Translators’ choices and approaches in handling cultural differences and the influences of globalization

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION GRADUATION PAPER TRANSLATORS’ CHOICES AND APPROACHES

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL

STUDIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

GRADUATION PAPER

TRANSLATORS’ CHOICES AND APPROACHES

IN HANDLING CULTURAL DIFFERENCES AND THE INFLUENCES OF GLOBALIZATION

Supervisor: Nguyễn Ngọc Ninh, M.A Student: Trần Phương Thảo

Course: QH2012.F1.E15

HÀ NỘI – 2016

ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ KHOA SƯ PHẠM TIẾNG ANH

KHÓA LUẬN TỐT NGHIỆP

LỰA CHỌN CỦA DỊCH GIẢ TRONG VIỆC XỬ LÝ CÁC KHÁC BIỆT VĂN HÓA VÀ ẢNH HƯỞNG

CỦA QUÁ TRÌNH TOÀN CẦU HÓA

Giáo viên hướng dẫn: Th.S Nguyễn Ngọc Ninh

Sinh viên: Trần Phương Thảo Khóa: QH2012.F1.E15

HÀ NỘI – 2016

ACCEPTANCE

I hereby state that I: Trần Phương Thảo, class QH2012.F1.E15, being a candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Arts (TEFL) accept the

requirements of the College relating to the retention and use of Bachelor’s

Graduation Paper deposited in the library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper deposited

in the library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research,

in accordance with the normal conditions established by the librarian for

the care, loan or reproduction of the paper

Hanoi, May 2016

Trần Phương Thảo

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my teacher and supervisor Nguyen Ngoc Ninh, M.A., for her invaluable advice and encouragement throughout the course of the research This research would not have been possible without her guidance

My special thanks go to my dear friends Nguyen Phuong Thao, Ha Thi Thuy Dung, Le Thi Minh Phuong, Phan Thi Thanh Ha and Nguyen Trong Nhan for their assistance in data collection, suggestions for the research process, and most importantly, their unfailing mental support

I would also like to express my sincere appreciation towards all translators who participated in the research for their cooperation, important input and helpful comments

Last but not least, special thanks to my family and friends, particularly

my classmates in 12E15, who have remained my trusted source of support through difficult times

ABSTRACT

In a world characterized by advancing globalization, translation‟s role as

a medium for intercultural communication and promotion of ideas is gaining in significance Translation in the globalizing context has been found to constantly introduce elements from other cultures and languages into target cultures In Vietnam, although cultural issues in translation have received a great deal of attention, studies have been mostly focused on specific cases and have not been generalized or linked to contextual factors This study aimed to first summarize current trends in strategies for translating cultural differences from English to Vietnamese, and then investigate the influences of globalization on these trends, if any This was performed through a questionnaire surveying the domesticating and foreignizing tendencies of 171 translators of varying ages and levels of experience, followed by in-depth interviews with 4 translators to consolidate findings on these tendencies and identify factors behind them Analysis of collected data presented findings that were in line with those of previous case studies Generally speaking, foreignization was the most preferred technique in translation of proper names, while domestication was consistently adopted for grammar translation, and strategies for common expressions were more neutral and domesticated Choices varied among specific cases, most frequently depending on the purpose of translation, translator‟s professional strategies and publisher‟s or client‟s requirements Globalization was found to be a factor causing changes

in translation strategies, namely the increasing preference for foreign elements and foreignizing translations Further related studies should thus focus on assessing the consequences of these changes with regard to the Vietnamese culture and language, or improving upon the theoretical framework and expanding the research scope for more reliable results

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acceptance page

Acknowledgements i

Abstract ii

Table of contents iii

List of tables v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Research problem and rationale 1

1.2 Research aims and research questions 2

1.3 Scope of the study 3

1.4 Significance of the study 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Globalization and translation 6

2.1.1 Overview of globalization 6

2.1.2 Translation in the globalization context 8

2.1.2.1 Impacts of globalization on translation 8

2.1.2.2 Impacts of translation in the globalization context 11

2.2 Domestication and foreignization 14

2.2.1 Definition and significance 14

2.2.2 Debates on domestication and foreignization 15

2.2.3 Measurement of domestication and foreignization 18

2.2.3.1 Procedures of domestication and foreignization 18

2.2.3.2 Signs of domestication and foreignization 20

2.2.4 Previous studies on domestication and foreignization 26

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 28

3.1 Research approach 28

3.2 Data collection 29

3.2.1 Survey of translators 29

3.2.1.1 Description 29

3.2.1.2 Designing process 30

3.2.1.3 Participants 31

3.2.2 Semi-structured interviews 32

3.2.2.1 Description and design 32

3.2.2.2 Participants 33

3.3 Data analysis 34

3.3.1 Questionnaire data analysis 34

3.3.2 Interview data analysis 35

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS & DISCUSSION 36

4.1 Research question 1: What are translators‟ choices and approaches in handling cultural differences in English to Vietnamese translation? 36

