U s public reactions to the first chinese immigration wave in california in the second half of the nineteen century

HANOI NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES ENGLISH DEPARTMENT GRADUATION PAPER U.S PUBLIC REACTIONS TO THE FIRST CHINESE IMMIGRATION WAV

HANOI NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

GRADUATION PAPER

U.S PUBLIC REACTIONS TO THE FIRST CHINESE IMMIGRATION WAVE IN CALIFORNIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE NINETEEN CENTURY

Supervisor: Pham Thi Thanh Thuy B, M.A

Student: Nguyen Thanh Thuy Course: QH2008.E11

HANOI – 2012

ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ KHOA SƯ PHẠM TIẾNG ANH

KHÓA LUẬN TỐT NGHIỆP

PHẢN ỨNG CỦA CÔNG CHÚNG MỸ VỚI LÀN SÓNG NGƯỜI TRUNG QUỐC NHẬP CƯ Ở CALIFORNIA

NỬA SAU THẾ KỶ XIX

Giáo viên hướng dẫn: Th.S Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy B

Sinh viên: Nguyễn Thanh Thủy Khóa: QH2008.E11

HÀ NỘI - NĂM 2012

ACCEPTANCE

I hereby state that I: Nguyen Thanh Thuy, QH08E11, being a candidate for the degree

of Bachelor of Arts accept the requirements of the College relating to the retention and use of Bachelor‟s Graduation Paper deposited in the library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper deposited in the library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the librarian for the care, loan or reproduction of the paper

Signature

May, 2012

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This paper would not have been completed if it hadn‟t been for the beneficial help of many people, to all of whom I am indebted

First and foremost, I owe an enormous debt of gratefulness to my supervisor

Ms Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy B for her constant support, guidance and insightful comments which were fundamental factors in the completion of the study

In addition, I would like to express my thankfulness to my parents, my friends, and my classmates for their continual encouragement during the time I conducted this research

Last but not least, I would like to show appreciation to my readers for their interest and criticism on the thesis

ABSTRACT

As a nation of immigrants admitting more than 50 newcomers since its early day, the United States has always been a subject of debates and discussions It comes down to the fact that different ethnic immigrant groups bring different language, religion and culture to the New World Therefore, the question that has constantly been addressed is the assimilation of immigrant groups into American mainstream society

Looking back at the U.S history with a massive influx of Chinese immigrants in

1850, the matter will somehow be delivered Like other immigrant groups, many poor Chinese under Manchu Rule decided to venture to the New World for wealth, land and freedom The favorite issue that attracts most attention from readers is question about U.S public reactions to this ethnic group, who had never got access to Western civilization As subsequently be presented in this paper, there are some dominant factors in U.S public reactions to Chinese in California: racial differences, job competition with the whites, economic depression in 1870, practice of opium smoking and prostitution After that, U.S public reactions to Chinese immigrants in California, the state that contained the largest Chinese population in U.S, will be revealed

Overall, the first Chinese wave of immigration has such influence on U.S society in general and California in particular Nevertheless, Chinese labor, to a certain extent, changed the appearance of the American West in the second half of the nineteenth century

TABLE OF CONTENT

Acknowledgement ……… i

Abstract ……… ii

List of pictures ……… iii

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION I.1 Statement of the Problem and the Rationale for the Study………1

I.2 Aims and Research Questions ……… 2

I.3 Methodology ……… 2

I.4 Scope of the Study ………3

I.5 Significance of the Research ……… 4

I.6 Organization ……… 4

CHAPTER II: UNDERLYING REASONS FOR THE FIRST CHINESE IMMIGRATION WAVE IN CALIFORNIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ……… 6

II.1 The first Chinese immigration wave to the United States (1850-1890) ………… 6

II.1.1 Origin ……… 6

II.1.2 Pattern of nineteenth-century Chinese immigration to the United States … 6 II.2 Underlying reasons for the immigration process ……… 8

