English in medicine for 4 year students of medicine

English in medicine for 4 year students of medicine English in medicine for 4 year students of medicine English in medicine for 4 year students of medicine luận văn tốt nghiệp,luận văn thạc sĩ, luận văn cao học, luận văn đại học, luận án tiến sĩ, đồ án tốt nghiệp luận văn tốt nghiệp,luận văn thạc sĩ, luận văn cao học, luận văn đại học, luận án tiến sĩ, đồ án tốt nghiệp

Preface

In any professional activities of communication, English use brings about typical features Therefore, speaking English fluently, for example, cannot ensure that one uses it effectively at work Similarly, doctors and students of medicine, and people in health care services face up the problems of using English at work even when they are able to it in everyday life situations That is the reason why a course of medical English is so necessary This course book is compiled for a 3-credit medical English course

Medical English is used by 4-years students of medicine who have had experiences of

working in health care centers for some years This material outlines all the nescessary medical terms and concepts dealing with all the doctors‘ professional activities at work, and with which the students are supposed to be very familiar Through 15 units and 4 appendixes, the 4-year-medical students will have chances to improve their English concerning anatomical issues, diseases, and doctor-patient communication skills

The prerequisite is that the students have completed 2 genenal English courses, labeled English 1 and English 2 Once they have finished the two general English courses, they are equiped with basic grammar and vocabulary, as well as language skills that are vital for them to

be able to go on in this course That is because Medical English will focus on only medical terms

and situations of communications used by doctors; there is not much time for language issues emerged in each units

From unit 1 to 11 the main systems, senses, and organs of the human body, such as

gastro-intestinal system, cardiovascular system, and the eye, are the focus The reading at the

beginning of each unit gives the learners an overview of what will be discussed, and is to attract their attention as well when it provide so much interesting anatomical information On the completion of the reading, the learners have certain exercises to enhance the vocabulary they have come across in the texts

The last four units are to present important areas of communication in seeing the patients Medical students will find it really useful and practical to practice the communication skills that

are so familiar to them Taking a history is a typical example In this unit, vocabulary and

structures are given sufficiently so that our future doctors can be confident to interview their foreign patients in English

Last but not least to be mentioned here is the appendixes where full of common used abbriviations are given, lots of important instructions are shown, and a number of significant medical terms are explained, which will certainly make you enjoy the Medical English course

The last thing to be mentioned here is that this is the first edition of this course book, which means mistakes are unavoidable, and we would appreciate any comments in order to make better editions in the future

UNIT 1:

THE HUMAN BODY

Learning objectives: After study of this unit, students should be able to:

1 List all words of body parts

2 Thoroughly grasp the roots/suffixes/prefixes referring body parts

3 Apply anatomical terms in reading and studying medical materials

A READING:

Most external parts of the body have ordinary English names as well as anatomical names Doctors normally use the English names, even when talking to each other There are a few exceptions where doctors use the anatomical name; these are shown in parentheses

Figure 1 1 Common terms for body regions, anterior view Anatomical terms for regions are in

parentheses.

Figure 1 2 Common terms for body regions, posterior view

Everyone is interested in the human body, what happens when it is affected by disease and how to stay healthy Articles on health and medicine appear daily in newspapers and magazines Ordinary people who are not specially trained in sccience are frequently asked to make decisions on scientific matters which affect society

The scientific terms for the study of body structure is anatomy Part of this word means

to ―cut‖ because early anatomists dissected (cut) the human body to learn about its structure The practice of any health care professional requires basic understanding of anatomy and most

anatomic data is obtained through the use of computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography, rather than through experimental studies

Physiology is the study of how body parts function, including their chemical and

physical processes Anatomy and physiology are closely related Anything that disturbs the normal working of the body is considered a disease and is studied as the science of pathology

All living things are organised from very simple levels to more complex levels Living

6

different tissues function together to form organs Various organs function together to make up the systems of the human body

READING COMPREHENSION

Answer the following questions:

1 What is the medical term for the study of body structure?

2 How do doctors get most anatomic data nowadays?

3 What is the medical term for the study of how body parts function?

4 What is the basic living unit?

5 What is a system made up of?

B Word Parts Pertaining to Body Structure

Lapar/o

abdominal wall laparoscope instrument for viewing the

peritoneal cavity through the abdominal wall

Lumb/o lumbar region thoracolumbar pertaining to the chest and lumber region

C REFERRING TO PARTS OF THE BODY

When patients talk about their problem they often refer to a part of the body:

