Masai bone Mandible Clavicle Humerut Iliac crest Iliac fossa Sacrum Coccyx Ischium Femur Patella Cranium Zygomatic bom Maxilla. 7 Cervical vertebm Manubrium Sternum Xiphoid process[r]
Trang 1THE HUMAN BODY Inside and Out
Trang 2- ®
-LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
£Q
E veryone is in te re s te d in th e h u m a n [hju:man]
body, w hat happens w hen it is affected by disease
[dazi:z] and how to stay h ealth y [heiei] A rticles on
h e alth and m edicine appear daily in new spapers
an d m agazines O rd in a ry peo p le w ho are n o t
specifically tra in e d in scien ce are freq u e n tly
asked to m ake d ecisio n s o n scien tific m atters
w hich affect society
T h e sc ien tific [saian'tifikl term for th e study o f
body s tru c tu re is anatom y |on'a?tomi| Part o f this
w ord m eans to ‘c u t’ because early a n a to m is ts
dissected (cu t) th e h u m an body to learn about
its stru c tu re T h e p ra ctic e o f any h e a lth care
professional requires a basic u n d e rsta n d in g o f
a n ato m y a n d m ost a n a to m ic d a ta is now
o b ta in e d th ro u g h th e use o f c o m p u te d
tom ography, m agnetic reso n an ce im aging and
p o s itro n e m iss io n to m o g ra p h y , ra th e r th a n
th ro u g h experim ental studies
Physiology [fiziWadji] is th e stu d y o f h o w body
p a r ts f u n c tio n , in clu d in g th e ir ch em ica l an d
physical processes A n ato m y and physiology are
closely re la te d A n y th in g th a t d istu rb s th e
n o rm al w ork in g o f th e body is co n sid ere d a
disease |dazi:z] and is studied as th e science of
pathology [paB'oladjil
A ll living th in g s are organised from very sim ple
lev els to m ore co m p lex levels L iving m a tte r
b egins w ith sim ple ch em ica ls [kemikalzl w h ic h
are form ed in to th e co m p le x su b sta n c es th a t
m ake living cells, w hich are th e basic u n its of
life |l,iif| G ro u p s o f specialised cells form tissu es
and d iffere n t tissues fu n c tio n to g eth e r to form
o rg a n s V arious o rg an s fu n c tio n to g e th e r to
m,ike up th e system s ot th e h u m an body
All th e hum an sciences study different aspects of
th e h u m an body, its structure and fu n c tio n , its Dover Pictorial Archive Serie> 11982) - Margaret Mitt Human
Anatomv Coloring IWk
Trang 3e n v iro n m e n t To study th e aw esom e co m p le x ities of th e
h u m an body, it is necessary to break it dow n in to sections
th a t can be exam ined in d etail, rem em bering th a t all the parts must in teract w ith one a n o th e r successfully to ensure our survival
To study different parts o f th e body, we can divide th e body
in various ways to give us p o sitio n or lo c a tio n G e n e ra l divisions are th e head , th e th o ra x , th e abdom en, th e pubes and th e lim bs o r extrem ities
D iagram s are show n w ith th e figure s ta n d in g in th e
a n ato m ical p o sitio n unless stated otherw ise T h e pictures show figures in th e an ato m ical position w ith h an d s facing
th e front and feet slightly apart
N B S tan d in g in th is way, th e an ato m ical rig h t is on th e left
o f th e diagram and th e an ato m ical left is o n your right!
T h e hum an body is m arvellously com plex and it is amazing how well it works m ost of th e tim e H ow does it start and how does it develop?
T h e h u m an gam etes o r germ cells are th e ova (p i.) ovum
(s ) in th e fem ale an d th e sp e rm cells (sp e rm ato zo a /sp e rm a to z o o n ) in th e m ale M eiosis occurs during th e ir fo rm atio n (o o g en esis) w h en these germ cells
d e v elo p w ith a haploid number ( h a lf th e n u m b e r) o f chromosomes A ll o th e r cells in th e body c o n ta in th e full num ber o f chrom osom es and are called
diploid cells.