4.1.1 Choices and approaches by translated item 36

4.1.2 Variations among types of translator 41

4.2 Research question 2: What are the factors affecting these choices and approaches? 42

4.2.1 Purpose of translation 42

4.2.2 Translator‟s professional strategies 45

4.2.3 Publisher‟s or client‟s requirements 48

4.3 Research question 3: Is globalization a factor? If so, to what extent? 49

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 52

5.1 Major findings 52

5.2 Limitations of the study 53

5.3 Recommendations for further research 54

REFERENCES 56

APPENDICES 61

APPENDIX 1: SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TRANSLATORS 61

APPENDIX 2: SAMPLE SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 73

LIST OF TABLES

PAGE Table 1 Translation procedures in terms of domestication and

Table 5 Signs of domestication and foreignization adapted from

Aixela (1996), Newmark (1988) and Baker (1992)

24

Table 6 Survey respondent demographics 30

Table 8 Translator choices by categories of translated item 35

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents aspects that guide the entire study, including its research problem and rationale, objectives and scope, as well as the intended contributions to translation research

1.1 Research problem and rationale

The modern day and age is characterized by fast-paced and widespread globalization This increasing global interconnectedness has given rise to numerous trends and developments in economics, technology, communications, and so on In particular, foreign images and ideas are being exchanged around the world and across various cultures At the same time, English has become a powerful and universally used language

Such developments point to the fact that translation, as an essential medium of international communication, is highly involved in the globalization process In fact, as globalization brings cultures and languages into contact, it also poses new challenges and problems for translators and interpreters Of special interest to the researcher is how globalization has influenced translator strategies in bridging cultural differences From personal experience, in the Vietnamese society that is constantly welcoming new influences from the world, over the past few decades, the written language and translation language

in particular have undergone visible changes The trend seems to be towards the introduction and preservation of foreign elements such as cultural items and writing styles

Nevertheless, as a research area, the relationship between globalization and translation is still largely unstudied Bielsa (2005) pointed out that language and translation have been “systematically neglected” in globalization research (p 131) Neither have translation studies been frequently linked to globalization In Vietnam, even as translation studies gain more prominence

and issues related to culture, specifically domestication and foreignization, are explored, globalization has rarely been brought under discussion This lack of investigation does not match the fact that globalization‟s impacts on translation language may have implications for the domestic language and culture, either positively as the enrichment and integration of our language, or negatively as linguistic and cultural erosion (Cronin, 2003) It therefore becomes necessary

to explore the possible changes in translation language as a conscious result of globalization Towards this aim, the researcher would like to conduct a study

on modern translators‟ approaches and choices in handling cultural differences

in English to Vietnamese translation, and how globalization may have influenced the process

1.2 Research aims and research questions

The research‟s primary objective is to discover the use of translation strategies in dealing with differences between the source and target cultures among a large number of English to Vietnamese translators This is represented

by levels of domestication and foreignization applied in translation From there,

it is hoped that the findings can to some extent reflect current general trends in English to Vietnamese translation as well as in culture and language

The second objective involves detailing the reasons behind these strategies and investigating the role that globalization may play in the process

As this is a relatively small-scale study in a large population, the researcher hopes to indicate the evolution of translation tendencies and the translation language in Vietnam as influenced by globalization From there, the study may inspire and become a source of reference for later, more comprehensive research on the matter

The research attempts to answer the following questions:

1 What are translators‟ choices and approaches in handling cultural differences in English to Vietnamese translation?

2 What are the factors affecting these choices and approaches?

3 Is globalization a factor? If so, to what extent?

1.3 Scope of the study

The proposed research problem was investigated by looking at levels of

domestication and foreignization based on different units of translation, without

being restricted to a specific genre This was intended to allow the researcher to discover patterns in handling cultural differences The chosen area of focus was written English to Vietnamese translation as this is the most common translating context, affecting a wide target audience

Unlike related studies which were typically qualitative, this study attempted to examine the issue using both quantitative and qualitative approaches The study relied on descriptive statistics from a relatively large sample of 171 translators of diverse profiles and content from interviews with 4 selected participants (see Chapter 3 for details) With this sample size, conclusions produced from the study may more or less reflect the general situation

Additionally, subjects of focus in this study were translators rather than translated works, which were commonly used in other similar analyses This was to effectively explore choices from translators‟ perspective and factors behind them

1.4 Significance of the study

As previously mentioned, translation issues relevant to the global context have not received sufficient attention in research literature, and have mostly been examined outside Vietnam This study can assist in exploring the role of globalization related factors in English to Vietnamese translation With this starting point, the study may also provide some ideas regarding general trends in the development of translation and language in Vietnam These

findings and implications may be used as a basis or a source of reference for later research in the same subject matter

