis must

be put upon whatever binds people together in cooperative human pursuits and results, apart from geographical limitations The secondary and provisional character of national sovereignty in respect to the fuller, freer, and more fruitful association and intercourse of all human beings with one another must be instilled as a working disposition of mind If these applications seem to be remote from a consideration of the philosophy of education, the impression shows that the meaning of the idea of education previously developed has not been adequately grasped This conclusion is bound up with the very idea of education as a freeing of individual capacity in a progressive growth directed to social aims Otherwise a democratic criterion of education can only be inconsistently applied

2.1.1.3 Vocational education

Vocational education (education based on occupation or employment) (also known

as vocational education and training or VET) is education that prepares people for specific trades, crafts and careers at various levels from a trade, a craft, technician, or a professional position in engineering, accountancy, nursing, medicine, architecture, pharmacy, law etc Craft vocations are usually based on manual or practical activities, traditionally non-academic, related to a specific trade, occupation, or vocation It is sometimes referred to

as technical education as the trainee directly develops expertise in a particular group of techniques In the UK some higher technician engineering positions that require 4-5 year

apprenticeship require academic study to higher City and Guilds level (Breda Zupanc and

Metka Zevnik, 2009)

Vocational education may be classified as teaching procedural knowledge This can be

contrasted with declarative knowledge, as used in education in a usually broader scientific field, which might concentrate on theory and abstract conceptual knowledge, characteristic of tertiary education Vocational education can

be at the secondary, post-secondary level, further education level and can interact with the apprenticeship system Increasingly, vocational education can be recognized in terms

of recognition of prior learning and partial academic credit towards tertiary education (e.g., at

school) as credit; however, it is rarely considered in its own form to fall under the traditional

definition of higher education Vocational education is related to the

age-old apprenticeship system of learning Apprenticeships are designed for many levels of work

from manual trades to high knowledge work

However, as the labor market becomes more specialized and economies demand

higher levels of skill, governments and businesses are increasingly investing in the future of

vocational education through publicly funded training organizations and subsidized apprenticeship or traineeship initiatives for businesses At the post-secondary level vocational

education is typically provided by an institute of technology, school, or by a local community

college

Vocational education has diversified over the 20th century and now exists

in industries such as retail, tourism, information technology, funeral services and cosmetics,

as well as in the traditional crafts and cottage industries (Breda Zupanc and Metka Zevnik,2009)

A vocational school (or trade school or career school), providing vocational education,

is a school in which students are taught the skills needed to perform a particular job

Traditionally, vocational schools have not existed to further education in the area of liberal

arts, but rather to teach only job-specific skills, and as such have been better considered to be

institutions devoted to training, and not liberal arts education That purely vocational focus

began changing in the 1990s "toward a broader preparation that develops the academic", and

technical skills of students, as well as the vocation Typically, most career colleges specifically design their curricula for fields that have the best current and future growth

potential (Breda Zupanc and Metka Zevnik, 2009)

9 The Meaning of Vocation

According to Huisman, J (2007), at the present time the conflict of philosophic theories focuses in discussion of the proper place and function of vocational factors in education The bald statement that significant differences in fundamental philosophical conceptions find their chief issue in connection with this point may arouse incredulity: there seems to be too great a gap between the remote and general terms in which philosophic ideas are formulated and the practical and concrete details of vocational education But a mental review of the intellectual presuppositions underlying the oppositions in education of labor and leisure, theory and practice, body and mind, mental states and the world, will show that they culminate in the antithesis of vocational and cultural education Traditionally, liberal culture has been linked to the notions of leisure, purely contemplative knowledge and a spiritual activity not involving the active use of bodily organs Culture has also tended, latterly, to be associated with a purely private refinement, a cultivation of certain states and attitudes of consciousness, separate from either social direction or service It has been an escape from the former, and a solace for the necessity of the latter

So deeply entangled are these philosophic dualisms with the whole subject of vocational education, that it is necessary to define the meaning of vocation with some fullness

in order to avoid the impression that an education, which centers about it is narrowly practical, if not merely pecuniary A vocation means nothing but such a direction of life activities as renders them perceptibly significant to a person, because of the consequences they accomplish, and also useful to his associates The opposite of a career is neither leisure nor culture, but aimlessness, capriciousness, the absence of cumulative achievement in experience, on the personal side, and idle display, parasitic dependence upon the others, on the social side Occupation is a concrete term for continuity It includes the development of artistic capacity of any kind, of special scientific ability, of effective citizenship, as well as professional and business occupations, to say nothing of mechanical labor or engagement in gainful pursuits