During fe rtilis a tio n , th e 2 h ap lo id cells fuse to g eth e r and b ecom e a zygote w ith th e co m p lete num ber of chrom osom es, so a fem ale germ cell + m ale germ cell = zygote = th e beginnings o f a hum an life
O th e r cells reproduce by m ito sis, w hich is th e equal d ivision of n u clear m aterial (karyokinesis), followed by d ivision o f th e cell body (cytokinesis). T h e result o f this division is 2 daughter cells, each
c o n tain in g 23 pairs o f chrom osom es (i.e 46 chrom osom es altogether)
Because all tissues increase in size during child h o o d , a lot more cells divide in a growing child th an
in an adult
cell + cell = tissue
[ti/u:z]
Tissues functioning
are organs [sgsnzl
O rgans functioning together for the same
together
tissue + tissue = organ Specialised groups
of cells form tissui
Trang 4THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
OF BODY SYSTEMS
STRUCTURE
S tructure
refers to th e arran g em en t o f parts, organs, tissues, cells or particles
Function
is th e n o rm al, unique [ju :n i:k ] activity
A cell
is th e basic structural and fu n ctio n al u n it o f any living organism C ells may be
different shapes an d sizes and perform a variety o f functions
Tissue
is m ade up o f a specialised group o f cells T h e r e a re 4 basic ty p es o f tissu e:
• Epithelial [epi’eirUsl] tissue forms th e skin th a t covers th e body, lines cavities and forms glands
• C onnective [kanektiv] tissue is extensive and forms th e support an d framework of
th e w hole body Bone, cartilage, tendons, fat, blood an d lym ph are all made up of different types o f c o n n ec tiv e tissue
• M u scle [mAsal] tissue is designed to produce m o v em en t by forcible c o n tra c tio n and includes 3 different groups: skeletal muscle, sm o o th (o r visceral [visarall) muscle and cardiac m uscle
• N ervous [ ra iv a s ] tissue m akes up th e co m m u n ica tio n n e tw o rk o f th e body T he
c e n tra l agency is th e b ra in a n d e a c h s tru c tu re in th e bo d y is in direct
c o m m u n icatio n w ith th e b ra in by nerves w h ic h come to g eth e r to form the spinal cord
A n o rgan
is m ade up o f groups o f specialised tissues, w orking to g eth er
w ith a specific fu n ctio n
A system
is a group o f organs w orking to g eth er w ith th e sam e specialised function
Trang 5© C a n you n a m e a n y o f th e m ajor organs in th e h u m a n body?
s M atch in g E xercise
P u t th e w ords in the
box below in th e space
provided to com plete
the defin itio n
cartilage [kaitalid^]
tissue [ti/u:]
myocardium
[mai'aukaidiam]
epithelium [epiffcWam]
cell [sell
function [fAgk/an]
brain [brein]
organ b:gan]
smooth muscle
[smu8 mAsl]
mitosis [mai'taosis]
1 T h e process o f cell d iv isio n in v o lv in g th e D N A w h ic h doubles itself to produce id en tical d au g h ter cells is called
2 A group o f sp ecialised cells w ith th e sam e f u n c tio n is
c a l l e d
3 T h e th ic k , m uscular [mAsk'ju:ia] layer o f th e h e a rt w all is
k n o w n as t h e
4 T h e largest mass o f n erve tissue in th e body - th e ‘c en tral agency’ for c o m m u n icatio n w ith th e rest o f th e body - is
a n organ called t h e
5 A type o f h a rd c o n n ec tiv e [kanektiv] tissue th a t acts as a
sh o ck a b so rb er a n d red u ces fric tio n b e tw e e n b o n e s in
m oveable jo in ts (o r a rtic u la tio n s) o f th e body is called
6 T h e tissue th a t forms a p ro tectiv e covering for th e body and also lines th e in testin al [intest'ainall tract, th e respiratory [ra'spira'tri] tra c t an d th e urinary [jurranril passages is called
7 T h e basic u n it o f life is t h e
8 D ifferent tissues w orking to g eth er w ith th e sam e fu n ctio n form a n
9 T h e a c tio n o f peristalsis [peri'stolsisl - th e m o v e m e n t of food d o w n th e oesophagus [a'sDfagasl a n d th ro u g h th e
in testin e - is form ed by involuntary o r
10 T h e norm al, unique [ju:ni:k] activ ity of various body parts
is its
A lth o u g h ea ch body sy ste m ca n n o t u w k in d ep en d en tly, w e ca n look a t th e s tru c tu re o f ea ch a n d its various co m p lica ted fu n c tio n s to see how th e body w o rks as a single u n it.