The doctor often needs to ask about a part of the body:

hip I’m having trouble with my shoulder

knee

the chest

Do you get any pain in stomach

your back

D DESCRIBING RADIATION OF PAIN

A patient is telling the doctor about his back pain and the parts of the body it radiates to

E To express a pain or ache in a part of the body, we use the expression:

chest

a pain in my knee

The word ache can combine with the words showing parts of the body:

* “Hurt” and “ache” are verbs We use them like this:

My foot hurts

I’m aching all over

* “Sore” and “painful” are adjectives We can say:

My foot is sore or I have a sore foot

I have got a sore throat

My back is so painful that I can’t stand upright any more

Exercise 1: Can you name the parts of the human body? (using ordinary English words)

1 ………

2 ………

3 ………

4 ………

5 ………

6 ………

7 ………

8 ………

9 ………

10 ………

11 ………

12 ………

It starts in the back Then it seems to go into the right buttock and down

the back of the right thigh to the knee

15 ………

16 ………

17 ………

18 ………

19 ………

20 ………

21 ………

Exercise 2:Can you name the parts of the face? (using ordinary English words) 1 ………

2

3

4

5

6

7

Exercise 3: Can you name the parts of the head? (using ordinary English words) 1 ………

2 ………

3 ………

4 ………

5 ………

6 ………

7 ………

Exercise 4:Write the ordinary English words for the corresponding anatomical terms in the table using your medical knowledge Look at Figure 1 and Figure 2 to help you

4 Pertaining to (-ar) the lower back _

5 Pertaining to (-al) the abdomen _

Exercise 6:Complete the sentences using ordinary English words Look at A and C opposite

to help you

A male patient is describing angina pectoris:

A male patient is describing renal colic:

It’s like a tightness across my (1) , and it goes up

(2) my(3) and into my left (4)

and (5) the left (6)

It starts (1) the loin and goes into the (2)

and (3) into the testicle

FURTHER READING

A healthy body not only looks good on the outside but also maintains the internal organs

in good condition A healthy body inside is as important as someone‘s appearance The body consists of major internal organs, muscles, and bones, which all have various functions Let‘s start from the top

Inside the head, protected by the skull, is the brain Perhaps the most important organ in the body, the brain controls the main functions in the body Moving down the chest area, there are lungs and heart They are protected by ribcage The lungs regulate breathing by exchanging

CO2 with oxygen and the heart pumps blood to all parts of the body A little further down, there

is stomach, which, with its excretions and enzimes, digests the food people eat by breaking down nutrients and turning them into fuel and energy for the body to use Digestion continues in the small and large intestines, where nutrients are absorbed The kidney and liver have the important function of eliminating waste; too much alcohol consumption will waken the liver Of course, the bones and muscles, which support the body, are also important for people health Good nutrition and exercise help maintain people‘s health and keep their bodies fit

Reading comprehension

1 If you have this condition, your blood is not pumped properly to the rest of the body because your blood vessels are clogged

Organ: name of condition: _

2 If the air is polluted or if you are allergic to certain pollens, you have difficulty breathing Organ: name of condition: _

3 When you eat, you have difficulty digesting and feel pain

Organ: name of condition: _

UNIT 2

BLOOD

Learning objectives: After study of this unit, students should be able to:

1 List important medical words about blood

2 Thoroughly grasp main roots/suffixes/prefixes referring to blood

3 Applyroots/suffixes/prefixes referring to blood in reading and studying medical materials

A READING

Blood circulates through the vessels, bringing oxygen and nourishment to all cells and carrying away waste products The total adult blood volume is about 5 liters (5.2 quarts) Whole blood can be divided into two main components: the liquid portion, or plasma (55%), and formed elements, or blood cells (45%)

Blood Plasma

Plasma is about 90% water The remaining 10% contains nutrients, electrolytes (dissolved salts), gases, albumin (a protein), clotting factors, antibodies, wastes, enzymes, and hormones A lost of these substances are tested for in blood chemistry tests The pH (relative acidity) of the plasma remains steady at about 7.4

Blood Cells

The blood cells are erythrocytes, or red blood cells; leukocytes, or white blood cells; and platelets, also called thrombocytes All blood cells are produced in red bone marrow Some white blood cells multiply in lymphoid tissue as well

Figure 2.1: The components of blood

Erythrocytes

The major function of erythrocytes is to carry oxygen to cells This oxygen is bound to an

makes them by far the most numerousof the blood cells The hemoglobin that they carry

averages 15 g per deciliter (100 mL) of blood.Ared blood cell gradually wears out and dies in about 120 days, so these cells must be constantly replaced.Productionof red cells in the bone

marrow is regulated by the hormone erythropoietin(EPO), which ismade in the kidneys