Since the study heavily involves the concepts of domestication and foreignization, it can also contribute to the existing body of literature in this domain For a start, the quantitative element in this study produces a more objective and comprehensive look at an area that has mostly been based on qualitative research of specific cases Findings go beyond one genre, one case

or one type of translation unit Furthermore, it expands the understanding of translator choices in dealing with culture related items by introducing the little studied perspective of globalization Globalization can thus be brought to the attention of would-be translators to inspire informed decisions

of different genders, age groups and experience lengths Descriptive statistics were then generated to observe general trends among translators and answer research question 1

For qualitative research, semi-structured interviews discussing factors behind translators‟ choices were conducted with 4 respondents in the survey Content analysis of data from the interviews provided insight and conclusions for all three research questions

1.6 Organization of the paper

This paper consists of 6 main parts as follows:

Chapter 1 – Introduction briefly explains the study‟s rationale, research aims, scope, significance and methodology

Chapter 2 – Literature review explores the study‟s theoretical background, discussing theories related to globalization and translating cultural differences as well as previous studies

Chapter 3 – Methodology describes the research approach, procedures for data collection and analysis and participants in the study

Chapter 4 – Findings & discussion provides an analysis of the collected data and discuss findings to address each research question

Chapter 5 – Conclusions presents the study‟s major findings, its limitations and recommendations for further research in the matter

Finally, the paper also includes References for reference sources used in the paper and Appendices for samples of data collection instruments employed

in the research process

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter gives an overview of two major themes in the existing body

of literature First, the relationship between globalization and translation and possible implications are explored Second, domestication and foreignization are established as central concepts and a framework for investigating translator strategies is proposed Former related studies are also reviewed

2.1 Globalization and translation

2.1.1 Overview of globalization

Globalization, a widespread, widely recognized and well-studied phenomenon, is one of the main features that characterize the modern world Although the term “globalization” has only been established in the past few decades, it has become “one of the most fashionable buzzwords of contemporary political and academic debate” (Scheuerman, 2014), constantly evolving and taking on new depths of meaning

Globalization, first of all, is often understood in terms of mobility and flow The American Heritage Dictionary defines globalization in the literal sense as the process of making “global or worldwide in scope or application” (“Globalization”, n.d.) This basic sense is echoed in the World Health Organization definition, where globalization is further elaborated as not only the fast-paced spread of “goods, services, finance, people and ideas” across borders and towards an international scale, but also the international and national regime changes that have allowed this process to take place (n.d.)

Simultaneous with the outward flows of products and ideas, different cultures, economies and people come together, exchange influences and become more similar More detailed definitions of globalization have

frequently depicted this by associating the term with such keywords as integration, interconnectedness and interdependence Take for example the Levin Institute definition:

Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world (n.d.)

This explanation clearly defines globalization in the dimension of interconnectedness and interdependence It also summarizes two main driving forces behind globalization, which are essentially in agreement with other sources within globalization literature First, technological developments have been a crucial engine in the advancement of globalization Improvements in the methods of production, transportation and communication have not only significantly reduced the cost of these processes, but also enabled a new level

of efficiency and flexibility Manufacturers and enterprises are no longer confined to one location – instead, it has become possible to optimize their operations through multinational cooperation between domestic and foreign partners Second, the international trade of goods and services is continuing to grow in volume and scale New markets and opportunities for trade are constantly opened up, along with international trade organizations and agreements, leading the world towards cross-border trade facilitation and elimination of boundaries (Mrak, 2000) This has meant that economic liberalization can often be deemed synonymous with globalization itself, according to Scheuerman (2014) The establishment and strengthening of international networks, coupled with increased ease of interaction powered by technology, have resulted in remarkable progress in globalization

The Levin Institute definition also includes another consensus of globalization studies: the fact that globalization‟s influences extend over a variety of domains – economics, culture, language and so on However, the direction of these influences remains a controversial issue On one hand, as many believe and as implied by the majority of definitions, globalization not only brings together nations and people in diversity, but also combines economic, technological, social, cultural and political forces (Croucher, as cited

in Shiyab, Rose, House, & Duval, 2010) Consequently, these forces have been individually empowered and able to achieve considerable developmental progress On the other hand, globalization poses numerous challenges for the modern world, among which an oft-repeated issue is the danger of hegemony Marsella (2005) described this as a threat to cultural and biological diversity due to the dominance of more powerful stakeholders in globalization He named North America and Western Europe as the “major players in

„hegemonic‟ globalization”, whose values are widely spread and imposed upon other cultures (p 16) The validity of this pattern in globalization was confirmed by Scheuerman (2014), who claimed that the term “globalization” frequently carried the same meaning in popular literature as “westernization” or

“Americanization”

To sum up, globalization is a long-term and multifaceted phenomenon

of far-reaching influence, which could bring about both opportunities and challenges for the world It is noteworthy, however, that as Marsella (2005) pointed out, the issue lies in certain globalization patterns rather than globalization itself

2.1.2 Translation in the globalization context

2.1.2.1 Impacts of globalization on translation

While globalization‟s influences have been apparent in different fields, researchers pointed out that translation has often been absent from globalization literature Bielsa (2005) described this neglect as systematic (p

