VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY PHAM THI OANH COST–BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF MIXING GREY AND GREEN INFRASTRUCTURES TO ADAPT TO SEA LEVEL RISE IN MEKONG RIVER DELTA MASTER’S THESIS Hanoi, 2020... VIET
Trang 1VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY
PHAM THI OANH
COST–BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF MIXING GREY AND GREEN INFRASTRUCTURES
TO ADAPT TO SEA LEVEL RISE IN
MEKONG RIVER DELTA
MASTER’S THESIS
Hanoi, 2020
Trang 2VIETNAM JAPAN UNIVERSITY
PHAM THI OANH
COST–BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF GREY AND GREEN INFRASTRUCTURES TO ADAPT TO SEA LEVEL RISE IN MEKONG RIVER DELTA
MAJOR: CLIMATE CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT
CODE: 8900201.02QTD
RESEARCH SUPERVISOR:
Associate Prof. MAKOTO TAMURA
Trang 3Hanoi, 2020
Trang 4I assure that this thesis is the results of my own research and has not beenpublished. The use of other research’s result and other documents must comply withregulations. The citations and references to documents, books, research papers, andwebsites must be in the list of references of the thesis.
AUTHOR OF THE THESIS
PHAM THI OANH
Trang 5TABLE OF CONTENTS ii
LIST OF TABLE iv
LIST OF FIGURE v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENT vii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 The necessary of the research 1
1.2 The research questions and hypotheses 2
1.2.1. The questions of research 2
1.2.2. The hypotheses of research 2
1.3. Research objectives and tasks 2
1.3.1. Research objectives 2
1.3.2. Research tasks 3
1.4. Scope of the research 4
1.5. Research Methods 4
1.6. Framework of the Master’s thesis 5
1.7. Overview of research in Vietnam and international 5
1.7.1. Climate change and climate change impact 5
1.7.2. SLR and SLR impact in the 21 st century 6
1.7.3. Adaptation strategies 8
1.7.4. Model assess the SLR impact and adaptation effectiveness 12
1.7.5. MRD natural condition 14
1.7.6. SLR impact in MRD 15
1.7.7. Adaptation strategies in MRD 17
1.7.8. Research gap 18
CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY 20
2.1. The history of CBA and reasons for CBA 20
2.2 Outline the methodology 22
2.3 Costbenefit analysis model 22
2.4 Data 27
Trang 62.4.3. MRD data 32
2.5 Estimate costs of adaptation options 32
2.6 Estimate benefits of adaptation options 33
2.6.1. Estimate the economic damage of dryland loss can be avoid 33
2.6.2. Potential affected population by SLR 34
2.7 Applying ArcGIS software 34
2.7.1. Data preparation 34
2.7.2. Data analysis 35
CHAPTER 3. RESULTS 37
3.1. Socioeconomic damage of SLR without adaptation 37
3.1.1. Identify the inundation area 37
3.1.2. Population at risk from SLR 39
3.1.3. The economic damage without adaptation 41
3.2 The economic loss in the different adaptation scenarios 44
3.2.1. The potential inundation area with adaptation 44
3.2.2. The economic damage with adaptation 46
3.3 Cost of adaptation options 46
3.4 Cost benefit analysis of mixing grey and green infrastructure 49
3.5 Comparison of mixing grey and green infrastructure with other adaptation option 50
3.6. Sensitivity analysis 53
3.6.1. Change in discount rate 53
3.6.2. Change in width of the mangrove belt 54
CHAPTER 4. DISSCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATION 56
4.1. Summary 56
4.2. Limitation of the research and future work 58
4.3. Recommendation 59
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION 61
5.1. Impact of SLR on the Mekong Delta region 61
5.2. Solutions to adapt to SLR 61
REFERENCES 63
APPENDIX 67
Trang 7Table 2.1: Cost and benefit of adaptation solution to reduce the damages due to inundation by SLR in MRD, Vietnam 26Table 2.3: Data sources and description 29Table 3.1: The unit cost of land use by SSP15 44Table 3.2: Unit cost of adaptation options using dikes and mangrove in 2010
(million US$/m) 50Table 3.3: Present value of the cost and benefit in different option (discount rate = 3%) 53Table 3.4: Change in NPV and BCR in with discount rate = 8% 56Table 3.5: Change in NPV and BCR with discount rate = 10% 56Table 3.5: Present value of the cost and benefit with the change in the mangrove width (discount rate = 3%) 57
Trang 8Figure 1.1. Structure of the research 3
Figure 2.1: Analytical framework of research 24
Figure 2.2: Costbenefit analysis model 25
Figure 2.3: The potential inundated area in MRD by SLR in 2100 32
Figure 2.4: World population and GDP in different SSP scenarios (Source: IIASA, 2018) 34
Figure 3.1: The potentially inundated area by land use in MRD in the 2020, 2050, 2100 respectively 39
Figure 3.2: Potentially inundated area due to SLR in MRD in the 21st century 39
Figure 3.3: Land use of potentially inundated areas due to SLR in 2100 in MRD .40 Figure 3.4: The potentially inundated by districts in MRD 41
in 2020, 2050, 2100 respectively 41
Figure 3.5: Total population at risk from SLR in MRD in 21st century 42
Figure 3.6: Economic losses due to SLR in MRD in the 21st century 46
Figure 3.7: Comparison of land use loss due to SLR in MRD with and without adaptation solution (km2/year) 47
Figure 3.8: The damage cost of SLR with different adaptation option (no discount rate) 48
Figure 3.9: Net present value and Benefit cost ratio of mixing grey and green infrastructure 51
Trang 9Figure 3.11: Cost of adaptation options under SSP15 without discount rate 53
Figure 3.12: BCR in different adaptation options under SSP15 55
Figure 4.1. The urgency of coastal protection 62
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BCR: Benefit Cost Ratio
CBA: Cost Benefit Analysis
CPMD: Coastal Protection for the Mekong Delta
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
MRD: Mekong River Delta
MONRE: Ministry of Nature Resources and Environment
NPV: Net Present Value
RCP: Representative Concentration Pathway
SSP: Share Socioeconomic Pathway
Trang 10I would like to express my respecting to Assoc Prof Makoto Tamura whointroduced me to this exciting topic and supervising me during this time My thanksalso go to Dr Nguyen Van Quang for his comments during this thesis work Theircomment and essential enabled me to complete this study on time My warm thanksalso go to members of the Master of Climate Change and Development office fortheir relentless supporting during this time Finally, my grateful acknowledgment to
my friends and family for their recommendations, suggestions and supportive of mystudy in VJU
Trang 1150% of this area will be completely inundated. It is very influential that more than
20 million people living here and their livelihood, living standards and socialwelfare may be affected. It is necessary to identify the physical damage, economicdamage and other factors for choosing the appropriate adaptation solution
Because the SLR impact is uncertain, in conjunction with socioeconomic
SLR to the mainland. At present, there is little study focusing on the impact of SLRtaking the socioeconomic scenarios, especially in the MRD region – the 3rd largestdelta in the world. Therefore, this study was conducted to fill the research gap and
to contribute information for choosing an appropriate adaptation solution for thisarea
Trang 121.2 The research questions and hypotheses
1.2.1 The questions of research
This study has the main objective of answering the question “Can mixinggrey and green infrastructure be a good solution to adapt to SLR in MRD?”