Leukocytes

White blood cells all show prominent nuclei when stained They total about 5,000 to 10,000 per µL, but theirnumber may increase during infection There are five different types of leukocytes, which are identified bythe size and appearance of the nucleus and by their staining properties

Granular leukocytes or granulocyteshave visible granules in the cytoplasm when stained;

there are three types of granulocytes: neutrophils,eosinophils, and basophils, named for the kind

of stain they take up Agranulocytes do not have visible granuleswhen stained There are two

types of agranulocytes: lymphocytes and monocytes

White blood cells protect against foreign substances Some engulf foreign material by the

process of phagocytosis;others function as part of the immune system In diagnosis it is

important to know not only the totalnumber of leukocytes but also the relative number of each type because these numbers can change in differentdisease conditions The most numerous white

blood cells, neutrophils, are called polymorphsbecause oftheir various-shaped nuclei They are

also referred to as segs, polys, or PMNs (polymorphonuclear leukocytes).A band cell, also called

a stab or staff cell, is an immature neutrophil with a solid curved nucleus.Large numbers of band

cells in the blood indicate an active infection

Platelets

The blood platelets (thrombocytes) are fragments of larger cells formed in the bone marrow They number from 200,000 to 400,000 per µL of blood Platelets are important in

hemostasis, the prevention of blood loss, a component of which is the process of blood clotting,

also known as coagulation

READING COMPREHENSION

I Answer the following questions:

1 What components is blood made of?

2 How many types of blood cells are there? What are they?

3 What is the main function of red blood cells?

4 What happens in the number of white blood cells during infection?

5 What type of blood cells helps to form blood clots?

II Work with a partner to label each statement true (T) or false (F) If the statement is false, correct it so that it is true

_ 1.Whole blood can be divided into two main components: plasma (55%), and blood

cells (45%)

_ 2 The remaining 10% of plasma contains nutrients, electrolytes, gases, albumin,

antibodies, wastes, enzymes, and hormones

_ 3 Only red blood cellsare produced in red bone marrow

_ 4.Ared blood cell gradually wears out and dies in about 120 days

_ 5.Platelets are important in hemostasis, the prevention of blood clotting

B Word Parts Pertaining to Blood and Immunity

Table 2 1: Suffixes for Blood

-emia condition of blood ischemia a deficient blood supply to a part of the

body

-penia decrease in, deficiency

of

leukopenia deficiency of leukocytes in the blood

-poiesis formation, production hemopoiesis production of blood cells

Table 2.2: Roots for Blood and Immunity

white blood cell leukopenia a reduction in the number of

leucocytes in the blood

lymph/o,

lymphocyt/o

lymphocyte lymphoblast immature lymphocyte

thromb/o blood clot thromboangiitis a condition in which the blood

vesselsswell and develop blood clots along their walls

immunization production of immunity

Exercise 1: Match the following terms and write the appropriate letter to the left of each

_ 2 leukemia b deficiency of platelets in the blood

_ 3 thrombocyte c deficiency of white blood cells

_ 4 leukoblast d immature white blood cell

_ 5 leukopenia e malignant overgrowth of white blood cells

Exercise 2: Word building Write a word for each of the following definitions:

2 A decrease in the number of platelets (thrombocytes) in the blood _

3 Formation of red blood cells _

5 Specialist in the study of immunity _

Exercise 3: Reading practice

A medical student has examined an elderly patient with a very low level of hacmoglohin and is discussing the case with her professor Read the dialogue and work in pairs, student A plays the part of the professor, student B plays the part of the student

Professor: What‘s the most likely diagnosis in this case?

Student: Most probably carcinoma of the bowel with chronic blood loss

Professor: What‘s against that as a diagnosis?

Student: Well, he hasn‘t had any change in his bowel habit, or lost weight

Professor: What else would you include in the differential diagnosis of severe anaemia

in a man of this age?

Student: He might have leukaemia of some sort, or aplastic anaemia,

but that‘s rare — it would he very unusual Another cause is iron deficiency, but

he seems to have an adequate diet

Professor: OK Now, there‘s another cause of anaemia which I think is more likely

Student: Chronic bleeding ulcer?