131), whereas Cronin (2003) associated the issue with the majority of English speaking scholars on globalization (p 41) Since the scholarly corpus is largely written in English, these opinions indicate a major lack of attention given to factors related to globalization in translation studies

In reality, however, translation and globalization are evidently intertwined, which can be seen from two fundamental features of globalization proposed by Bielsa (2005) First, it involves the transcendence of borders As previously mentioned, globalization involves the mobility and flow of products, ideas and people across the barriers of space, culture and language This inevitably calls for the use of translation as a medium of information interchange After all, translation is essentially the establishment of intercultural and interlingual connections, facilitating “open-ended exchange of goods, technologies and ideas” (Cronin, 2003, p 41) Second, knowledge and information play a central role in globalization The global economy is an informational economy, since stakeholders of various origins now rely on knowledge-based information skills for higher productivity and competitiveness (Cronin, 2003, p 11) Such a global and diverse context expands beyond local fields of vision and requires translation as an instrumental tool of knowledge accumulation As Roberts and Nelson (2011) concluded, translation promotes cosmopolitanism and empowers us against provincialism (p 55)

The relationship between globalization and translation is, therefore, one

of close involvement, where one process facilitates the other and mutual influences are exchanged As globalization continues to exert its influence worldwide at a rapid pace, it becomes important to review the implications of globalization for translation Generally speaking, the fundamental features of globalization have led to the manifestation of five patterns of influence on the translation industry:

1 Globalization has triggered an exponential increase in the volume of translation work and availability of translators This is due to higher

demands that are typical of globalization such as for advertising across nations, localization of technologies and communication of news One factor that further encourages this trend is the rise of the Internet Cronin (2003) reported that 91% of web sites are written in English, which necessitates the expansion of translation activities

2 Of the translated text corpus, the number of texts translated from English substantially exceeds that of texts translated into English Venuti (1995) provided statistics to illustrate this tendency: In 1981, 42% of translations worldwide had English as the source language, while in 1990, translations accounted for less than 3% of American and British publications (p 12)

3 Along with the increasing need for translation of specialized texts, translators are required to have specialist knowledge in several fields of study rather than just language proficiency (Biel, 2011)

4 Technology plays a growing role in translation activities Moving past the earlier period of traditional translation tools such as dictionaries, translation infrastructure has evolved to be largely based on technologies (Cronin, 2003) The Internet and computer tools have provided considerable assistance in the translating process and the transmission of translations

5 Globalization has also contributed to the emerging invisibility of translators‟ work The concept of invisibility, as intensively discussed

by Venuti (1995), refers to the transparency of the translated text, achieved by leaving out foreign elements, as well as the transparency of the translator himself In other words, not only does translations favor naturalness and immediate intelligibility, but the translator‟s presence also tends to be downplayed This feature is believed to have arisen from the need for fluid and instantaneous interchange in globalization processes, where language use is “purely instrumental” (Venuti, 1995, p 5)

Throughout these five trends in the translation world under the impacts

of globalization, three outstanding themes can be identified: the rising mobility and significance of foreign elements across cultures, the emphasis on transparency and comprehensibility of translated works, and the dominance of English in global translation language These themes point at an increasingly complex process of handling foreign items in translation, and in this area, globalization may be pushing translator‟s choices and approaches in certain significant directions

2.1.2.2 Impacts of translation in the globalization context

Studies on globalization and translation frequently entail the discussion

of issues related to culture and language Roberts and Nelson (2011) emphasized the particular importance of translation in bringing cultures into contact, and therefore translation demonstrates an extent of cultural sensitivity (p 57) Bielsa (2005) not only discussed translation‟s position in intercultural communication but also linked translation as a process in the network society

to linguistic diversity She expressed concern over the dominance of the English language over other minorities, which could render translation a type

of cultural “violence” (p 142)

Apparently, there is a degree of agreement if we link these conclusions back to the aforementioned influences of globalization on translation It raises the question of how the introduction and processing of foreign elements in cross-cultural translation have, in reality, affected the identity of culture and language Answering this question, however, is far from a simple task Globalization, as discussed in the overview section, can steer the international state of affairs in the direction of either hegemony or diversity and individuality empowerment Many contrasting viewpoints have been offered on the true tendency of globalization

A widely supported perspective is that of Venuti, who developed his

1995 translation theories from recognition of the hegemony of

Anglo-American culture around the globe He described this phenomenon in terms of not only the dominating percentage of books translated from English against English translations, but also the invisible presence of translators and foreign elements in translated texts Venuti also proposed the translation strategies of

domestication, where translations are brought closer to the target culture, and foreignization, where translations register the values of the source culture He

argued that current trends are towards domestication in favor of naturalness and transparency, which constitutes the “ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text

to target-language cultural values” (p 20) and violent devaluation of foreign values as a result Consequences include cultural hegemony, ethnocentrism and xenophobia on the Anglo-American side and imperialism in minority cultures (p 17)