To answer the central research question, the research address to answerfollowing questions:
Question one: What is the area inundated due to SLR in the Mekong deltaespecially with largescale land use areas?
Question three: How much the cost of the damage of the land loss due to SLR?Question four: What is the effect of mixing grey and green infrastructure by CBA?Question five: Does mixing grey and green infrastructure has more effectivenessthan other adaptation option?
1.2.2 The hypotheses of research
The hypothesis is mixing grey and green infrastructure has the greater benefitthan the cost to set up this system (the highest effective compare with otheradaptation option) and it can be a good way to apply in MRD to adapt to SLR. 1.3. Research objectives and tasks
1.3.1. Research objectives
To answer these research question, my research objectives are:
use type and administrative area based on SLR scenarios
Trang 13 Objective two: Evaluated and estimated the potential impact of SLR in MRD
by the value of land loss and the population affected based on the differentsocioeconomic scenarios in 21st century?
Literature review: conduct a search and review of national and internationalstudies on the topic of the impact of SLR and analyse adaptive solutions, therebyidentifying research gaps and addressing issues that the research will focus onsolving
Set up the theoretical framework and practical framework: after the literaturereview, the establishment of a theoretical basis and the adaptation solution havebeen applied to adapt to SLR for conducting the impact assessment of SLR andevaluate the effectiveness of adaptation solutions in MRD
Carry out evaluation and estimation of damage caused by SLR by identifyingthe economic and social impacts of SLR to the Mekong Delta region
Literature
review
Set up the theorical framework and analytical framework for the research
Assess and estimate the socio- economic damage of SLR in MRD
Calculate the cost of the mixing grey and green infrastruct ure when apply in MRD
Apply benefit analysis to get the most effective adaptation option for MRD
Trang 14cost- Assess the costs of mixing grey and green infrastructure to adapt to SLR inMRD.
Cost benefit analysis: Based on the results from previous step, benefit costanalysis is conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of mixing grey and greeninfrastructure
1.4. Scope of the research
In general the research tries to assess the impact of SLR in MRD aiming tocalculate the effectiveness of the grey and green infrastructures. On the other hand,
to confirm the effectiveness of mixing grey and green infrastructures, the researchwill also compare this solution with other solutions including current applications.
In terms of content: The study will focus on estimating the damage value of dryland loss due to the impact of mean SLR, and estimate the population affected
by this impact does not include other impacts such as SLR to coastal and marineecosystem service, infrastructure and economic activities. The effects of localextreme events are not within the scope of this study
For adaptation measures, the study will focus on analysing the effective ofmixing grey and green infrastructure and after that compare the effective ofitself with other adaptation solution including the current adaptation wasapplying in MRD. Currently, the Mekong Delta is applying the solution to buildsea dikes in combination with mangrove to protect the mainland from the effects
of SLR. The study will compare this solution with the solution of lifting andconstructing concrete dikes and alternating concrete dikes and mangrove in thecoastal areas of the Mekong Delta
In terms of time: The study will evaluate the impact of SLR in the 21st centuryunder the SLR scenario provided by Tamura et al., (2019) and socioeconomicdevelopment scenarios SSPs (Share Socioeconomic Pathway). The study doesnot apply forecasts for longer time periods due to the volatility and uncertainty
of the above factors
Trang 15 Regarding the scope of space: The scope of the research space of the topic is theregion of the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, including 13 provinces and citiesdirectly under the region as prescribed by the Vietnam government.
1.5. Research Methods
Methods of collecting information: The study was conducted based onsecondary data gathered based on articles and reports of the Government ofVietnam and international organizations for SLR impact analysis to the MekongDelta and estimate the cost of implementing adaptation measures
Methods of data analysis: The thesis uses the benefit cost analysis method toevaluate the effectiveness of mixing grey and green infrastructure
1.6. Framework of the Master’s thesis
Figure 1.6: Logical framework of the researchFigure 1.6 presents the logical framework of the research. To estimate theSocioeconomic impact of SLR in MRD, the inundation area will be identified byapplying GIS The potential dryland loss and the population affected will beevaluated by different Socioeconomic scenarios. Next, adaptation options – mixinggrey and green infrastructure will be applied to reduce the inundation damage.Finally, the effectiveness of the mixing grey and green infrastructure will beassessed by applying CBA in the various socioeconomic scenarios.