We must avoid not only limitation of conception of vocation to the occupations where immediately tangible commodities are produced, but also the notion that vocations are distributed in an exclusive way, one and only one to each person Such restricted specialism is impossible; nothing could be more absurd than to try to educate individuals with an eye to only one line of activity In the first place, each individual has of necessity a variety of callings, in each of which he should be intelligently effective; and in the second place any one

occupation loses its meaning and becomes a routine keeping busy at something in the degree

in which it is isolated from other interests (see Huisman, J (2007)

(i) No one is just an artist and nothing else, and in so far as one approximates that condition, he is so much the less developed human being; he is a kind of monstrosity He must, at some period of his life, be a member of a family; he must have friends and companions; he must either support himself or be supported by others, and thus he has a business career He is a member of some organized political unit, and so on We naturally name his vocation from that one of the callings, which distinguishes him, rather than from those, which he has in common with all others But we should not allow ourselves to be so subject to words as to ignore and virtually deny his other callings when it comes to a consideration of the vocational phases of education

(ii) As a man's vocation as artist is but the emphatically specialized phase of his diverse and variegated vocational activities, so his efficiency in it, in the humane sense of efficiency, is determined by its association with other callings A person must have experience; he must live, if his artistry is to be more than a technical accomplishment He cannot find the subject matter of his artistic activity within his art; this must be an expression

of what he suffers and enjoys in other relationships - a thing which depends in turn upon the alertness and sympathy of his interests What is true of an artist is true of any other special calling There is doubtless in general accord with the principle of habit - a tendency for every distinctive vocation to become too dominant, too exclusive and absorbing in its specialized aspect This means emphasis upon skill or technical method at the expense of meaning Hence it is not the business of education to foster this tendency, but rather to safeguard against it, so that the scientific inquirer shall not be merely the scientist, the teacher merely the pedagogue, the clergyman merely one who wears the cloth, and so on

9 The Place of Vocational Aims in Education

Bearing in mind the varied and connected content of the vocation, and the broad background upon which a particular calling is projected, we shall now consider education for the more distinctive activity of an individual

(i) An occupation is the only thing, which balances the distinctive capacity of an individual with his social service (Eurydice, 2008) To find out what one is fitted to do and to secure an opportunity to do it is the key to happiness Nothing is more tragic than failure to discover one's true business in life, or to find that one has drifted or been forced by

circumstance into an uncongenial calling A right occupation means simply that the aptitudes

of a person are in adequate play, working with the minimum of friction and the maximum of satisfaction With reference to other members of a community, this adequacy of action signifies, of course, that they are getting the best service the person can render It is generally believed, for example, that slave labor was ultimately wasteful even from the purely economic point of view that there was not sufficient stimulus to direct the energies of slaves, and that there was consequent wastage Moreover, since slaves were confined to certain prescribed callings, much talent must have remained unavailable to the community, and hence there was a dead loss Slavery only illustrates on an obvious scale what happens in some degree whenever an individual does not find himself in his work And he cannot completely find himself when vocations are looked upon with contempt, and a conventional ideal of a culture, which is essentially the same for all is maintained Verhoest el (2004) laid down the fundamental principle of a philosophy of education when he asserted that it was the business of education to discover what each person is good for, and to train him to mastery of that mode of excellence, because such development would also secure the fulfillment of social needs in the most harmonious way His error was not in qualitative principle, but in his limited conception of the scope of vocations socially needed; a limitation of vision, which reacted to obscure his perception of the infinite variety of capacities found in different individuals

(ii) An occupation is a continuous activity having a purpose Education through occupations consequently combines within itself more of the factors conducive to learning than any other method It calls instincts and habits into play; it is a foe to passive receptivity

It has an end in view; results are to be accomplished Hence it appeals to thought; it demands that an idea of an end be steadily maintained, so that activity cannot be either routine or capricious Since the movement of activity must be progressive, leading from one stage to another, observation and ingenuity are required at each stage to overcome obstacles and to discover and readapt means of execution In short, an occupation, pursued under conditions where the realization of the activity rather than merely the external product is the aim, fulfills the requirements which were laid down earlier in connection with the discussion of aims, interest, and thinking

A calling is also of necessity an organizing principle for information and ideas; for knowledge and intellectual growth It provides an axis which runs through an immense diversity of detail; it causes different experiences, facts, items of information to fall into order

with one another The lawyer, the physician, the laboratory investigator in some branch of chemistry, the parent, the citizen interested in his own locality, has a constant working stimulus to note and relate whatever has to do with his concern He unconsciously, from the motivation of his occupation, reaches out for all relevant information, and holds to it The vocation acts as both magnet to attract and as glue to hold Such organization of knowledge is vital, because it has reference to needs; it is so expressed and readjusted in action that it never becomes stagnant No classification, no selection and arrangement of facts, which is consciously worked out for purely abstract ends, can ever compare in solidity or effectiveness with that knit under the stress of an occupation; in comparison the former sort is formal, superficial, and cold