Venuti‟s views have been echoed in numerous related studies, many of which developed the argument in a linguistic direction For example, Snell-Hornby (2000) was concerned with the consequences for the English language itself, which she claimed to have lost its cultural identity and subtle connotations through standardizing translation, becoming “the „McLanguage of our globalized „McWorld‟” (p 17) More attention, however, was directed towards minority languages Hjarvard (2004) focused his study on the media as

a homogenizing factor, where traces of English that remain in translated media impose a degree of influence and supplant local languages From the field of technical translation and localization, Cronin (2003) highlighted the hegemony

of English in technological advances, which renders all other languages minorities and creates a dilemma for translators from minority cultures Highly domesticating translations would hamper changes and developments, while preserving foreignness may put the original identity of minor languages at risk (p 147)

Nevertheless, various lines of argument still maintain that cultures in the globalization context are far from endangered by hegemony Eisenstadt (as cited in Roberts & Nelson, 2011, p 60) stated that globalization does not

eliminate diversity and identity, and domestication should not be confused with ethnocentric acts Damrosch (as cited in Roberts & Nelson, 2011) took the point further by arguing that translation could add to the “depths of meaning and horizons of interpretation” in literature, allowing texts to move past cultural boundaries (p 58) In other words, globalization and translation actually play a part in promoting individualities and enriching cultures worldwide

A noteworthy point, however, is that this does not completely contradict fears of cultural imperialism According to Eisenstadt (as cited in Roberts & Nelson, 2011, p 60), cultural identity is maintained alongside the continuous process of balancing between the native and the foreign In other words, depending on this balancing act, the cultural and linguistic environment can either be directed towards hegemony or diversity The implication for translation is thus quite evident Translation is central to the relationship between diversity and hegemony, and examining domesticating strategies is necessary for studying the trends of hegemony (Bielsa, 2005) Under the impacts of globalization, translators‟ choices in translating cultural differences could have new significance in understanding minority cultural and lingual developments This is especially important when translation theory, as Cronin (2003) believed, is still largely restricted to major languages‟ perspectives and interests (p 149)

So far, few case-specific studies have been carried out in this area Studies involving globalization, translation and impacts on the local language

in Denmark by Hjarvard (2004), in Nigeria by Ajayi (2010) and in Iran by Fallahshahrak and Salmani (2013) have all indicated recent tendencies towards importing and adopting foreign influences Globalization has been illustrated to foster English dominance and introduce changes in local varieties of language

In Vietnam, this line of study remains quite new; however, initial attention has been drawn to the matter In literary translation, translator Trịnh

Lữ believes that the introduction of foreign elements is the new trend for

Vietnamese translators To him, this is an encouraging development towards a common language for humanity as well as the enrichment of Vietnamese culture (as cited in Kỳ, 2013)

2.2 Domestication and foreignization

2.2.1 Definition and significance

In the previous section, the dialectics between the self and the other, the local and the global, the domestic and the foreign have played a major part in discussions on globalization and translation Thus, domestication and foreignization strategies proposed by Venuti in 1995 are concepts of central importance in this field of study

Domestication is the strategy of adapting the source text to fit the norms

of the target language and culture This usually involves the removal or adaptation of textual items that are foreign to the target culture, and thus also the loss of original information Some examples of domesticating translation,

as illustrated by Venuti (1995), are avoiding the use of foreign words, changing syntax to achieve an idiomatic effect, and adjusting author‟s style to conform to the target environment The result is a natural and fluent translation, written in familiar language that readers can understand without difficulties Venuti asserted that domestication is the preferred translation strategy in the Anglo culture due to the prevalence of fluency and transparency as translation assessment criteria

On the other hand, foreignization aims to retain source text elements in the translation, often at the cost of compromising target language conventions Foreignizing translation registers the importance and originality of foreign values and acts as a medium in drawing readers towards the source culture Translation methods commonly associated with foreignization include borrowing words from another language, keeping original word forms accompanied by explanations, or retention of word order and structure (Poucke, 2012)

Domestication and foreignization express the choice to either show deference to the original or the target end of translation This is relatively similar to the distinction between word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation by Cicero or formal and dynamic equivalence by Nida, as these theories all point to the question of whether to prioritize source factors (translating literally, preserving original forms) or target conventions (communicating meaning in the target language manner) Venuti‟s strategies can thus be considered new terms for the long established ends of the translation spectrum However, what domestication and foreignization add to the discussion is the consideration of cultural factors While the terms used by Cicero and Nida tend to be restricted to the linguistic domain, with concerns such as linguistic forms and meaning, Venuti‟s domestication and foreignization reflect also the dialectics between the source and target cultures They indicate not only approaches to handling foreign items in translation but also ethical attitudes towards foreign cultures through translation strategies (Myskja, 2013) As a result, domestication and foreignization are useful in identifying social and cultural trends in the modern world (Yang, 2010)

2.2.2 Debates on domestication and foreignization

Although domestication and foreignization were first formulated by Venuti in 1995, these concepts have existed and been debated among translation theorists for centuries