II.3 Reasons for the first Chinese immigration to the United States ……… 9

II.3.1 Push factors ……… 9

II.3.1.1 Poverty ……… 9

II.3.1.2 Social disorder ……… 10

II.3.2 Pull factors……… 11

II.3.2.1 The California Gold Rush ……… 11

II.3.2.2 Job opportunities ………12

II.4 Reasons for the 1850 Chinese immigration to California……… 13

II.5 Description of California topographical and ethnological features ……… 14

II.6 Means: The downfall of the Qing Dynasty ……… 15

II.7 Conclusion ………16

CHAPTER III: FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO U.S PUBLIC REACTIONS TO THE FIRST CHINESE IMMIGRATION WAVE IN CALIFORNIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ……… 17

III.1 U.S public in California ……… 17

III.2 Contributing factors to U.S public reactions to Chinese ……… 18

III.2.1 Chinese outward appearance ……… 17

III.2.2 The establishment of Chinatowns ……… 19

III.2.3 Exhaustion of the Goldfields ……….20

III.2.4 Job Competition and Economic Depression of 1870 ……….21

III.2.5 Opium smoking Practice and Prostitution in Chinatowns ……… 22

III.2.5.1 Opium practice smoking ……….23

III.2.5.2 Prostitution in Chinatowns ……… 25

III.3 Conclusion ……… 28

CHAPTER IV: U.S PUBLIC REACTIONS TO THE FIRST CHINESE IMMIGRATION WAVE IN CALIFORNIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY ……… 29

IV.1 Calling for anti-Chinese legislation ……….29

IV.1.1 State legislation ……….30

IV.1.2 Federal legislation ……….32

IV.2 Rioting against Chinese ……… 34

IV.3 Conclusion ……… 35

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ………37

V.1 Major Findings and Contribution to the Research……….37

V.2 Limitations of the Research ……… 38

V.3 Suggestions for Further Studies ………38

REFERENCES ……… 40

LIST OF PICTURES

Picture 1 Chinese American family in the nineteenth century

Picture 2 Chinese gold miners in California

Picture 3 Underground opium den, 1880, in San Francisco‟s Chinatown

Picture 4 A Chinese bagnio in a red light district in San Francisco‟s

Chinatown, 1870

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

I.1 Statement of the Problem and the Rationale for the Study

From the history of making the nation, the United States of America is often known as a land of immigrants from all over the world Most ethnic groups are motivated to come to the New World for better life and economic opportunities Though immigration provides one of the most colorful chapters in American history, there have always been a number of problems that need to be dealt with Lewis Sitzer (2006) comments it is cultural differences and language barriers that have arouse hostilities between different ethnic groups Moreover, “the inability to quickly assimilate themselves into the mainstream society has often prevented immigrants from seizing economic opportunities”, says Lewis Sitzer (2006)

It comes down to the fact that the United States has the largest Chinese population outside Asia Moreover, Chinese Americans are also the oldest and largest Asian group in this country Nowadays, Chinese Americans are considered as productive members of U.S society thanks to their great success in science, technology, music, literature, the media and other areas However, despite their notable progress in gaining acceptance as Americans, Chinese Americans are still treated unfairly in government, education and the workplace In other words, the U.S general population still view Chinese Americans as “the other”, though attitudes towards this ethnic group have been improved remarkably

Throughout history, Chinese Americans also experienced more than 60 years of legal exclusion (Min Zhou, 2009) Judy Jung, Gordon H Chang and Him Mark Lai (2006) acknowledge racial discrimination and hostility were directed at Chinese almost from the start It can be seen that life in the host country did not live up to the expectation of many Chinese immigrants Min Zhou (1995) comments Anglo-Americans call them the “yellow peril”, the “Chinese menace” and the “indispensable

enemy” The writer also stresses Chinese hard work was not credited, despite their indelible contribution to the development of the West, especially California