Trang 6128
n a m e th e m u sin g th e follow ing n a m es: (W rite th e m again u n d e r N a m e o f S y ste m below )
drcuiatm ry [ssikyieitni System ^
E n d o crin e lendaJkrin] System eletal
" i -git*? M u scu lar ImAskHida) System _ J >Sfem ' T
NAME OF SYSTEM STRUCTURE (is m ad e u p o f )
1 b o n e s [baonzl (+ cartilag e, lig am en ts)
Function(s):
2 sk eletal, card iac a n d sm o o th m u sc le s [nusslz] (+ te n d o n s ) Function(s):
3 h e a r t [ha:t] a n d blo o d vessels (a rte rie s, v e in s a n d cap illaries)
F u nction(s):
4 lu n g s [Lujz] a n d a ir p a ssa g es N a s a l p a ssa g e s , u v u la [jurv'juia],
F u n ctio n (s): p h a ry n x [fce'rinks], la ry n x [laerinks], tra c h e a [traTdal, b ro n c h i fbrngld],
b ro n c h io les [brogki'Dlz], alveoli [alViW iM air sacs)
5 b ra in , sp in al c o rd a n d n e rv es Function(s):
6 m o u th (te e th , to n g u e a n d saliv ary g lan d s), e p ig lo ttis, oesophagus
F u n ctio n (s): [a'sofagas], s to m a c h [stAmak], in te s tin e s 111140513112] + a ccesso ry
o rg a n s : liv e r [liva], g a llb la d d e r [go l'blaeda], p a n c r e a s [paerfkhas)
P a rts of this system are sometimes referred to as the gut.
7 k id n ey s [kidnizl, u re te rs [jutrataz], b lad d e r [blaeda], u r e th r a [juAiAal Function(s):
8 M a le : te s te s , d u c ts /s e m in a l v e s ic le s , p r o s ta te g la n d , p en is
F u nction(s): F e m ale : o v a rie s , F a llo p ia n tu b e s ( o v id u c ts ) , u t e r u s [ju.-ta'rasl,
v agina lvald3aina], b re a s ts Ibrests)
9 G la n d s : p itu ita r y [pitju.Jitri]I p in e a l [pm'ial], th y r o id lea?™!] and
F u n ctio n (s): p a r a th y r o id [paera^ai'rad], th y m u s [Oaimas], a d r e n a l [adrimal],
p a n cre as [paegk'rias], o v a rie s [auva'riz] a n d te s te s [testizl
1 0 ly m p h n o d es (to n sils a n d a d en o id s [aeda 'noidz]), ly m p h vessels,
F u n ctio n (s): valves [vaelvz], th e sp leen [spli:n]
1 1 e p id e rm is , d e rm is , se b a c e o u s M x i/as] (o il-p ro d u c in g ) g lan d s,
F u n ctio n (s): s u d o rife ro u s |su:daWaras] (sw eat-producing) glands
Trang 7GRAM M AR N O TES
T a lk in g a b o u t s t r u c t u r e
‘to be m ade up o f ’, ‘consists o f ’ o r ‘to be com posed o f ’
T h e r e are su b tle differences in th e use o f th e above phrases:
‘to be m ade u p o f’ is used for a detailed breakdow n o f a part or a structure
e.g The joints (or articulations) are made up of bones, cartilage and ligaments.