During the early age of translation theories, the 17th – 18th centuries, domestication was clearly the trend, with Cicero‟s theory advocating sense-for-sense translation being one of the most frequently quoted works (Birdwood-Hedger, 2006, p 15) Cicero‟s strategy for translating preserved the ideas and general style of the original, but conformed to local usage in terms of linguistic form (as cited in Ghanooni, 2012, p 77) This allowed fluent translations to be produced in the target language, and it matched the contemporary emergence of fluency as the most widely supported translating style (Birdwood-Hedger,

2006, p 17) Other than the priority on fluency and readability, domestication

in this period also manifested in the choice of texts for translation, which usually had the same style as local literature or themes relevant to the local social context (Birdwood-Hedger, 2006, p 24)

Foreignization first became active in the early 19th century and was discussed in the works of many scholars from this period on Schleiermacher,

in his 1813 lecture, asserted that there were only two translation methods, either bringing readers towards the author, or moving the author towards them (as cited in Venuti, 1995, p 20) Also according to Venuti, Schleiermacher clearly preferred foreignization, viewing as enriching the language and development of the literary genre in Germany, his country of origin Another foreignization advocate, Vladimir Nabokov, based his preference on respect for the original He argued that translation could not recreate the “genius of the original”, and could only do its best to convey the author‟s “speech, style and mind” (as cited in Birdwood-Hedger, 2006, p 41) Bassnett (2002) listed five translation trends in the late 19th century and early 20th century, all of which reflected this deference to the source language and sought to elevate its position This might bear some relevance to Bassnett‟s note that this was the age of prospering industrial capitalism and colonial expansion (p 76), the same period described by Robertson (1990) as the struggle for hegemony in globalization

Nevertheless, domestication remained influential, especially with the influence of 20th century science teaching, which valued matter over manner and necessitated meaning-based translation (Cohen, 1962, p 35) This tendency was also adopted by Eugene Nida, whose translation theory differentiated between formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence Formal equivalence aims to faithfully translate both the form and matter of the original text in the target language, which, according to Yang (2010, p 78), could demonstrate the source text‟s lexical, grammatical and structural features Meanwhile, dynamic equivalence (also known as functional equivalence) pays less attention to form and more to the dynamic relationship between readers

and the original message Nida believed that the translation should be able to produce the same effects on its readers and give them the same level of understanding as the original does on source text readers (as cited in Yang,

2010, p 78) The target text that results is the source text message delivered in transparent target language form, similar to the outcome of domestication By advocating dynamic equivalence, Nida leaned towards the use of domesticating strategies

However, many researchers have pointed out that Nida‟s theory is restricted only to linguistic equivalence It does not take into consideration cultural issues, over which there was growing concern in the late 20th century This concern is best represented by Venuti‟s school of thought Venuti (1995) approached the debate with a view of translation as “the forcible replacement

of the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text with a text that will

be intelligible to the target-language reader” (p 18) Venuti claimed that the Anglo-American culture‟s dominance in the translation industry and the widespread emphasis on the fluency of translations were ethnocentric in nature:

it reduced the identity and downplayed the significance of source culture values

in surrender to the local, familiar style He supported foreignization as a means

of resistance against ethnocentrism and imperialism Although Venuti‟s point was mostly based on a context where the target language (English) is more influential and dominant than the source language, it echoes Schleiermacher‟s arguments pursuing cultural diversity For many modern translators, this makes sense in a strongly globalized world, and it has more or less influenced their translating strategies, such as in the earlier cited case of Trinh Lu

Venuti‟s theory also faced a great deal of criticism, mostly from a third perspective that questions the simplicity of his dichotomy Baker (2010) saw Venuti‟s classification as too simple and generalized, failing to reflect the possible variety of translator choices in terms of domestication or foreignization To be clear, a translation can contain elements of both strategies, instead of being guided by a “single polarity” (Tymoczko, as cited in

Birdwood-Hedger, 2006) Boyden (as cited in Ogihara-Schuck, 2014, p 28) believed that these strategies, despite being opposite, could actually complement each other This combined and balanced use of both strategies holds great significance As Tymoczko further claimed, any translation procedure could become a tool of ethnocentrism, and foreignization is no exception as it directs readers towards the foreign over the domestic Thus, while acknowledging the problematic possibility of hegemony, she found foreignization inadequate as a form of resistance (as cited in Ogihara-Schuck,

2014, p 28) This suggests that dealing with cultural issues in the translating process requires flexible and diverse application of strategies across different aspects of the translation Understanding of translator choices and approaches

in this matter may be important in identifying the influences of translation on our society in a globalizing world

2.2.3 Measurement of domestication and foreignization

Although Venuti‟s domestication and foreignization concepts have been widely adopted, it has frequently been pointed out that Venuti neither gave clear definitions nor classified the concepts into categories and standards (Tymoczko, as cited in Birdwood-Hedger, 2006) The lack of specific criteria makes it difficult to distinguish or determine the degree of domestication and foreignization of a certain translation unit based on Venuti‟s concepts alone This section is aimed at exploring the degree of domestication and foreignization of translation procedures, and items that usually demonstrate domesticating and foreignizing strategies