Professor: Yes, that‘s right But what about pernicious anaemia? Can you exclude that? Student: Well, he‘s got none of the typical neurological symptoms, like paraesthesiae

Exercise 4: Fill in each gap with one suitable word from the box

bleedingobstructsclottingdeficiency hereditary Coagulation Disorders

The most common cause of coagulation problems is a

(1)……….… …… in the number of circulating

platelets, a condition termed thrombocytopenia

Possible causes include aplastic anemia, infections,

cancer of the bone mar-row, or agents that destroy

bone marrow, such as x-rays or certain drugs This

disorder results in (2)……… into the skin and mucous membranes, variously

described as petechiae, ecchymoses, and purpura In disseminated intravascular coagulation

(DIC) there is widespread clotting in the vessels, which (3)……… circulation to the tissues This is followed by diffuse hemorrhages as clotting factors are removed and the coagulationprocess is impaired DIC may result from a variety of causes, including infection,

cancer, hemorrhage,injury,or allergy.Hemophilia is a (4)……… deficiency of a specific

clotting factor It is a sex-linked disease that is passedfrom mother to son There is bleeding into the tissues, especially into the joints (hemarthrosis) Hemophiliamust be treated with transfusions

of the necessary (5)……… factor (Figure:Sickling of red blood cells in sickle cell anemia)

UNIT 3

THE SKELETON

Learning objectives: After study of this unit, students should be able to:

1 List important medical words about bone after reading the text

2 Thoroughly grasp main roots/suffixes/prefixes referring to bone

3 Applyroots/suffixes/prefixes referring to bone in reading and studying

Bone is formed by the gradual addition of calcium and phosphorus salts to cartilage, a type of dense connective tissue This process of ossification begins before birth and continues to

adulthood Although bone appears to be inert, it is actually living tissue that is constantly being replaced and remodeled throughout life Three types of bone cells are involved in these changes: osteoblasts are the cells that produce bone; osteocytes are mature bone cells; and osteoclasts are involved in the breakdown of bone tissue to release needed minerals or to allow for reshaping and repair The process of destroying bone so that its components can be taken into the

circulation is called resorption This process occurs normally throughout life; in disease

states,resorption may occur more rapidly or more slowly than bone production

READING COMPREHENSION

I Answer the following questions:

1 What is the function of the skeleton?

2 How many bones does an adult skeleton consist of?

3 How many types of bone cells are there? What are they?

4 What do the following words mean?

- cartilage:………

- ossification: ………

- resorption:…………

5 What happens if the process of destroying occurs too fast?

II Work with a partner to label each statement true (T) or false (F) If the statement is false, correct it so that it is true

_ 1.Skull bones are joined by moveable joints except for the joint between the lower

jaw and the temporal bone of the cranium

_ 2 The human adult skeleton is composed of 206 bones

_ 3 Disks of cartilage between the vertebrae add strength and flexibility to the spine _ 4.Bone is formed by the gradual addition of calcium and phosphorus salts to the

disks

_ 5.The process of ossification begins after birth and continues to adulthood

B Some common English names for bones

arch of the foot, the sole metatarsals

Figure 3.1: Skeletal system

Table 3.1: Roots for Bones and Joints

myel/o bone marrow; also,

operation on the skull

Exercise 1: Word building Write a word for each of the following definitions:

1 deficiency (-penia) of bone tissue _

2 inflammation of bone and bone marrow _

3 inflammation of bone and cartilage _

4 tumor (-oma) of bone marrow _

5 instrument for examining the interior of a joint _

6 incision into the cranium (skull) _

7 surgical excision of cartilage _

8 endoscopic examination of a joint _

9 tumor of bone and cartilage _

10 measurement of the pelvis _

Exercise 2: Write the adjective that fits each of the following definitions:

1 pertaining to (-al) the skull _

2 pertaining to (-al) a rib _

3 pertaining to (-ic) the pelvis _

4 pertaining to (-ac) the ilium _

Exercise 3:Write the name of each numbered part on the diagram Look at Fig 19-1 to help you

There are more words than there are numbered lines, add in 19-22 and identify these bones

B cervical vertibrae M radius

In the joint, inflammation causes damage to the cartilage and synovial lining When the cartilage

is worn down, the bones may rub together Damage to the synovial lining cause synovial fluid to

leak and produce fluid in the joint lining This adds to the swelling If the joint lining continues to grow, it can permanently damage the bone All of this causes pain, swelling and distress for the patient.The most common types of arthritis are:

Osteoarthritis This is the most prevalent In osteoarthritis, the cartilage covering the bone slowly wears away with age and the bones rub together

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA.) In rheumatoid arthritis the body‘s immune system begins to attack the joints of the body causing the joint lining to swell

Gout Gout is a condition where the body cannot effectively remove uric acid and the uric acid crystallizes in the joints like needles, causing swelling and severe pain