Trang 161.7.1. Climate change and climate change impact
Climate change is the global issue in 21st century. It was defined as “a change
in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g., by using statistical tests) bychanges in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for anextended period, typically decades or longer.” (Field et al., 2014). The recorded
century. It was shown on these evidence: the rise of the global mean temperature,the warming of the oceans, the reduction of the ice sheets in the Greenland andAntarctic, the retreating of the glacial around the world, the decreased of snowcover in the Northern Hemisphere, the rising of the global mean sea level, theincreasing of the extreme events, etc.
The global warming is the main reason of climate change caused by thegreenhouse effect. However, there is high agreement that the human activities arethe main reason which maximizes the greenhouse effect causing the rising of globaltemperature and the rapid climate change. This process is immutable and willimpact for the continues centuries.
The impact of climate change is happening which is significantly affectedboth on human and environment in global scale. It is expected to continue andintensify in the future. One of the worst impact of climate change is that the melting
of the ice sheet at the poles causes an increase in the average sea level leading to theinundation risk in the coastal areas, especially some areas may disappearcompletely. Climate change also increases the appearance of the extreme event such
as drought, flooding, hurricane or storm. Moreover, it also has strong effect on theenvironment, ecological balance, causing biodiversity loss and destroying the foodchains. These impacts will create the economic damage and social unrest, especially
in the developing countries. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the effect of climatechange.
Trang 171.7.2. SLR and SLR impact in the 21 st century
SLR is one of the main results of climate change. Although it is changingduring the history of Earth, it becomes faster than the previous history under theimpact of anthropogenic climate change. Since the 1990s the average global sealevel has increased 3mm/year and is still rising during the 21st century (Field et al.,2014). Until the last 21st century, the global mean sea level may rise 0.31.2m underusing the different RCPs scenarios (Kopp et al., 2014) and 0.281.31m with thedifferent concentration scenarios (Mengel et al., 2016). According to the IPCC AR5(Field et al., 2014), the global mean sea level has increased 5m during the last 3million years and still increasing. It is predicted that global mean sea level will rise2682cm at the end of this century Jevrejeva et al (2016) also estimate thatmedium SLRs may continue up to 5263cm with the global temperature rise 1.52°C by 2100 respectively. On the other hand, Nauels et al. (2017) has estimated that
in 20812100 the mean sea level will rise 519mm per year based on each ShareSocioeconomic Pathways scenarios (SSPs). This phenomenon is caused by threemain reasons under impacts of climate change: thermal expansion, melting glaciersand loss of Greenland and Antarctica’s ice sheets.
It is a challenge to identify the direction socioeconomic impact of SLR oncoastal area The impacts depend on the “geologic setting and physical andecological processes operating in that environment” (FitzGerald et al., 2008). Itdoes not only affect the change of coastal habitat but also inland, causing extremeweather events such as storms or floods to become more frequently and stronger. Inaddition, it may also lead coastal soil erosion, aquifers and saline agricultural land,reducing the habitat of coastal flora and fauna. These impacts are the main causesaffecting human activities in the coastal area, forcing people to migrate to otherareas causing economic and social instability. It may lead to the changes in land usewhen the area of land is narrowed, cause of the economic conflicts and social unrest(Goldemberg et al., 2000; Field et al., 2014)
Trang 18Asuncion & Lee (2017) pointed out that SLR will be impacted by economicgrowth, migration, and tourism European Climate Research Alliances hasmentioned that SLR will be a threat to human and infrastructure in the coastal areawhich is in the lowlying coastal regionsliving area of 10% world population(about 0.7 billion people) Moreover, it also has impacts on the biodiversity,ecosystem and creates a more extreme events such as flood, inundation, storm orhurricane Mimura (1999) showed the vulnerabilities of island nations in SouthPacific to SLR. Inundation and flooding can have a major impact on these countrieswhich is located in the low elevation, leading to changes in population growth andmigration of small islands to bigger islands for less risk. These areas need to focus
on climate change adaptation solutions rather than mitigation. Ericson et al. (2006)has conducted an analysis on the effects of SLR on 40 river deltas in the world. Theresults suggested that SLR could be a major cause of flooding and erosion in thesearea that will affected on 8.7 million people and 28,000 square kilo meters of plain
by 2050. FitzGerald et al. (2008) focused on the inundated impact by SLR to theisland and low land area, especially in the large river delta or high populationdensity. Neumann et al. (2015) estimated the total population in the coastal area inglobal scale and the number of people likely to be affected by the sea level in thefuture. The results show that the number of population exposed by SLR increases inproportion to population growth in coastal areas, of which Vietnam is one of thecountries with the highest total population in this area Besides that, the totalpopulation facing with SLR might be one of the highest countries in Asia alongwith China, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia in 2060
The cost of damage by SLR in the coastal area is an important element tocalculate the total damage of climate change in the future, contributed to thedesigning and choosing climate policy (Asuncion & Lee, 2017).