2.2.3.1 Procedures of domestication and foreignization

As previously discussed, Venuti‟s domestication and foreignization are new concepts depicting the target oriented and source oriented ends of translation Therefore, it can be argued that most models of translation procedures may be roughly sorted into the domesticating and foreignizing categories Several attempts have been made to classify translation procedures

into categories towards domestication or foreignization, such as the following models

Table 1 Translation procedures in terms of domestication and

Naturalization Absolute universalization Limited universalization Synonymy

Repetition Orthographic adaptation Linguistic (non-cultural) translation

Extratextual gloss Intratextual gloss

Davies (as cited in

Brasiene, 2013)

Creation Transformation Localization

Preservation of form Preservation of content Addition inside the text Addition outside the text Omission

Globalization Vinay and Darbelnet (as

Borrowing Calque Literal translation

Each model uses a different terminology set for translation procedures; however, the concepts referred to and the associated degree of domestication or foreignization are more or less similar In the following table, the Table 1 sets

of procedures are organized by concepts into three levels of domestication and foreignization to be used in this study

Table 2 Procedures by 3 levels of domestication and foreignization

Domestic

ated

- Replacing the source text item with a target culture reference

that does not exist in the source (autonomous creation, creation, adaptation)

- Leaving the untranslatable source text item out of the target

text (omission, deletion)

- Altering or distorting the source text item to create cultural

familiarity (transformation, naturalization)

- Using a target culture item that has a different style or

structure but the same cultural connotation (localization,

equivalence)

- Changing the structure or viewpoint of the source text item to

sound natural in the target language (transposition, modulation)

More

neutral/

Partially

both

- Keeping the source text item but written in target language

conventions (orthographic adaptation)

- Avoiding translation of the source text item with a synonym or

parallel reference (synonymy)

- Using a culture-neutral translation (globalization, absolute

universalization, limited universalization)

- Either foreignizing or domesticating with added explanatory

notes (intratextual gloss, extratextual gloss, addition inside the text, addition outside the text)

Foreigni

zed

- Translating the item literally without cultural connotations

(preservation of content, literal translation, calque, linguistic (non-cultural) translation)

- Directly transferring the source text item into the target

language (borrowing, repetition, preservation of form)

2.2.3.2 Signs of domestication and foreignization

For want of theoretical descriptions, former studies on domestication and foreignization chose to focus on culture-specific items, widely adopted items that represent the source text‟s cultural aspects Alongside culture-specific items, certain studies have introduced categories such as wordplay, syntax, authors‟ styles, voices and dialects As these separate categories involve larger units of translation, it can be inferred that culture-specific items are usually interpreted at a smaller level as terms and expressions While these studies do not clearly specify the principles behind their categorization, this choice pattern reflects a general assumption that domestication and

foreignization may manifest at different levels in translation, ranging from terms, phrases to longer structures and whole texts

This seems more or less in line with Venuti‟s ideas of domestication and foreignization In illustrating foreignizing translation, Venuti provided examples of archaism, colloquialism, loan translation, close adherence to the source text‟s syntax and structure (as cited in Ogihara-Schuck, 2014, p 27) Among these, archaism, colloquialism and loan translation belong to the category of lexis, while syntax adherence suggests the involvement grammatical elements, and text structure involves whole-text analysis Thus, it appears reasonable to observe signs of domestication and foreignization at three different levels: lexis, grammar and text structure Due to the limitations

of research methods, this study focuses only on domestication and foreignization at the lexical and grammatical levels

Lexical level – Culture-specific items:

Culture-specific items (CSI) have been a central aspect of numerous studies on domestication and foreignization, as well as translation studies in general This term was introduced by Eirlys E Davies in 2003, but the concept

has long existed under various names such as Newmark‟s cultural words, Nord‟s cultureme, Robinson‟s realia, and so on (Brasiene, 2013, p 4) CSI is

understood, through the view of many scholars such as Nord and Baker, as a concept that exists in one culture but is unfamiliar or not similarly interpreted

in another culture (as cited in Brasiene, 2013, p 4) In other words, CSIs are signs of separate cultural identities Aixela (1996) also took note of this; furthermore, he attempted to establish CSIs in terms of translation In this context, he argued that a CSI does not exist independently, but stems from linguistic forms that present translation difficulties due to their unique existence in the source culture Evidently, CSIs play a part in bringing about cultural clashes in translation and necessitating the role of translators in negotiating between the foreign and the domestic

It should be noted that grammatical rules might also be considered culture-specific since they vary from language to language Birdwood-Hedger (2006), for instance, listed grammatical categories particles, gerunds and word order among culture-specific aspects of the analyzed text Nevertheless, CSIs

as employed in most studies refer only to terms and phrases, and will be established as such within this study for the purpose of clearer and systematic categorization