1 What type of disease is arthritis?

A Inflammation diseaseB Muscle disease C Acute diseaseD All of these

2 How many common signs of arthritis are mentioned?

3 What happens when the cartilage is worn down?

A the bones may be drier B the bones may contact each other

C the bones may be thinner D All of these

4 How many common types of arthritis are mentioned?

5 Which type of arthritis is an autoimmune disease?

A Osteoarthritis B Rheumatoid C Gout D All of these

UNIT 4

THE EYE

Learning objectives: After study of this unit, students should be able to:

1 List important words about the eye structures

2 Have a thorough grasp of main roots/suffixes/prefixes referring to the eye

3 Apply main roots/suffixes/prefixes referring to the eye in reading and studying medical materials

A Parts of the eye

Your eye is an incredibly complex and miraculous organ, allowing you to see sharply and engage fully in life To gain a bit more of an appreciation of the complexity (without burying you in details) refer to the image on the right, as you read the explanation of the function of each part:

Figure 4.1: Parts of eyes

 Cornea - the clear skin that covers the front of your eye It‘s as clear as glass and contains no blood vessels

 Sclera - the tough skin that surrounds most of the outside of the eyeball, known as the 'white'

 Blind spot – a tiny spot on your retina which isn‘t sensitive to light because it has no rods or cones This is the spot where the optic nerve joins the retina

 Optic nerve – transmits the electrical messages from the retina to your brain

 Macula - in the center of your retina Produces your central vision which enables you to read, drive, and perform other activities requiring fine, sharp, straight-ahead vision

After light enters your pupil, it hits the lens – which focuses those light rays on the back of your eyeball - the retina

The retina is in the very back of your eye, past the large vitreous body Though smaller than a dime, it holds millions of light-sensitive cells It takes the light it receives and converts it to nerve signals so your brain can understand what your eye is seeing

Unfortunately, free radical damage from age and environmental factors can keep your eyes from functioning optimally

READING COMPREHENSION

I Answer the following questions:

1 What are the functions of an eye?

2 What are the main parts making up an eye?

3 Can you describe the process of producing your central vision which enables you to see, read and perform other activities?

4 How many rods and cones does each eye have?

5 What happens after light enters your pupil

II Complete the sentences below with a suitable word Take turns reading the correct

sentences aloud with a partner

1 is the colored part of your eye that controls the amount of light that enters your eye

2 Cornea is the clear that covers the front of your eye It‘s as clear as glass and contains no blood vessels

3 Your retina has cells called rods and cones Rods see black and white; cones see

4 Optic nerve transmits the electrical messages from the _ to your brain

5 holds millions of light-sensitive cells

Table 4.1: Roots for the Eye and Vision

opt /o eye, vision optometer instrument for measuring the refractive power

of the eye

ophthalm/o eye ophthalmologist a doctor who specialises in the study of the eye

and its diseases

kerat/o cornea keratoplasty plastic repair of the cornea; corneal transplant

ir, irit/o,

irid/o

iris iridotomy incision of the iris

pupill/o pupil iridopupillary pertaining to the iris and the pupil

retin/o retina retinopathy any disease of the retina

Exercise 1:Match the following terms and write the appropriate letter to the left of each

number:

_ 1 lens a membrane that lines the eyelid

_ 2 sclera b structure that changes shape for near and far vision _ 3 conjunctiva c point of sharpest vision

_ 4 fovea d muscular ring that regulates light entering the eye

_ 5 iris e outermost layer of the eye

Exercise 2:Word building Write a word for each of the following definitions:

1 incision of the iris

2 beneath the sclera

3 any disease of the retina

4 measurement of the pupil

5 inflammation of the uvea

Exercise 3:Below is a drawing of the eye with some of the more important parts numbered Write the names of the parts of the eye and their functions in the proper boxes The clue list is there to help you

Figure 4.1: Parts of eyes

 Contains cells that detect light

 Opening to the inner eye

 Controls the size of the pupil

 Focuses image of object

 Controls shape of lens

 Transmits information to brain

 Outermost transparent layer of eye, begins focusing process

FURTHER READING

Read the following passage and circle the best answer for each space

Any person who has lost sight in one or both eyes if there is no pain, should be sent to the health centre or hospital If, in a child, the surface of the (1) appears dry, or the child does not see well in the evening, it usually means that the child lacks (2) If you can, give the child a capsule of retinol by (3) at once If you have no (4), send the child

to the health centre at once, or ask for your supervisor‘s help

Explain to the parents that the child will become (5) unless he regularly eats food that contains vitamin A: carrots, fruits such as papaya and mangoes, and (6) leafy vegetables The schoolteacher should know this and remind the pupils of it from time to time Children also often get an (7) called trachoma It makes the (8) of the eyelids rough and red The (9) is to put tetracycline eye ointment on the inside of the eyelids everyday for 6 weeks The child‘s face and eyes should be (10) carefully everyday