1.7.3. Adaptation strategies
The concept of adaptation mentioned by the IPCC in its first reports(McCarthy & IPCC, 2001) is defined as “adjustments in human and natural
Trang 19on different subjects will have different adaptation measures (Nicholls, 2015)mentioned that adaptation to SLR should include activities that adapt to moderateand extreme increases He also pointed out that the current major adaptationactivities focus on responding to events and disasters rather than forecasts for alongterm, active adaptation plan
Adaptation strategies can be divided into three main ways (IPCC, 1990;Bijlsma et al., 1996; Klein, 1999;Linham & Nicholls, 2010):
Retreat all the human system is driven deep into the land throughchanging plan, develop policies and migration activities
Accommodation mitigate impacts by adjusting human activities incoastal areas through land use changes, early warning systems, flood andinsurance adaptation measures
the impact of SLR. These protect strategies can be hard infrastructure orsoft armouring
The adaptation strategies should not only focus on the initial impacts but alsocarry out the potential impact in the future. On the national or local scale, it isnecessary to consider the complex interaction between humans and the naturalsystem on the coastline Therefore, it is essential to ensure the longtermeffectiveness and to consider carefully
Based on the main solutions to adapt to SLR, many studies have been carriedout on a global and regional scale to calculate the feasibility of each solution inpractice. Hallegatte et al., (2013) suggested that adaptation measures should beapplied and upgraded to achieve the goal for minimizing the potential adverseimpacts of SLR in the future. In fact, the SLR repute is heterogeneous across areas
Trang 20due to topographic conditions, other factors such as erosion and local wave model(Gornitz, 1991) Klein & Nicholls (1999) confirmed the complexity and thenecessary for many solutions to adapt to SLR in coastal areas. To date, the previousstudy in national and local scale in European countries revealed the higheradaptation cost in the higher level of risk or very high adaptation standard. There is
a large number of published studies (e.g.Diaz, 2008; Hinkel et al., 2010 ; Lincke &Hinkel, 2018) confirmed the effectiveness of protection solution to adapt to SLR.For some developing countries, adopting adaptation solutions in equivalent to those
of the Netherlands or the Gulf of Mexico is not affordable (FitzGerald et al., 2008).For some areas, the only solution to adapt to SLR is to retreat from lowlyingcoastal areas to higher areas.
Indeed, adaptation strategies are often aggregated from more than oneapproach, and most assessments currently focus on retreat or protection withoutconsidering accommodation
The protection strategies have been used for a long term to minimize theimpacts of flooding due to the increase in the water of rivers or storm surge. Theycan be applied in various options such as hard engineering techniques such asseawalls, breakwaters, or revetments. In recent years, there is a new trend focusing
on biological solutions like using natural protection which can bring more naturalbenefits than traditional hard infrastructure solutions. It also has shown the effectswithout disturbing the natural coastal environment throughout our developmenthistory. The subtropical and tropical regions have emphasized the current trend ofprotecting and restoring coastal mangrove to the impacts of nature and humans.
Grey infrastructures are defined as artificial constructions and structures such
as embankments, reservoirs, canals, etc which have builtin the river basin orcoastal areas (Browder et al., 2019). To adapt to SLR, the grey infrastructure can beapplied in the coastline including sea dikes, seawalls, groins, and other structure.
Trang 21In which, the sea dike is a rigid coastal barrier that has been establishedalong the open coast and is widely applied in the Netherlands, East Asia, and part ofNorth America. On the open coast, sea dike is always the first choice to protect thisarea. The material of the sea dike can be artificial or natural materials consisting ofearth In addition, some countries had made use of it for multifunction TakeNetherlands as an example, the sea dike also as a road or highway.
Moreover, grey infrastructure has played a major role in protecting andminimizing the impact of floods. Nevertheless, its weaknesses are shown whenimplementing climate change reduction goals and achieving sustainabledevelopment. The development of grey infrastructure is easy to ignore and harmnatural ecosystems, especially having negative impacts on the area's habitat,increasing the risk of erosion and changes during sediment deposition in coastalareas (Cheong et al., 2013). They are also not flexible to adapt to the rapid change
of climate and natural conditions. The frequency and intensity of extreme weatherevents have been forecasted to increase lead to the higher requirement onconstruction standards of grey infrastructure which can increase construction andmaintenance costs Some developing countries cannot afford to apply greyinfrastructure and retreat from the low elevation coastal zone to the higher area isthe only solution (McGranahan et al., 2007)
This issue presents a challenge that needs to be addressed and proposed amore suitable solution to replace the grey infrastructure to adapt to SLR.
Green infrastructure can be regarded as “living shoreline” the application ofthe plants, reefs, sand or natural barriers to reduce the erosion and flooding
Although only recently appearing, green infrastructure is said to not onlybring benefits to coastal areas protection but also have positive impacts on theenvironment and ecosystems as well as the development of economy and benefits tothe economy and society in coastal areas It is built on a foundation that green
Trang 22to the impacts of rising sea levels including Vietnam (SEI, 2008) Alverson (2012)summarized the benefits of mangrove in protecting coastal areas under the impact
of SLR and extreme weather events such as tsunamis, storm surges. In addition tocoastal protection, mangrove provides other economic resources such as timber,food and medicinal materials (Alongi, D., 2002; Gilman et al., 2008) In particular,
it is assessed as important in conserving biodiversity and increasing the supply ofaquatic resources as well as aquaculture. Furthermore, in some case, the mangroveforest reduces the cost of the hard structure in the undeveloped coastline. The mostimportant is mangrove forest can raise the forest floor to cope with the increase insea level (Krauss et al., 2014) Menéndez et al., (2020) point out the benefits ofgrowing mangrove to protect coastal areas from the effects of SLR on a globalscale. The results also show that Vietnam is one of the countries that benefit mostfrom the mangroves such as flood mitigation from SLRs. In order to perform wellthe protection functions, mangrove forest depends on environmental factors such assediment, mangrove forest type and regional topography (Beck et al., 2018).