Why Chinese encountered racial discrimination in U.S society has intrigued the

researcher to conduct the graduation paper on the topic “U.S public reactions to the

first Chinese immigration wave in California in the second half of the nineteenth century”

I.2 Aims and Research Questions

The first and foremost aim of this paper is to explore U.S public reactions to the first Chinese immigration wave in California in the second half of the nineteenth century In more specific terms, the paper focuses on three main points: (i) an explanation for the very first Chinese to immigrate to the United States in general and

to California in particular; (ii) an identification of factors contributing to U.S public reactions to Chinese immigrants in California in the second half of the nineteenth century; (iii) an exploration of U.S public reactions to Chinese immigrants in California at this time

The paper therefore will concentrate on investigating the three following questions:

1 Why did the Chinese generally immigrate to the United States in the second half

of the nineteenth century and why did they particularly choose California?

2 What factors contributed to U.S public reactions to Chinese immigrants in California in the second half of the nineteenth century?

3 What were U.S public reactions to Chinese immigrants in California in the second half of the nineteenth century?

I.3 Methodology

When the topic was initially taken into consideration, the stage of extensive reading took place Since this is a secondary research, the information in the paper is

principally gained through the internet, articles, researches, and books that are related

to American history in general and to the first Chinese immigration wave in particular After all the available materials were gathered, the next step was to analyze, compare and evaluate them to find out the answer for each research question

I.4 Scope of the Study

First, it comes down to the fact nowadays that China emerges as the world‟s second largest economy Craig K Elwell and Marc Labonte (2007) comment the raise

of China has been a matter of concern to many U.S citizens as China will probably overtake the United States to become the world‟s leading economy Jane Leung Larson (2009) reports about 45% of U.S public believe Chinese Americans are more loyal to their country of ancestry than to the United States Aware of the rapid growth of China, the researcher wants to study the relations between Chinese Americans and U.S general public

Second, conditions for research in Vietnam do not allow the researcher to conduct a survey on U.S public reactions at the present time; hence, reliable data cannot be collected Chinese immigration wave will be confined to the period from

1850 to 1890 because of the availability of its documents and books

Third, according to Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary Seventh Edition, reaction is defined as “what you do, say or think as a result of something that has happened” There are in fact many kinds of reactions For example, “American yesterday attacked a Chinaman, beating him shamefully” (as cited in Robert Asher,

2004, p 27) This one mentions personal reaction which varies from person to person

However, the legislation “California passed a Fishing tax on Chinese activities in fishing” does not refer to an individual‟s reaction, but reaction of a group of many people Californians called for legislation against Chinese activities in fishing Furthermore, it would be difficult to manage all personal reactions; hence, the

researcher decides to study public reaction, which means a group of people together

react to a particular situation by advocating, protesting, attacking, etc in order to protect their rights

Finally, the paper centers one state of the American West: California Min Zhou

(1995) acknowledges California was the state witnessing a massive influx of Chinese immigrants in the 1850s In fact, the number of Chinese in California increased from fifty-four in 1849 to 25,000 in 1852 (Randall E Rohe, 2003) Therefore, California is supposed to be the state that well illustrates western American‟s reactions to the Chinese

I.5 Significance of the Research

There has been little research done on U.S public reactions to the first Chinese immigration wave in California in the second half of the nineteenth century Once complete, this research would be helpful for many purposes First, the research can provide a deep insight into the life of Chinese immigrants in the period from 1850 to

1890 Second, it also becomes a consideration for any Chinese who wants to study in U.S They could imagine what challenges they might face in this country Last but not least, the research would serve as a valued reference for researchers who are interested

in studying U.S public reactions to Chinese Americans

I.6 Organization

The paper consists of five chapters as follows:

Chapter I: Introduction – describes the study‟s rationale, aims, research

questions, scope, methodology, and significance

Chapter II: Underlying reasons for the first Chinese immigration wave in the

second half of the nineteenth century – generally provides information about the

background of Chinese immigrants, and reasons for their early passage to the United States in general and to California in particular