2 A vitamin A B vitamin E C vitamin C D vitamin D

3 A intramuscular B mouth C infusion D injection

7 Eye illness B glaucoma C trachoma D eye infection

10 A washed B looked after C looked D looked for

UNIT 5

THE GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM

Learning objectives: After study of this unit, students should be able to:

1 List important medical words about the gastrointestinal system

2 Thoroughly grasp main roots/suffixes/prefixes referring to the system

3 Apply medical about the gastrointestinal system in reading and studying medical materials

The gastrointestinal system is comprised of the organs of the digestive tract (the path along which food travels) and accessory organs, which help with digestion but are not path of the part of food

The digestive tract begins at the mouth, the oral cavity The human mouth is concerned with vocalization as well as mastication and swallowing The anterior portion includes lips,

teeth, gums, a muscular tongue, related muscles, salivary glands, a bony palate, and muscles of the cheek wall All are concerned with wetting, macerating and pulverizing ingested material The posterior portion of the oral cavity includes the soft palate, tongue, tonsils, and tastebuds

Table 5.1: Roots for the Mouth

stoma,

stomat/o

Mouth stomatitis inflammation of the mouth

dent/o, dent/i tooth, teeth dentifrice a substance used to clean the teeth

gingiv/o gum (gingiva) gingivectomy excision of gum tissue

sial/o saliva, salivary

Figure 5.2: The gastrointestinal system

The function of the digestive system is to break down large food particles into smalle ones that can pass across the membranesof cells and be absorbed The Digestive Tract, also known as the alimentary canal consists of a single long tube extending from mouth toanus and opened to the exterior at each end The canal begins withthe oral cavity Here the teeth pulverize ingested food Meanwhile it is softened and partly digested by salivary gland secretions Thetongue aids in mechanical manipulation of the food and literallyflips the food into the fibromuscular pharynx during swallowing The esophagus moves the food bolus along to the pouch-like stomachby peristaltic muscular contractions Here the food mixes with acidand protein-digesting enzymes

discharged into the duodenum by bile ducts Digestiveenzymes from the pancreas enter the duodenum as well The foodbolus continues through the highly coiled 20-foot-long small intestine A great portion of the abdominal cavity is taken up by themany folds and twists of this organ Small molecular nutrients areextracted and absorbed by cells lining the intestine These nutrientsabsorbed throughout the tract are transferred to capillaries andtransported to the liver by the hepatic portal system for processingand distribution to the body‘s cells The colon or large intestine can be seen ascending along the anatomical right side, passing across themidline then turning and descending along the left This organ ismainly concerned with absorption of water, minerals, and certainvitamins The non-nutritive residue of the ingested food is com-pacted and moved through the rectum and anal canal to the outside

READING COMPREHENSION

Answer the following questions

1 What is the main function of the anterior portion?

2 What does the posterior portion of the oral cavity include?

3 Name five organs that come into contact with food

4 How is the food digested in the gastrointestinal tract?

5 Where does food go after it leaves the stomach?

Table 5.2: Roots for the Digestive Tract (Except the Mouth)

esophag/o

oesophag/o

esophagus oesophagus

oesophagotomy incision into the oesophagus

cholecyst/o gallbladder cholecystectomy surgical removal of gallbladder

duoden/o duodenum duodenoscopy endoscopic examination of the duodenum

pancreat/o pancreas pancreatotomy incision into the pancreas

enter/o intestine gastroenterology The study of stomach and intestine

(permanent) opening into the colon

anus

proctoscopy examination (looking into) ther ectum

through the anus with an endoscope

Exercise 1:

Write a word for each of the following definitions:

1 surgical removal of the stomach _

2 endoscopic examination of the esophagus _

3 surgical creation of a passage between the

4 inflammation of the ileum _

5 surgical creation of an opening into the duodenum

6 inflammation of the pancreas _

7 study of the stomach and intestines _

8 inflammation of the gallbladder _

9 surgical removal of the liver _

10 endoscopic examination of the colon _

Exercise 3:

From the list on the right, select the correct meaning for each of the following often used medical terms

1 stomatitis A surgical repair of the palate

2 hepatectomy B of or pertaining to teeth

3 dental C surgical removal of the stomach

4 colostomy D inflammation of the mouth

5 gastrectomy E surgical removal of (part of) the liver

6 hepatomegaly F examination (looking into) the

rectum through the anus with anendoscope

7 proctoscopy G inflammation of the surface of the tongue

8 glossitis H make a new opening in the colon

9 gastropathy I any disease of the stomach

10 palatoplasty K abnormal enlargement of the liver

Exercise 4:

The Gastrointestinal System

Write the name of each numbered part on the corresponding line of the answer sheet

12 _ 24

The gastrointestinal system

FURTHER READING

What is gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)?