However, mangrove also face damages from SLR Gilman et al.(2008)asserted that SLR can be a threat to coastal mangrove systems because sea levelmay rise above the average elevation of the mangrove surface (Godoy & Lacerda,2015) illustrated that coastal delta areas with low terrain have exposed to the effects
of SLR and tend to landward, particularly in some lowlying area as Pacific and theCaribbean oceanic islands and some constrained coastlines In recent year, the rapidSLR is destroying the mangrove system (Ellison & Zouh, 2012; Albert et al., 2017)and is also slowing down the growth of the mangrove forest (Krauss et al., 2014) Inthis context, one of the limitations of the green infrastructure is cannot be widelyapplied and need to be carefully considered
Trang 23of mixing grey and green infrastructure, which applied a combination of sea dikesand mangrove to adapt to rising sea levels in Vietnam. In particular, mangrove isused as the first protection system to defend the land from erosion and storm surges
On the other hand, Tamura et al. (2018) propose to use mangrove as sea dikes andcombined with the concrete dikes to apply to the coastal areas of Vietnam.Preliminary results show that this solution can be more beneficial than the cost ofthe system and be more effective than the application of traditional concrete seadike system. Browder et al. (2019) defined that green infrastructure is the strategy
to preserve, restore and enhance elements of the natural system to perform itsfunctions and combine with grey infrastructure to get more benefits and reduce thecosts
1.7.4. Model assess the SLR impact and adaptation effectiveness
Since 1991, IPCC has suggested Common Methodology to assess thevulnerability of coastal area to SLR (IPCC CZMS, 1992). This method has beenwidely applied to assess the vulnerability to SLR in global and national scale (Klein
& Nicholls, 1999; Hoozemans et al, 1993; Basee, 1995). Seven indicators werechosen to assess the impact of SLR including:
Trang 24- The people directly affected by SLR due to the adaptation solutionaccompted in the previous indicator.
Common Methodology is an effective method that support to increase theknowledge about the climate change and SLR impact. However, it also has beenfound the limitation such as do not focus on the change of socioeconomic response
to SLR or mainly concentrate on economic factor. To fix these issues, it has beenimproved and represented in Technical Guidelines for Assessing Climate ChangeImpacts and Adaptations in 1994
One of the most common applied models for analysing the impact of SLRand adaptive solutions is the Dynamic and Interactive Vulnerability Assessment
number of European research institutes and can be applied from the international toglobal scale. The main function of the model give assistance to assess the economicdamage of SLR and the effectiveness of solutions such as upgrading of dikes ornourishing beaches for coastal areas. Up to now, several studies found that theexpected damage by SLR is greater than the adaptation cost Hinkel et al.,(2010,and subsequently) has applied it to calculate sea level damage as well as adaptation
al., (2016) also estimated the economic damage cost by SLR will reach 2.8% ($27trillion) of global GDP in 2100 and in upperincome countries the cost of damagewill be up to 8% with the contributed from China and more expensive than highincome countries.
Another model applied to calculate SLR and adaptation effective is CoastalImpact and Adaptation Model (CIAM) has been applied for analysis on local scaleprovides a more specific result of local impact and direct cost. (Barnard et al., 2019;Tamura et al., 2019) also set up a model to assess the economic loss by SLR in theglobal and regional scale These studies have argued that the costs of set upadaptation solution are less expensive than the damage caused by SLR
Trang 25MRD is at the end of Mekong basin, it has total area about 4,058,046 haincluding 13 provinces and cities: Long An, Tien Giang, Vinh Long, Ben Tre, BacLieu, Ca Mau, Dong Thap, Tra Vinh, Can Tho, Hau Giang, Soc Trang, An Giang,and Kien Giang. The population density in 2019 is 423 people/km2, higher than theaverage population density in nationwide. The MRD plays an important role insocioeconomic development and ensure for food security for the whole country.MRD contributed 53% of rice productivity, 65% of aquaculture productivities,75% of fruit productivities and more than 90% export rice productivities in the totalagriculture value.
MRD is a flat delta with the average height is 0.7 to 1.2m except for somearea in An Giang province. The terrain change from the Cambodia border from 2.0– 4.0 meters to 1.0 – 1.5 meters in the centre of the delta and in the coastal area, theterrain mainly from 0.3 – 0.7 meters. With low elevations, the impact of SLR in thisarea becomes more serious. (Syvitski, J. et al., 2009) shown that the Mekong riverdelta is vulnerability to the sea level rise while almost of the surface area is belowthe mean sea level.
The main livelihood in this area is agriculture, especially rice production.This activity is highly dependent on natural conditions and has some appropriateadjustments to adapt with different natural condition in each province. The mainproduction models are two crops of winterspring and summerautumn rice,producing three rice crops in areas with favourable conditions. In coastal areas,there is a model of ricegrowing combined with shrimp farming. The coastal areahas a system of dikes and sluices to prevent saline intrusion to control salineintrusion in the dry season.
1.7.6. SLR impact in MRD
The Mekong Delta is facing the effects of rising sea levels. However, underthe influence of climate change, these impacts occur faster and cause more damage
Trang 26Due to the natural conditions of swung flat plain with low average elevation,Mekong Delta faces a high risk of flooding under the impact of SLR. At present, theMekong Delta is under the influence of high tide, under the impact of the high tide,the outer area of the dike covers the provinces of An Giang, Kien Giang, HauGiang, Dong Thap, Long An, Tien Giang, Vinh Long, Can Tho could be flooded.This area including more than 70,000 hectares of fruit trees and rural road systemsare usually flooded from 10 to 30cm. During the flood season, the flooded areawidens even more, causing great losses to agricultural production and infrastructure.Moreover, under the SLR scenario of MONRE (2016), with 1 meter SLR, by 2100,nearly 50% of the Mekong Delta area will be below sea level, the severely affectedprovinces of Ca Mau and Kien Giang , Soc Trang, Ben Tre.