‘con sists o f’ is used in a general way w hen all th e m ain parts o f a structure are nam ed
e.g The respiratory tract consists of the pharynx, trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.
‘to be com posed o f’ is used w hen th e m aterials or substances from w hich the structure is formed,
are nam ed
e.g Both the brain and the spinal cord are composed of nerve cells and fibres.
1 T h e p h a r y n x the naso-pharynx, th e oro-pharynx and th e laryngo-pharynx
2 T h e brain s t e m th e m id-brain, th e pons and th e m edulla
3 T h e in te s tin e s 2 parts, th e large and th e small intestine
4 T he duodenum , th e jejunum and th e ile u m th e small in testine
5 W h a t does th e skeletal s y s te m ? Bones, jo in ts and ligam ents
6 T h e female reproductive sy stem th e ovaries, the oviducts, the uterus and the vagina
7 T h e s k i n epithelial tissue, collagen fibres, nerves, blood vessels and glands
Using the information you have, ask your partner some questions about the structure of other systems.
VERBS AND NOUNS
secrete (d irec tly in to
Trang 8fe z N ow m a k e som e sen ten ces u sin g this form at:
e.g The circulation of blood to the tissues is the function of the heart.
T h e ex cretio n o f w aste products
Blood circulation
W aste ex cretio n
W ater regulation
P ro d u ctio n o f bile
Storage o f p ro tein and glycogen
(*T hc function is used when it is the only function, a function indicates one of several functions)
th e liver
is a/th e* fu n ctio n o f th e kidneys
th e h e art
F u n c tio n (s ):
R ea d th e
d escription o f the
fu n c tio n s o f each
body system
Id e n tify th e system
a n d label ea ch
N o w tu r n b a ck to
page 1 2 8 a n d w rite
a b rief su m m a ry o f
th e fu n c tio n (s) o f
e a ch body system
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
T h e purpose o f th is system is to take in air, filter it an d take it to the tissues responsible for gas exchange O xygen [nksi'djan] is th e n transported
by th e b lood to all th e tissues in th e body C a rb o n d io x id e, a waste [weist] pro d u ct, is re-absorbed in to th e blood an d th e n ex creted from the body
T h is system form s th e basic fram ew ork o f th e body - it supports and
p ro tects all th e in te rn al organs Bones serve as levers (w ith th e attached
m uscles) for m o v em en t, produce blood cells and store calciu m [luel'siaml salts w h ich c a n be absorbed in to th e blood w h e n th ere is n o t enough calcium in th e diet
T h e se c re tio n o f h o rm o n e s Ih^'maunz], w h ic h re g u la te th e body's
fu n ctio n s chem ically, is th e fu n c tio n o f th is system
T h is system is also called th e excretory system an d filters body liquids,
e lim in a tin g chem icals an d excess fluids from th e body
T h is system c o n ta in s a n im p o rta n t organ w h ich pum ps b lood round the
e n tire body T h is is necessary to supply cells w ith n u trie n ts an d oxygen
an d to tran sp o rt w aste pro d u cts for ex cretio n
T h is system is e sse n tia l fo r r e p ro d u c tio n a n d th e p ro d u c tio n of horm o n es, sex cells (gam etes) [gsmi:ts] an d it also enables con cep tio n [kon’sepjan] an d perm its th e carrying an d b irth o f babies (offspring)
T h e system w h ic h co n v erts (ch an g es) food in to sim pler substances for
th e cells to use for energy also takes away (o r e lim in a tes) w aste products from th e body
Trang 9(h ) I 1
T h is com plex system, w hich is also th o u g h t o f as a n organ, p ro tects th e
body from disease, h e lp s to regulate body tem p e ra tu re a n d acts as a
sensory receptor
(0
A system w hich runs parallel w ith th e veins th ro u g h o u t th e body, drains
fluid from th e tissues an d helps to defend th e body against in fectio n and
disease
(j)
W e n e e d th is system to p ro d u ce m o v em e n t, b o th v o lu n ta ry a n d
involuntary, an d to keep ou r hearts beatin g to keep us alive [alaiv]
(k)
T h is is th e m ost com plex system in th e body an d its fu n ctio n s are to
regulate all th e o th e r systems in th e body, to receive an d send messages
and to provide us w ith in fo rm atio n about our e n v iro n m en t len'vai'ran'mant]
Com plete
the sentences
using th e correct
Miordfs.) fro m th e
box.