GERD is an ongoing condition in which the contents of the stomach come back into the esophagus (the tube that carries food from your mouth to your stomach) Doctors call this ―acid reflux.‖There are several reasons why people have GERD One possible reason has to do with

week, especially after eating or at night

GERD can also cause you to cough or have asthma symptoms It can also make your voice sound hoarse and raspy These symptoms can happen even if you do not have heartburn The acid may also leave a bitter taste in your mouth

How is GERD treated?

Medicine

Different medicines can help control problems caused by GERD

Some relieve heartburn symptoms when they happen, and some help keep heartburn and other problems from happening

Some medicines are taken only when needed and some are taken every day for a few weeks or months Others must be taken every day for years

Some medicines can be bought over the counter without a prescription, and others need a prescription Some are available both over the counter and by prescription

The three main types of medicines to treat GERD are antacids, H2RAs (histamine type 2 receptor antagonists), and PPIs (proton pump inhibitors)

Surgery

For some people, surgery to strengthen the barrier between the stomach and esophagus may be a treatment option for acid reflux This surgery to treat GERD is called a ―fundoplication‖ (pronounced fun-doeply-KAY-shun) Your doctor can tell you if surgery might help you

How does surgery for GERD work?

In a fundoplication, the top part of your stomach is wrapped around the bottom of your esophagus and attached there

This helps strengthen the muscle at the bottom of your esophagus that closes to keep food and acid from coming back up

The surgeon may be able to do the surgery with a tool called a ―laparoscope‖ (pronounced pruh-skohp) A laparoscope is a thin tube with a tiny camera that the surgeon puts through small cuts in your belly along with other small tools to do the surgery

LAH-It usually takes less time to recover from surgery with a laporascope than if the surgeon has to make a large cut in your belly to do the surgery

There are two types of surgery: total fundoplication and partial fundoplication

Endoscopic treatments

Endoscopic (pronounced en-doh-SKAHP-ik) treatments help strengthen the muscle that keeps food and acid from going up into your esophagus These treatments are not considered surgery because no cuts are made in your belly Instead, a doctor puts a thin tube called an endoscope through your mouth and down your esophagus to do the treatment

Three types of endoscopic treatments are EndoCinch™, Stretta®, and EsophyX™ These

treatments are very new and are not as common as medicines or surgery to treat GERD People receiving one of these treatments may be in a study to see how well it works

Avoid eating 3 hours before lying down

Raise the head of your bed

Avoid foods that can make GERD symptoms worse (spicy foods, fatty foods, mint, chocolate, tomato-based foods, coffee, and citrus fruits)

UNIT 6

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Learning objectives: After study of this unit, students should be able to:

1 List important medical words about the cardiovascular system

2 Thoroughly grasp main roots/suffixes/prefixes referring to the system

3 Apply main roots/suffixes/prefixes referring to the cardiovascular system in reading and studying medical materials

Blood circulates throughout the body in the cardiovascular system, which consists of the heart and the blood vessels This system forms a continuous circuit that delivers oxygen and nutrients to all cells and carries away waste products

The Heart

The heart is located between the lungs, with its point or apex directed toward the left The thick muscle layer of the heart wall is the myocardium This is lined on the inside with a thin endocardium and is covered on the outside with a thin epicardium The heart is contained within

a fibrous sac, the pericardium Each of the upper receiving chambers of the heart is an atrium (plural, atria) Each of the lower pumping chambers is a ventricle (plural, ventricles) The chambers of the heart are divided by walls, each of which is called a septum

Figure 6.1: The cardiovascular system

The interventricular septum separates the two ventricles; the interatrial septum divides the two atria There is also a septum between the atrium and ventricle on each side The heart pumps blood through two circuits The right side pumps blood to the lungs to be oxygenatedthrough the pulmonary circuit The left side pumps to the remainder of the body through the systemic circuit

The Vascular System

The vascular system consists of:

1 Arteries that carry blood away from the heart Arterioles are small arteries that lead into the capillaries

2 Capillaries, the smallest vessels, through which exchanges take place between the blood and the tissues

3 Veins that carry blood back to the heart The small veins that receive blood from the capillaries and drain into the veins are venules

Key Clinical Terms: cardiovascular disorders

Bradycardia: A slow heart rate of less than 60 beats per minute

Atherosclerosis: The development of fatty, fibrous patches (plaques) in the lining of arteries,

causing narrowing of the lumen and hardening of the vessel wall The most common form of arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) Root ather/o means ―porridge‖ or ―gruel.‖