CarewReid, (2008) has quantified the damage of rising sea levels toVietnam in 21st century including geographic priorities, population affected,poverty, roads, industry, settlements, forests, water bodies, protected areas. He alsofound that the MRD is one of the most impacted economic regions which to 2100,12,376 square kilometres in the MRD will be inundated, affecting 30% of thepopulation. Especially nearly 1.5 million poverty people in this area also impacted
by SLR. Infrastructure including roads (Soc Trang, Kien Giang, Bac Lieu, and TraVinh) and industrial infrastructure (Long An) will be seriously affected. In addition,
it also affects 73.1% of all inundated settlement in MRD region and forest,protected areas and water bodies.
geographical conditions, land use and future socioeconomic development scenarios
of the region. Finally, it is highly recommended that policymakers should focus tofinding adaptation solution for coastal area, especially in MRD
Trang 27 Erosion
The coastline of the Mekong Delta fluctuates sharply under the effects ofcurrents and waves There is an alternation between erosion and accretion buterosion is predominant compared to natural accretion (Besset et al., 2019). Theerosion speed is very fast in coastal areas. The Mekong delta lost part of one and ahalf football fields every day between 2007 and 2012 (Anthony et al., 2015). Someareas are strongly affected by erosion such as the east coast of Ca Mau province,Bac Lieu city, Vinh Chau (Soc Trang) and some points in Kien Giang, Tra Vinh,Ben Tre, Tien Giang Erosion causes serious damage to coastal provinces andaffects the function and longevity of protection structures against the effects ofocean waves. For example, Ca Mau lost nearly 9000 hectares of coastal protectionforest from 2007 to 2019, and the sea dike in the west side must be reinforced everyyear before the rainy season. According to MONRE, it needs VND 1800 billion tohandle 13 serious landslides in coastal areas of the Mekong Delta. The Vietnamgovernment also invested VND 3,000 billion in 2 years from 2019 to 2020 tosupport the settlement of landslides in the region
Saline intrusion has occurred at a fast pace in recent years especially in thedry season In 2009, saline intrusion 70km deep inland through six estuariesaffected fifty three communes of the provinces in the region, causing freshwatershortage and affecting the economic activities of the people. By 2016, the salineintrusion is considered a historical one when saline intrusion has more than 100kminland, causing serious damage to agricultural production: there is 340,000 ha ineight coastal provinces in MRD has been affected when the total damage toagricultural production reaches VND 244 billion, and more than 400,000households will be affected due to the lack of fresh water. By the dry season of20192020, the saline intrusion is more serious than 2016 when at the beginning of
2020, five provinces in this area had to declare a state of emergency because of
Trang 28natural disasters when saline intrusion caused huge damage for agriculturalproduction and lack of domestic water for more than 96,000 households.
Another possible impact is the unusual change of the storm. In the past, veryfew typhoons affected the Mekong Delta region However, starting in 1997,typhoon Linda passed the area and by 2006, typhoon Durion caused severe damage
to the area due to the lack of storm adaptation measures. Under the impact of SLR,storm damage in the Mekong Delta will be even greater and more severe.
1.7.7. Adaptation strategies in MRD
The coast of the Mekong Delta extends through seven coastal provinces with
a total length is more than 1000 km including the river mouth. Since 2009, theVietnam government is focused on protect the coastal area with the Decision no.667/QDTTg to take the adaptation solution and divided into 3 periods: 20092012,20132016 and 20172020 with main objective is to build sea dikes systems fromthe central to the south cooperated with a sluice system. At the present, a nearlycomplete sea dikes system has been built mainly and reinforced with solutions such
as embankments and breakwaters However, as the recommended by CPMD(Coastal Protection MRD) the system needs to be strengthened and upgraded about539km out of 720km of coastline to accommodate the impacts of rising sea leveland other extreme weather events. There are a number of areas where concretedikes have been built but they are small scale accounting for a negligiblepercentage
Constructed with the main objective of preventing salinity, protectingresidential areas, activities of agricultural production and aquaculture inside thedike. The sea dike in the Mekong Delta is mainly earth dike. Dike height is differentdue to low technical standards and it does not cover the entire coastline. Some areasare built spontaneously as in the east coast of Ca Mau province. Despite the annualbudget for construction and repair, the existing dike system still fails to ensure itsfunction. There are areas prone to landslides, which must be reinforced with the
Trang 29Trang; Go Cong, Tien Giang; or the sea dike in the west of Ca Mau are subsidenceand being flooded by tidal peaks Although there were plans to renovate, rebuildand improve in 2009, but the project has not been completed and slow progress sofar. It will increase the risk of the impact of SLR on the Mekong Delta in the nearfuture.
The Mekong Delta has nearly 66,000 hectares of mangrove but is unevenlydistributed and is affected by both natural factors such as SLR and economicactivities. Some areas such as Ba Tri, Thanh Phu, Thoi Thuan (Ben Tre), Bac Lieuhave developed mangrove; some areas have been seriously reduced for instanceKien Giang, Ca Mau, some areas of Soc Trang and Tra Vinh provinces
In general, the protecting system of MRD are currently uneven, there is notechnical standard applied to the whole region. In addition, these constructions arefacing with the risk of losing protection function due to the impact of SLR andhuman activities
The current sea dike construction plan of the MRD is mainly to upgrade theexisting earth dike system in combination with wave shielding, tidal sluice gatesand fading mangrove to minimize the direct effects of waves on earth dikes.Regarding earth dikes, the goal of the project is to upgrade earth dikes to 34 meterheight the east coast 22.5 meter height for the west side area. In addition, someareas have to add protection construction such as Ttorch, revetment and outerbreakwaters. Regarding mangrove, the minimum width required for the mangrovebelt is 500m with the goal of minimizing the impact of waves on the dike foot
In 2017, to support the current adaptation, CPMD has been divided the MRDcoastline into seven protected areas, and preliminarily conducted CBA to assess theeffectiveness of different adaptation solutions The results indicated that thecombination of mangrove forest and earth dike have highly effective than other greyoptions.