(iii) The only adequate training for occupations is training through occupations The principle stated early in this book (Verhoest, 2004) that the educative process is its own end, and that the only sufficient preparation for later responsibilities comes by making the most of immediately present life, applies in full force to the vocational phases of education The dominant vocation of all human beings at all times is living intellectual and moral growth

In childhood and youth, with their relative freedom from economic stress, this fact is naked and unconcealed To predetermine some future occupation for which education is to be a strict preparation is to injure the possibilities of present development and thereby to reduce the adequacy of preparation for a future right employment To repeat the principle we have had occasion to appeal to so often, such training may develop a machine-like skill in routine lines (it is far from being sure to do so, since it may develop distaste, aversion, and carelessness), but it will be at the expense of those qualities of alert observation and coherent and ingenious planning which make an occupation intellectually rewarding In an autocratically managed society, it is often a conscious object to prevent the development of freedom and responsibility, a few do the planning and ordering, the others follow directions and are deliberately confined to narrow and prescribed channels of endeavor However much such a scheme may inure to the prestige and profit of a class, it is evident that it limits the development of the subject class; hardens and confines the opportunities for learning through experience of the master class, and in both ways hampers the life of the society as a whole (Aaron E Black1, 2000)

The only alternative is that all the earlier preparation for vocations be indirect rather than direct; namely, through engaging in those active occupations which are indicated by the needs and interests of the pupil at the time Only in this way can there be on the part of the

educator and of the one educated a genuine discovery of personal aptitudes so that the proper choice of a specialized pursuit in later life may be indicated Moreover, the discovery of capacity and aptitude will be a constant process as long as growth continues It is a conventional and arbitrary view, which assumes that discovery of the work to be chosen for adult life is made once for all at some particular date One has discovered in himself, say, an interest, intellectual and social, in the things which have to do with engineering and has decided to make that his calling At most, this only block out in outline the field in which further growth is to be directed It is a sort of rough sketch for use in direction of further activities It is the discovery of a profession in the sense in which Columbus discovered America when he touched its shores Future explorations of an indefinitely more detailed and extensive sort remain to be made When educators conceive vocational guidance as something, which leads up to a definitive, irretrievable, and complete choice, both education and the chosen vocation are likely to be rigid, hampering further growth In so far, the calling chosen will be such as to leave the person concerned in a permanently subordinate position, executing the intelligence of others who have a calling which permits more flexible play and readjustment And while ordinary usages of language may not justify terming a flexible attitude of readjustment a choice of a new and further calling, it is such in effect If even adults have to be on the lookout to see that their calling does not shut down on them and fossilize them, educators must certainly be careful that the vocational preparation of youth is such as to engage them in a continuous reorganization of aims and methods

2.1.2 The problems of autonomy and autonomy schools

2.1.2.1 Autonomy

Autonomy is often addressed as part of larger studies on the governance and

management of higher education Two recent publications (de Boer et al 2010; Jongbloed et

al 2010), commissioned by the European Commission, address the link between policy

changes related to higher education governance and funding of national higher education systems in 33 European countries The studies also reflect on the European Modernization Agenda and its links to governance reforms The governance study concludes that, while overall institutional autonomy is increasing, there are significant differences in the dimensions of autonomy: organizational autonomy is still rather restricted, while financial autonomy is deemed to be at a medium to high level The study also notes a link between

school performance and institutional autonomy (Eurydice, 2007)

2.1.2.2 Effective autonomy

The enabling environment necessary for the proper functioning of the Autonomy

-Assessment - Accountability framework can make the difference between real or fake

autonomy (Table 2.1) To work properly, school autonomy must have political support at the

central and local levels, it should have a legal framework that allows autonomy to function

unimpeded, and should have the assent of teachers If teachers are not in agreement what

happens in the classroom will be very different from what autonomy intended (Arcia, Porta,

and Laguna, 2004)

Table 2.1 Requirements for implementing autonomy, assessment and accountability

Enabling

Environment

Political support Legal framework Cooperation by

teachers

Assessment Policy Funding

Institutional structure

Clear rules Long term vision Individual and

systemic System alignment Education law

Decentralization law

Decentralization Technical quality Teacher training

Parent training

Technical and professional standards

Technical analyses

Clear rules Clear results

Clear messages

Source: Arcia.Gustavo (2010)