Chapter III: Factors contributing to U.S reactions to the first Chinese

immigration wave in California– facilitates understanding about U.S reactions to

Chinese immigrants in this state

Chapter IV: U.S reactions to the first Chinese immigration wave in California Chapter V: Conclusion – ends the study by summarizing major points of the

paper and suggesting ideas for further studies

CHAPTER II: UNDERLYING REASONS FOR THE

FIRST CHINESE IMMIGRATION WAVE IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

II.1 The first Chinese immigration wave to the United States (1850-1890)

The scarcity of Chinese primary sources makes it difficult to know exactly when the Chinese first arrived in the American continent Despite some records of early arrivals in the eighteenth century, it was not until the 1850s that the Chinese began to

land in the United States in large numbers

II.1.1 Origin

Many writings on Chinese immigration view Guangdong Province as the roots

of most Chinese immigrants in the 1850s However, three subgroups of Chinese immigrants in the United States are mentioned:

Sanyi people came from three districts immediately south and west of the city of Guangzhou, in the Pearl River Delta; Siyi inhabitants hailed from four districts

to the southeast of Sanyi; and Xiangshan natives originated from a district between Guangzhou and the Portuguese colony of Macau, some 40 miles west

of Xianggang (Hong Kong) (Jonathan H X Lee, 2011, p 289)

As a result, Jonathan H X Lee seems to be more specific about the origin of the first Chinese immigration wave: it was the Pearl River Delta – the areas south of Guangdong Province – that most of them came from

II.1.2 Pattern of nineteenth-century Chinese immigration to the United States

It is noticeable that the 1850 Chinese immigrants were almost entirely male who had to leave their wives and families in search of opportunities in the New World (Judy Yung et al., 2006) In Chinese society at that time, women were expected to stay at home and take care of the husband‟s family Because of family ties, from the

beginning, most of the Chinese immigrants did not intend to live permanently in the United States A group of American scholars, including Kathleen R Arnold (2011), address Chinese men as “sojourners”, who wanted to “earn quick cash” and had no desire to settle down in America The typical Chinese traveler to California was regarded as:

a young adult male who retained a base in subsistence agriculture where his family lived in a peasant village He was a family representative, sent to work in the capitalist economy for a limited period of time in order to supplement the family‟s declining subsistence base At the same time, it was hoped that his savings would enable the family to reestablish itself, perhaps by paying off debts or repurchasing lost land, at which time he would return Thus the emigrant was not a permanent settler in the capitalist sector He was a sojourner, much like the person who worked for part of the year on a plantation within the colonized society and went home at harvest time (John Soennichsen, 2011, pp 8-9)

However, it is inappropriate to say the sojourner pattern of migration was unique to the Chinese in the nineteenth century Haiming Liu (2002) argues that between 1850 and 1882 the “return rate of the Chinese” was 47%, which was lower than that of English immigrant group (55%) and Italian immigrant group (50%) “This phenomenon, known as return migration, also characterized turn-of-the-century European immigration to the New World.” (Tong, 2000, as cited in Ronald H Bayor, 2011)

Furthermore, many of these Chinese immigrants eventually made California their home However, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 made it difficult for Chinese men to “bring their families to join them in America” (Judy Jung et al., 2006) Roger Daniel (1988) indicates it was “the extremely unbalanced sex ratio” that differentiated the Chinese from other immigrant groups It comes down to the fact that not many Chinese women lived in the American West during the late nineteenth century In

1880, there were more than 70,000 Chinese men in California, compared to fewer than 4,000 women (Roger Daniels, 1988, p 16)

Therefore, the viewpoint of Judy Yung, Gordon H Chang and Him Mark (2006) will be much more suitable: “The absence of women set the patterns of nineteenth-century Chinese immigration and community development apart from those of most other immigrant groups, resulting in a bachelor society …”