Trang 30Overall, in all study reviewed here, it seems that the SLR studies have beenfocused in recent years due to the dramatical change of climate and average sealevel causing great damage in worldwide. However, because of the current focus,these previous studies still have some limitation as follows:
Firstly, in global scale, the previous studies only focus on estimating thedamage in global or regional scale or the area which high exposure on populationand economic such as urban area or island nations (Evers & Pathirana, 2018). Thereare several studies focus on coastal plains where main economic activity isagriculture, specifically for the Mekong river deltathe third largest delta in theworld. Although it has the lowest economic value, it significantly contributed toensure food security and to reduce the poverty.
Second, the majority of studies have been conducted without consideringfuture socioeconomic development scenarios both in global and regional scale.
Third, in Vietnam, there are limitation research and case studied to value theeconomic loss of real estate by SLR. Similarly, the application of CBA to calculatethe benefit of adaptation solution is mainly rough analysis based on raw data.
Finally, the current sea dike system is still greatly affected by SLR whenmangrove areas are damaged by the impact of ocean waves and cannot performtheir protective functions like in Vinh Chau Soc Trang. Although the technicalstandard of earth dikes is expected to be 50100 years, in fact, it is easily affected bysea waves, subsidence or erosion leads to the reduction of the protection function.Moreover, with the current project, the uneven elevation is also a question for theprotection function for the inner area. It is necessary to determine the reasonableheight of the sea dike to protect the whole area of the Mekong Delta. Therefore,should be confirm the overview standard for the system to apply in reality
Trang 31socioeconomic scenarios. In addition, this study also quantifies the efficiency ofusing mixing grey and green infrastructure to adapt to SLR for an optimaladaptation solution
CHAPTER 2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. The history of CBA and reasons for CBA
In the beginning, the CBA based on the ideas of Benjamin Franklin andJoseph Priestley in 1772. Dupuit (1844) developed a method of cost benefit analysisconsidered to be the first in the world (Dobes, 2008). Later, CBA was more widelyused in the early 19th century (Shabman, 1997). Until the early 20th century, CBAwas used in the US to analyse the impact of floods on the Mississippi River. Up to
1930, CBA was applied to the US Flood Control Act and then to the US ArmyCorps of Engineers In the Netherlands, CBA has been applied to benefitcostanalysis for the construction of a coastal protection dike system under the influence
of the Southern Sea (The Zuiderzee) since 1901 and subsequently widely used inthe infrastructure construction, water management. After that, it was developed andimproved for other areas such as education, labour market, or health care(Cabinet,2014) (Fritz and Zwaneveled, 2017). In Australia, studies using CBA were carriedout in the late 19th century with the main objective is calculating the cost ofbenefits for the nation's rail construction project even though the results were notconsidered as an official reference to government decisions (Cabinet, 2014). InFrance, the theory of CBA was recorded in the 19th century regarding infrastructureappraisal. And since the 1960s, the CBA has been recognized as an effective toolfor appraising public investment and public policy (Pearce et al., 2006)
Trang 32CBA is now widely used in developed and developing countries. The USgovernment mentioned that costbenefit analysis is a “guidance to heads ofexecutive agencies” which “all benefits and costs can be quantified and expressed inmonetary units, benefitcost analysis provides decision makers with a clearindication of the most efficient alternative, that is, the alternative that generates thelargest net benefits to society (ignoring distributional effects).” Although theeconomic benefit is not the only goal of some policies, CBA is still considered auseful tool to show its effectiveness with decisionmakers and the public whoreceived it. Therefore, CBA is widely used by the US government on environmentalissues and policy. In developing countries, under the recommendations of the WorldBank, CBA has applied to analyse the impact of different projects, especially inWorld Bank's environmental investment projects (Atkinson & Mourato, 2008).
The OECD (Pearce et al., 2006) has listed the benefits of CBA whencompared to other tools, specifically as follows:
Firstly, CBA provides a restructured model that not only helps to calculatebenefits and costs, it also helps address the beneficiary and nonbeneficiary toconsider decisionmaking
Second, CBA also analyses alternatives to achieve set goals
Third, CBA has the ability to help determine the maximum benefits of theproject. Thereby helping to choose the highest benefit option.
Fourth, with a full analysis, CBA can show the total cost and benefit for thevarious social aluminium profiles of both the beneficiaries and the project affected
Fifth, CBA shows the value of the project at different times when discounted
to the present. Because the value of future money will differ from the present valuedepending on market factors, CBA helps to consider the value of project benefitsand costs in the future when they are returned
Trang 33Sixth, CBA clearly shows the priority of the policy, it shows what thedecisionmaker wants.
From the perspective of environmental economists, the current CBA analysis
is still considered to be the most reliable solution and the most professionaleconomic tool to choose the right adaptation solution in the right situation.Uncertainty is overcome by project sensitivity analysis. In the climate economy,there is still a lot of controversy regarding the application of CBA as a decisionanalysis framework that helps provide advisory information to support decisionmaking. However, it is still widely applied in adaptive selection models such asDIVA, CosMos and CIAM due to its benefits when comparing with other methodssuch as CostEffective analysis.
Therefore, this research decided to choose CBA as the main method toanalyse the effectiveness of mixing grey and green infrastructure
2.2 Outline the methodology
Figure 2.1 outlines the overall of methodology. First, the SLR scenarios andthe socioeconomic scenarios was collected in the global scale and need todownscale to apply for MRD. The SLR damage without adaptation was calculated
by three components: the inundated area, the potential population affected and theeconomic damage. The SLR damage with the adaptation of mixing grey and greeninfrastructure was calculated by the inundated area, the potential populationaffected, the economic damage and the cost and benefit of mixing grey and greeninfrastructure. Finally, the effectiveness of mixing grey and green infrastructure wasassessed by CBA.