Aside from the enabling environment, school autonomy needs to be aligned with other

components of the education system, such as the education law, the decentralization law, and

the regulations governing fiscal transfers from the central government In Nicaragua, for

example, the lack of an education law and the misalignment with the laws governing fiscal

transfers to municipal governments created a lot of confusion among municipal governments,

which saw school autonomy as a problem of the Ministry of Education and not as devolution

of power to the local level As a result, for several years there was confusion among

stakeholders as to the meaning and intent of school autonomy Some stakeholders thought

that school autonomy was a precursor to the privatization of education, and some others

thought that it was a partial abdication of responsibilities from the central government (Arcia, Porta, and Laguna, 2004)

As for technical quality in relation to autonomy, a key enabling factor is the link between parents and teachers in rendering accounts and in asking for accounts Teachers should go beyond having perfunctory meetings with parents and embrace a new mental model

in which parents are a teacher’s client and, as such, have substantive authority over their jobs and, as such, are entitled to information about school performance On the positive side, this model allows parents to be closer to teachers and understand their concerns, leading to better teacher incentives and better working conditions On the other hand, parents need to be trained in accountability, since asking for accounts requires knowing what they should ask for

2.1.2.3 School autonomy

As the report by the Committee on Autonomy and accountability of higher education

establishments of the Central Advisory Committee on Indian Education (2005), autonomy is

understood as a system of regulations on the decentralization in decision making of the superior to the subordinates to encourage their creativeness and activeness in order to obtain the higher efficiency in management

This report also showed that, the school's autonomy is understood as a solution system what aims to improve the educational environment and the quality of teaching and learning Autonomy itself is not a guarantee of quality and autonomy does not mean that hinder reforms The elements necessary to ensure the quality of education are capability and attitude

of the students in learning, vision and activeness of the management system, and the trust of society for training products It is expected that autonomy will allow creating a platform for the development of these factors rather than an interdependent system with all of its contradictions that make a decrease of the education quality

School autonomy is a form of school management in which schools are given

decision-making authority over their operations, including the hiring and firing of personnel, and the assessment of teachers and pedagogical practices School management under autonomy may give an important role to the School Council - representing the interests of parents - in budget planning and approval, as well as a voice/vote in personnel decisions By including the School Council in school management, school autonomy fosters accountability (Di Gropello 2004, 2006; Barrera, Fasih and Patrinos, 2009)

Table 2.2: Dimension of School autonomy

Source: Thomas Estermann, Terhi Nokkala & Monika Steinel (2010)

9 Organizational autonomy

According to Thomas Estermann et al (2011), Organizational autonomy includes contents as: 1) Selection procedure for the executive head; 2) Selection criteria for the executive head; 3) Dismissal of the executive head; 4) Term of office of the executive head; 5) Inclusion and selection of external members in governing bodies; 6) Capacity to decide on academic Although the school leadership may comprise several key staff in the institution, such as the rector, the vice-rectors, the head of administration and the faculty deans, this study focuses primarily on the executive head of the school, who below is referred to as the ‘rector’, since this is the most commonly used denomination in Europe Other terms, such as ‘vice-chancellor’, ‘provost’, ‘president’ or ‘principal’, may be used alternatively The selection procedures for the rector vary from country to country The procedures, which fall into four basic categories, were discussed more specifically in the initial study “University Autonomy

in Europe I” (Estermann & Nokkala 2009) The four most common categories are as follows:

1) Elected by a specific electoral body, which is usually large, representing (directly or indirectly) the different groups of the university community (academic staff, other staff, students), whose votes may be weighted

2) Elected by the governing body, which is democratically elected within the university community (usually the senate, i.e the body deciding on academic issues)

3) Appointed by the council/board of the school (i.e the governing body deciding on strategic issues)

4) Appointed through a two-step process in which both the senate and the council/board are involved The selection of the rector may have to be validated by an external authority This applies in half of the studied systems: Brandenburg, the Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey The appointment is confirmed by the ministry or minister for higher education in Brandenburg, Greece, Iceland, Italy and Netherlands; by the president (or other head of state/government) in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Luxembourg and Slovakia In Spain, the appointment is confirmed by the regional authority, in Latvia by a national public authority, and in Sweden by the government However, in Sweden this is merely seen as a formality

Qualifications of the executive head

In study of Thomas Estermann et al.(2011), he shown the qualification requirements for the rector are specified by law in 16 countries in Euros In 12 systems, restrictions as to who is eligible usually stem from the school’s own statutes or from common practice, rather

than from legal prescriptions

Table 2.3: Qualifications of the executive head

Source: Thomas Estermann et al.(2011)