In their book Chinese American Voices: from the gold rush to the present

(2006), three folk songs are introduced to show the sadness of separation and the women‟s longing for eventual reunion Below is a typical one

In the second reign year of Haamfung, a trip to Gold Mountain was made

With a pillow on my shoulder, I began my perilous journey

Sailing a boat with bamboo poles across the seas,

Leaving behind wife and sisters in search of money,

No longer lingering with the woman in the bedroom,

No longer paying respect to parents at home

(Marlon K Hom, 1987, as cited in Judy Jung et al., 2006)

II.2 Underlying reasons for the immigration process

In human history, people emigrate for a number of reasons These reasons are usually classified into two categories by some American and Chinese American scholars: “pull factors” and “push factors” According to Robert Asher (2004), “pull factors” refer to “positive conditions in the new country that pull people to the new land.” With regard to “push factors”, they are “negative conditions in the native land that push people to leave.” (Robert Asher, 2004)

Nevertheless, in the book Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United

States since 1850 by Roger Daniels (1988), another term is introduced, which is

“means” According to Roger Daniels (1988, p 9), “means refer to those conditions

under which the actual migration is accomplished.” Like other ethnic groups, Chinese immigrants arrived in the United States for a number of “pull factors” and “push factors” However, the question that needs to be addressed here is: Was it possible for Cantonese people to travel abroad when it comes down to the fact that any emigrating Chinese could be sentenced to death? “Emigrants who left home and “deserted family”

graves to seek profit were condemned as rebels, traitors, and human trash”, says Min Zhou (1995, p 20) As a result, the researcher finds it necessary to discuss the term

“means” in this chapter

II.3 Reasons for the first Chinese immigration to the United States

There are different schools of thought about why Chinese migrated to the United States in the mid-nineteenth century This paper only discusses dominant factors that are mentioned by most American and Chinese American scholars

II.3.1 Push factors

II.3.1.1 Poverty

In order to understand why poverty is regarded as the major push factor in the early Chinese passage, one must initially look at the life of Cantonese people in the mid-nineteenth century

Under the Manchu Rule, the life of Cantonese people deteriorated Defeated by Britain in the Opium War, the Qing Dynasty was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanjing,

in which they had to pay “large indemnities” to the Western powers This

“humiliating” treaty caused Cantonese people to be taxed eighteen times higher than usual Small land-owning peasants, who were unable to pay their taxes, lost their land (Xiao-huang Yin, 2000) According to Jonathan H X Lee (2011), peasant farmers who had no ownership of land might be facing long-term unemployment as the local economy was dislocated due to the competition from foreign goods In fact, foreign goods flooded into the country, which soon reduced the demand for domestic goods such as pre-modern Chinese handicrafts That Macao and Hong Kong were ceded by China to Britain fostered competition with Chinese coastal ports Like peasant farmers, the “urban proletariat” in Guangdong also became unemployed as a result of foreign competition Xiao-huang Yin (2000, p 13) elaborates it was “Western merchandise” that caused “massive bankruptcy for domestic industries.” Cantonese people were

“reduced into destitution” (Xiao-huang Yin, 2000, p 13) Moreover, the problem of poverty in Taishan and Kaiping (two counties of the Siyi) was deepened because of the serious drought in 1853 and flood in 1854

In Birgit Zinzius‟s Chinese America: Stereotype and Reality – History, Present

and Future of the Chinese Americans (2005), it is reported that approximately 70% of

Chinese immigrants came from the Siyi, which was “a very poor region with some agriculture and only a little fishing.” Therefore, she concludes that it was their desperation that drove many poor Chinese to embark on ships heading for California

The book Chinese immigrants by Robert Asher (2004, p 22) tells about a 14-year-old

boy named Huie Kin who decided to leave his home in 1865:

Once a cousin returned from Gum Shan, the “Gold Mountain,” and told us strange tales of men becoming tremendously rich overnight by finding gold in river beds We knew what poverty meant To toil and sweat year in and year out, as our parents did, and to get nowhere; to be sick without a doctor‟s care; going without shoes, even in cold winter days; without books or time to learn to read them – that was the common tale of rural life, as I knew it (Robert Asher,

2004, p 22)

Rural life of Cantonese peasant farmers is described vividly as “extremely poor” and “desperate” Birgit Zinzius (2005) and Ronald Asher (2004) are reasonable to credit poverty with drawing many Chinese men to the United States Their poverty was

a result of heavy taxation, loss of land, natural disasters, free trade and foreign competition

II.3.1.2 Social disorder

It comes down to the fact that the second subgroup of Chinese immigrants came from the Sanyi, which was “a very abundant plain” and “an agriculturally rich area with strong trade” (Birgit Zinzius, 2005) It can be seen that poverty does not always explain the dynamics of early Chinese passage According to Min Zhou (1995), the fact

of social disorder in China also accounted for the massive influx of Cantonese immigrants to the New World

By the early 1850s, the desperation of many poor Chinese peasants finally boiled over into organized rebellions against the Manchu The Taiping rebellion (1851-1864) was the largest one that enormously contributed to social disorder in the Pearl River Delta area “By 1852, the rebellion, which started upriver in the neighboring province of Guangxi, had swept down along the Pearl River to Guangdong and left heavy destruction in its wake” (Xiao-huang Yin, 2000, p 13) Manchu soldiers battled the rebellious peasants and the Pearl River Delta area was plunged into civil war Cantonese people could not lead a peaceful life as the rebellion “devastated land” and,

to a certain extent, “dislocated the economy and polity” (Xiao-huang Yin, 2000)

“Social stability and economic order in the Pearl River Delta area after the Opium War were constantly disturbed by peasant uprisings that drove people into deeper misery and suffering” (Min Zhou, 1995) In addition, in constant fear of peasants joining the rebellion, the Qing Dynasty ordered the execution of any supporters of the rebels The fact remains that the rebellion caused deaths and suffering for Chinese people, especially those living in the Pearl River Delta area where fierce battles took place It is supposed the uprooting of many Cantonese people was by necessity rather than by choice Xiao-huang Yin (2000) wants to imply that a decision on immigration was “a struggle to survive.” This helps explain the second subgroup of Chinese immigrants who came from richer counties

II.3.2 Pull factors

II.3.2.1 The California Gold Rush

Of many pull factors, the California Gold Rush is considered the main one that motivated many Chinese people to the New World

Rhonda Tintle (2004) notes the Pearl River Delta was the first to be in early contact with American merchants As a result, the discovery of gold at Sutter‟s Mill in

1848 soon reached the inhabitants of these areas Judy et al (2006) share the same view it was their coastal location and intensive contact with foreign traders that enabled

Cantonese people to get news of the Gold Rush in California The tales of gold streets

in San Francisco or overblown stories of two California gold miners striking it rich in seven days broadened the minds of the Cantonese about the world and about a Gold

Mountain (also known as gum shan) outside China

Meanwhile, the recruitment of laborers to work in the gold mines in California kept many Cantonese‟s dream of easily collecting riches alive “The idea of seeking gold abroad gradually spread in areas where labor was first contracted out of the country” (Min Zhou, 1995) In addition, Birgit Zinzius (2005) tells “shortly thereafter, the first Chinese returned with visual proof of quick success” This provided bigger lures for many Chinese to seek their fortune in the United States Min Zhou (1995) tells about an eighty-year-old immigrant named Lee who recalled:

I was originally from Punyu [now Panyu County in Guangdong] I still remember the first time I saw my grandpa – a bony little old man He had gone

to gum shan before I was ever born Grandpa had been away from home for almost twenty years, and he came back really like a gum shan haak He bought a big buffalo and a brand-new plow set, and he also brought with him some queer-looking clothing and a lot of candies and crackers that I had never seen He built

a new tomb for the great-grandparents and rebuilt our shabby, rundown home For a while, everybody in the village respected him, admired him, flattered him and treated him as some sort of god People started to believe that there was a real gum shan across the ocean Only then did I start to dream about going to dig gum shan and make a lot of money to bring home after I grew up Afterward quite a few people in the village started to leave home to dig gum shan (Min Zhou, 1995, p 22)

Gum shan haak is known as “guests of the Gold Mountain” whose return with

wealth and glory encouraged more Chinese men to ship out to the New World It can

be seen that the California Gold Rush is often credited with attracting Chinese sojourners

II.3.2.2 Job opportunities

Heading for California to seek gold, few Chinese immigrant men found fortune Many, however, arrived to work in railroad construction, in factories, in restaurants, in

laundries and in people‟s home In fact, the Chinese chose to work for low wages in railroad construction though they “were often victims of snow slides and avalanches.” (Judy et al., 2006) Does the California Gold Rush always explain Chinese passage in the mid-nineteenth century? Could the Chinese predict what would happen to them if they did not find fortune? Judy et al (2006) indicate that Chinese men left their homeland for California because of job opportunities the State could provide

According to Rhonda Tintle (2004), it was labor contractors or Chinese subsidiaries that provided labor force to work in California In other words, many Chinese men were drawn to America “in the form of labor” for the purpose of

“Western expansion.” Xiao-huang Yin (2000, p 14) adds that the wealth in American was often “exaggerated” by many labor brokers:

“Americans are very rich people They want the Chinaman to come and make him very welcome There you will have great pay, large houses and food and clothing of the finest description You can write to your friends or send them money at any time and we will be responsible for the safe delivery It is a nice country, without Mandarins or soldiers All alike; big man no larger than little man There are a great many Chinamen there now, and it will not be a strange country… Come to Hong Kong, or to the Sign of this house in Canton, and we will instruct you (Xiao-huang Yin, 2000, p 14)

Poor and unemployed Cantonese people were easily lured to the American West

by such overblown stories “The lure that one day‟s pay in America is worth a month‟s hard work at home is strong enough to pull people out of their homeland …” (Min Zhou, 1995, p 20) When there were few employment prospects in their homeland, Chinese men chose to arrive in the New World, which would offer more job opportunities and arable land

II.4 Reasons for the 1850 Chinese immigration to California

Randall E Rohe (2003) comments that internal turmoil and economic instability are reasons for Chinese passage to California He says, “Internal turmoil and economic instability in China provided the push, gold in California, the pull In other words, the

dream of escaping from poverty inspired many Chinese to reach the goldfields in California In fact, the largest Chinese immigration of 1852-1854 “coincided with a mass entry into mining” (Randall E Rohe, 2003) Within two years of their massive influx, the presence of Chinese was overwhelming in every mining area in California The statistic shows that as early as 1855, there were 20,000 Chinese miners in this state By the end of the 1850s, Chinese accounted for one-third of Californian miners

(Randall E Rohe, 2003) The Sacremento Daily Union (1857) reported 75% of the

Chinese in California were recruited in mining (as cited in Randall E Rohe, 2003) It is also estimated that in 1860, there were 24,282 Chinese miners out of a total Chinese population of 34,935, followed by 80% to 85% of their population working in the goldfields in 1861 (as cited in Arif Dirlik, 2003) Though few Chinese found fortune, their dream of striking it rich was kept in their mind The fact remains that many of the Chinese worked in gold mines abandoned by the whites (Robert Asher, 2005) It is acknowledged that the California Gold Rush was the major factor, pushing many poor Chinese to California