Clubbing:Enlargement of the ends of the fingers and toes caused by growth of the soft tissue

around the nails Seen in a variety of diseases in which there is poor peripheral circulation

Cyanosis:Bluish discoloration of the skin caused by lack of oxygen

Fibrillation: Spontaneous, quivering, and ineffectual contraction of muscle fibers, as in the atria

or the ventricles

Defibrillation: An electrical spark to shock the heart and bring about a regular heartbeat

Heart failure: A condition caused by the inability of the heart to maintain adequate circulation

of blood

Hypertension: A condition of higher-than-normal blood pressure Essential (primary,

idiopathic) hypertension has no known cause

Ischemia: Local deficiency of blood supply caused by obstruction of the circulation (root hem/o) Myocardial infarction (MI): Localized necrosis (death) of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from

blockage or narrowing of the coronary artery that supplies that area Myocardial infarction is usually caused by formation of a thrombus (clot) in a vessel

Tachycardia: An abnormally rapid heart rate, usually over 100 beats per minute

Shortness of breath: Shortness of breath, or breathlessness, is dyspnoea At first this is caused

by exertion — physical activity such as climbing stairs — but in severe cases it may be present

even at rest A patient who is breathless when lying flat (orthopnoea), for example in bed, will

tend to sleep raised up on two or more pillows The abbreviation SOBOE stands for shortness of breath on exercise (or on exertion, or on effort)

Heart rhythm

The normal resting heart rate is 65—75 beats per minute In athletes it may be as low as 40 beats

which interrupt the regular rhythm (premature beats); or the rhythm may vary with respiration;

or it may be completely irregular, as in fibrillation When patients are aware of irregularity, they describe the symptom as palpitations

READING COMPREHENSION

I Answer the following questions:

1.Where is the location of the heart?

2 What is the function of the cardiovascular system?

3 What are the main parts of the heart?

4 Can you list some cardiovascular disorders and theirs prominent symptoms?

5 What is the abbreviation SOBOE stands for?

Table 6.1: Roots for the Heart

ventricul/o cavity, ventricle supraventricular above a ventricle

Table 6.2: Roots for the Blood Vessels

vas/o, vascul/o vessel, duct vasodilation widening of a blood vessel

a radio-opaque dye

of a vein

Exercise 1:

Write a word for each of the following definitions

inflammation of the lining of the heart _ inflammation of the heart muscle _ inflammation of the fibrous sac around the heart _ the study (-logy) of the heart _

surgical removal of a vessel _

physician who specializes in study and treatment of the heart _

widening of a blood vessel _

an X-ray picture of blood vessels _

Exercise 2:

The Cardiovascular System

Write the name of each numbered part on the corresponding line of the answer sheet

Left pulmonary artery Superior vena cava

Exercise 3: Reading practice

Read the case history and complete the conversation below:

A 22-year-old student was admitted to hospital with a long history of heart problems She had been increasingly tired, with shortness of breath on exertion, orthopnoea, and palpitations A

mitral valve replacement had been carried out 3 years previously and this had stabilized the symptoms of heart failure but was followed by episodes (attacks) of atrial fibrillation, which

had been particularly severe for the 6 months before admission

Doctor: What seems to be the problem?

Patient: I‘ve been getting (1)

Doctor: How long have you had them?

Patient: For about six months But Ive had heart problems for years, with tiredness and (2) of (3) In the end I couldn‘t walk

more than a hundred metres without having to stop I had to sleep on three (4) I had a (5) replacement three years ago, and that

improved things for a while

Exercise 4: Fill each of the gaps with one word from the box

A artery B buildup C decades D death E.evidence,

F flowG myocardium H period I reason J symptoms

Coronary heart disease and atheroscleroticheart disease

Coronary heart disease (CHD), also called coronary _(1) disease (CAD) and atheroscleroticheart disease, is the end result of the accumulation of atheromatous plaques within the walls of the arteries that supply the _(2) (the muscle of the heart) While the _(3) and signs of coronary heart disease are noted in the advanced state of disease, most individuals with coronary heart disease show no evidence of disease for _(4) as the disease progresses before the first onset of symptoms, often a "sudden" heart attack, finally arise After decades of progression, some of these atheromatous plaques may rupture and (along with the activation of the blood clotting system) start limiting blood _(5) to the heart muscle The disease is the most common cause of sudden _(6), and is also the most common _(7) for death of men and women over 65 years of age.Atherosclerotic heart disease