Trang 34Figure 2.1: Analytical framework of research2.3 Costbenefit analysis model
The CBA model is described in the figure 2.2. The damage of SLR in noadaptation scenarios by primary impact on dry land loss and potential populationaffected in the worst case was monetized by the different socioeconomic scenarios.The negative impact of adaptation scenarios was monetized with the different dikeheight scenarios to get the most effectiveness adaptation scenarios. Based on thisresults, the cost and the benefit of mixing grey and green infrastructure wasevaluated. Finally, the effectiveness of mixing grey and green infrastructure wasassessed by CBA. The effectiveness of other adaptation solution will do with thesame model
Trang 35Step 1: Define the scope of analysis
The first step determines the range of the research. The geographic scope andthe payback period should be identified. These factors may influence the results.This study measures the costs and benefits affecting the socioeconomic region of
will set up base on the option:
“A concrete dikes system with 4meter height is built in the areas withoutmangrove. The mangrove forest can grow in the possible area. The life span ofconcrete dikes is 100 years, the lifetime of mangrove forest is 50 years and thegrowth period of mangrove forests is 10 years before performing its protectionfunction.”
Step 2: Identify the potential impact of the cases
Trang 36SLR has the strong impact on the costal line and lowlying area such asMDR. The potential direct impact of mean SLR on this area were mentioned in thefifth assessment report of IPCC (2014), specifically:
Trang 37The economic damage is estimated directly by the objectbased approach(Karlsson and Larsson, 2014). In other words, the cost is estimated by multiplyingthe number of affected objects by the corresponding standard value. In particular,the economic damage of inundated area is calculated by multiplying the inundatedland by each land use and the corresponding land price set by the Vietnam’s centralgovernment The cost of adaptation option can be calculated as the economicdamage from dryland loss which applying the objectbased approach. The value ofthese factors will change over time. There is uncertainty regarding calculating thesefuture values. Therefore, the application of socioeconomic development scenarios
is an ability to analyse the sensitivity of the project.
Step 5: Discount to get the present value
To determine the final outcome of CBA, converting the costs and thebenefits in the future is an important and necessary step. The present value of costand benefit could be the sum of all costs and benefits, “present and future with eachyear’s cost and benefit discounted at the selected rate” (UNDP, 2018). The discountrate is important to get the final results especially in the environmental managementand climate change case and also raise the question of which discount rate value isappropriate for the project (Saez and Calatrava, 2006). The costs and benefits in thefuture may decline in high discount rate. In contrast, the results are greater in low
discount rates. The present value of cost and benefit of the project at time t with the discount rate r is calculated using the following formula:
Trang 38The final result of CBA is the difference between the costs and benefits ofthe project and can be expressed in three ways:
Net present value (NPV) is the difference between the present value ofbenefit and cost
NPV = PVB PVC
When NPV> 0 that is the benefit is larger than the cost and the project can beaccepted. In the case of multiple compared projects, the project in which the largestNPV will be selected
The benefitcost ratio (BCR) is the ratio of benefit to cost of the project. Aproject with a BCR greater than one is acceptable
The internal rate of return (IRR) is the value of the discount rate at which thenet present value of the project is zero or the present value of the benefit is equal tothe present value of the cost. If IRR is higher than the rate of return on alternativeinvestment, the project can be accepted
Step 7: Perform expected value and/or sensitivity analysis
Some variable factors of CBA can be uncertain than others. Applying asensitivity analysis can identify the level of the impact of factors to the final results
It might be useful to identify the important factors that can be further assessed to getmore precise results. This analysis provides more information when consideringproject options before proceeding. The basis of a sensitivity analysis is consideringimpacts of the change in the discount rate on the output of CBA.
Trang 39The selection of the discount rate has been instrumental in conducting costbenefit analysis. Both TBCS (2008) and ADB agree that the discount rate should bedetermined between 3 to 7 percent based on the project and its length. Zhuang et al.(2007) mentioned that developing countries should use the interest rate of 8% orhigher rate due to the risk and uncertainty of the projects in these countries. TheAustralian Government has proposed a discount rate from 3% to 10% of which 8%
is used to calculate on the longterm project to ensure profitability comparing withthe private project
In private sector, as the opportunities cost assessment, the rate of 3% and10% are used to calculate the sensitivity of the analysis. (Vo Thanh Danh, 2012) usethe rate of 3%, 6%, and 10% in their CBA; Coastal Protection for the Mekong delta(CPMD) uses the discount rate of 5%, 8%, and 10% to calculate the cost and benefitcorresponding to each adaptation option based on the different length of the project
As a result, this study will use the discount rates of 3%, 8% and 10% to calculatethe cost and benefit of the dikes system and the sensitivity analysis
2.4 Data
This study is based on secondary data including economic data andgeospatial data. These data are considered as accurate, based on official information
of Vietnam government and international organizations such as GIZ for the MRD.Table 2 presents elements and sources of the data
Based on the RCP8.5 of MICROC
Trang 40ESM
MRD land use
planning to 2020
Shapefile, polygon
Land use classes
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development;
National institute
of agricultural planning and projectionMRD
Administrative
map
Shape file, polygon
Administrativeareas class
GADM (World Wide Fund for Nature) version 1.0
Detail to province administrativ
e level in 2015Land price
bracket
government
Average land use price based on Decree 44/2014 / NDCP of Vietnam governmentPopulation
density
office of Vietnam
Population density in