II.5 Description of California topographical and ethnological features

California, located on the West Coast of the United States, lies south of Oregon, north of Mexico, and west of Nevada and Arizona When James W Marshall found gold on John Sutter‟s Mill, California was still part of Mexico However, by 1848, defeated in the Mexican-American war, Mexico had to cede the land known as California to the U.S government

The story of gold discovery in Sutter‟s Mill soon inspired many gold-hungry Americans to arrive in California By midsummer in 1848, there were about 4,000 gold seekers in this state, followed by 8,000 to 10,000 at the end of that year (John Soennichsen, 2011) Furthermore, in 1849, 85,000 people sought gold in California, one-quarter of whom came from other countries in the world (John Soennichsen, 2011) He comments, the reason, to a certain extent, was the presence of thousands of

ships arriving and departing to and from San Francisco Bay The news of gold strikes reached the captains, crew and passengers on these ships, quickly spreading to foreign ports around the world As a result, people in these foreign ports, who hoped to earn a fortune, decided to seek gold in California It can be seen that U.S gold seekers, together with those from other countries, led to the dense population of California in the mid-nineteenth century Besides a group of Hispanic people already living there, California in the 1850s witnessed a massive influx of Euro-Americans from Boston, New York, and Washington D.C (John Soennichsen, 2011) Furthermore, Asians (Chinese and Japanese), Mexicans, southeastern Europeans also set foot on this state

Talking about how people reached California, John Soennichsen (2011) stresses

on two ways: by land and by sea For those from East Coast, they could either travel by ship around the coast of South America or by land, crossing the wilderness between Atlantic and Pacific Oceans It is estimated that by 1852, there were about 67,000 people of different ethnic groups traveling to California (John Soennichsen, 2011)

II.6 Means: the downfall of the Qing Dynasty

The fact remains that Chinese people could be punished with the death penalty for their emigration under the Manchu law

All officers of government, soldiers, and private citizens, who clandestinely proceed to sea to trade, or who remove to foreign islands for the purpose of inhabiting and cultivating the same, shall be punished according to the law against communicating with rebels and enemies, and consequently suffer death

by being beheaded (Xiao-huang Yin, 2000, p 14)

Jonathan H X Lee (2011) acknowledges it was their poverty that drove many Chinese to emigrate regardless of the Qing law His argument poses a question about the power of the Qing dynasty after the Opium War

Over millennia, the stability of Chinese social structures was maintained by the Confucian system Key Melchisedech Olson (2002, p 8) used the image of a pyramid

to show the structure of Chinese society:

Confucius taught that the Chinese nation was like a pyramid He said that the emperor sat at the peak of the pyramid and the peasants make up the base The peasants were expected to obey the landowners in the villages The landowners were expected to obey the officials who enforced the laws The officials were expected to obey the emperor (Key Melchisedech Olson, 2002, p 8)

It is noticeable that any disorder and disagreement among different classes were not tolerated as it might cause the pyramid to “crumble” Therefore, the researcher

supposes the downfall of the Qing throne was the “means” that accomplished the actual

emigration “… the Taiping rebellion demolished the Qing regime‟s control of South China and Western countries obtained exterritorial privileges in treaty ports along the coast …” (Xiao-huang Yin, 1995, p.14) The establishment of many Western companies in Guangdong in search of young men to work abroad showed “the Manchu court was powerless to stop the emigration” (Xiao-huang Yin, 1995) It can be seen that the downfall of the Manchu resulted from civil war and Western invasion

II.7 Conclusion

In the mid-nineteenth century, Cantonese people were facing two overlapping problems of poverty and social disorder under the Qing dynasty At the same time, stories of the California Gold Rush and job opportunities provided by Western expansion, offered the Chinese an escape from their troubled land However, the reason for early Chinese passage to California mainly lies in stories of gold strikes in this state In addition, if it hadn‟t been for the downfall of the Qing dynasty, there would not have been such a massive influx of Chinese immigrants to the United States as well

as California in the 1850s