ovaries
eproduc
lines
ire situ ate
nary syste
blood
pancreas
cartilage
o n cep tio r
regulate
covers
bone
kidneys ( x 3 )
; liver (x 2 )
secrete
oxygen
excrete
h e art
ire p ro d u ced ■
form
: com posed <|
d iv isio n !
J t e t o r y systen
[is m ad e up o f
secretes 4
1 T h e c a r r ie s through th e arteries to th e body cells
2 O n e fu n ctio n o f t h e is t o th e am o u n t o f w ater
in th e body
3 T h e also urea [ju:ri:a] (a n itro g e n w aste
p ro d u ct) from th e body
4- T h e fu nctions as b o th an organ o f digestion and excretion
5 T h e is an accessory organ of digestion
6 T h e beats 80 tim es per m in u te o n average
7 T h e are only found in females T hey are e n d o crin e glands
w h i c h h orm ones and o v a here
8 A n accessory lask'sesa'ri] o rgan of d ig estio n , w h ic h is also an e n d o c rin e
g l a n d , insulin and is called t h e
9 A ll th e bones in th e skeletal system from a fibrous c o n n e c tiv e tissue c a l l e d T h is tissue eventually hardens w ith calcium deposits to b e c o m e
10 T h e th e ureters, th e urinary bladder and u re th ra m ake up th e .w hich c an also be called t h e
11 B oth th e spinal cord and th e b r a i n n erve cells
12 C e l l s b y - a process called mitosis
13 T h e skin w h ic h th e outside o f th e h u m an b o d y
cells, sw eat glands, oil-producing glands, blood vessels and nerve endings
E p ith elial tissue a l s o all th e systems th a t h av e tracts op en in g
o n to th e surface o f th e body
14 T h e h e a rt and lu n g s jn th e th o racic cavity
15 A zygote is form ed at th e tim e o f - it is th e u n io n o f th e
Trang 10©
DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Id is necessary to have special words to talk about the position or location o f organ*
an d parts and to talk ab o u t d irec tio n in th e h u m a n body T h e words 'left' and 'right',
‘back’ o r ‘fro n t’ are n o t specific en o u g h and th e use o f ‘n orth’ an d ‘south’ would be
inappropriate! T h e d irectio n al term s used refer to th e body in th e anatom ic position
T h ree imaginary planes are used to describe th e structural p lan of th e body and the
an ato m ic relationship of one p a rt to an o th er T h ese planes cu t through th e body at right angles to each other
PLANES OF DIVISION
Divides th e body in to front
and back halves
Directional terms used:
F ro n ta l / V en tral or Dorsal
A n te rio r or Posterior
M idsagittal Plane
D ivides th e body in to right and left halves
Directional terms used:
M ed ia l or L a te ra l
A Sagittal plane lies away from th e m idline and divides
th e bodv in to right and left parts
Transverse Plane
D ivides th e body in t.' p an s above or below
Directional terms used:
Superior or Inferior
C ra n ia l or C audal
1 3 2