Various attempts have been made to categorize CSIs as frameworks for analysis of translation strategies Newmark (1988) arranged CSIs into five

categories: ecology (flora, fauna, geographical and ecological features), material culture (food, clothes, houses and towns, and transport), social culture (work and leisure), organizations, customs, activities, procedures and concepts

(political and administrative terms, religious terms, and artistic terms), and

gestures and habits Another commonly cited CSI classification scheme was

proposed by Espindola (as cited in Brasiene, 2013):

Toponyms: Names of places and locations along with natural and artificial features

Anthroponyms: People‟s names, nicknames and background

Forms of entertainment: Forms of amusement and hospitality

Means of transportation: Means of moving people and goods

Fictional characters: Works of imagination and references to them

Local institutions: Health, education, work, political, administrative, religious, artistic organizations that help or serve people

Measuring systems: Size, weight, speed, length, etc

Food and drink: Solid and liquid substances used as nourishment

Scholastic references: Concepts connected with school and studying

Religious celebration: Specially marked religious occasions

While Newmark‟s categories are more general, Espindola‟s are more specific and clear, including aspects that Newmark does not indicate in his classification such as proper names, measurements and fictional terms

However, both classifications have certain limitations Categories may overlap, and often there exist items that can be sorted into more than one category What‟s more, the listed types of CSIs appear to be mostly terms for objects and concepts, with little representation of phrases and expressions

Aixela (1996) proposed two basic categories of CSIs from the

perspective of translators: proper nouns and common expressions Proper

nouns, also termed proper names, are names of people, places, institutions, etc that are usually capitalized in writing (Oxford Dictionary, n.d.) While Aixela provided no specifications, Newmark (1988) described three main types of proper nouns:

Table 3 Types of proper nouns by Newmark (1988)

People‟s names People‟s first names and

surnames, including conventional names and names that have been loaded with connotations or intended meanings

+ Conventional names:

Mario Puzo, Sidney Sheldon, etc

+ Loaded names:

Wormtail, Padfoot, etc

Names of objects Objects‟ names such as

trademarks, brands or proprietaries

iPhone, General Electrics, Coca-Cola,

Meanwhile, common expression is Aixela‟s term for all culture-specific

objects, institutions, habits and opinions that are not regarded as proper names (p 59) Considering the lack of framework for common expressions in literature, Aixela‟s description of CSIs could perhaps be a basis for interpretation Accordingly, types of common expressions in Aixela‟s context consist of cultural objects, systems of classification and measurement, transcription of opinions and description of habits

Aixela‟s classification of CSIs differs from previous models in the sense that rather than focusing on specific themes of cultural life, it leans more towards the functions of CSIs Since cultural themes are more complex and overlapping, Aixela‟s scheme appears simpler and clearer to adopt in research Therefore, this study intends to employ Aixela‟s CSI scheme along with additions of proper nouns from Newmark‟s theories

Grammatical level:

Languages and cultures are unique in terms of not only objects and concepts, but also grammatical structures One language‟s grammatical features may not exist in another, which poses potential translation problems that require the translator to make appropriate choices between domesticating and foreignizing

Baker (1992), in analyzing the diversity of grammar across languages, mentioned the following categories of grammatical equivalence:

Table 4 Language-specific grammatical categories by Baker (1992)

such as singularity and plurality,

may be made in linguistic terms,

usually by means of suffixes or

forms of the same term are

distinctions as participant roles

in conversation (first, second

and third person), the

inclusive/exclusive dimension

(whether the addressee is

included or excluded, for

+ English pronouns: I and we = first person; you = second person; he, she, and they = third

example), and familiarity

Tense involves time references

such as past, present and future,

while aspect refers to how

actions are connected to the

present, whether they are

completed or not, temporary or

continuous

English indicators of:

+ Future tense: will, be going to + Past tense: –ed suffix, did + Present continuous: to be + V- ing

+ Present perfect: has/have +

V-ed

can be either in the passive

voice or active voice In the

passive voice, the subject is

affected by actions while in the

active voice, the subject is

viewed as an agent causing the

action Voices may have

different connotations in

different languages

The English active voice It rained on me is more naturally

expressed in passive voice as

Tôi bị dính mưa in Vietnamese,

where the passive voice usually implies adversity

Word

order

Word order or syntax refers to

how messages are organized in

languages Differences across

languages may include the

accepted order of elements in a

clause and the fixedness of word

Below is the scheme of domestication and foreignization signs combined between theories by Aixela, Newmark and Baker to be employed in this study:

Table 5 Signs of domestication and foreignization adapted from Aixela (1996), Newmark (1988) and Baker (1992)

Lexis

Proper nouns

People‟s names Names of objects Geographical terms

Common expressions

Cultural objects Systems of classification and measurement

Transcription of opinions Description of habits

Grammar

Number Gender Person Tense and aspect Voice

Word order

2.2.4 Previous studies on domestication and foreignization

Domestication and foreignization have previously been the subject of various translation studies around the world Such studies explored the use of domestication and foreignization strategies across different kinds of translation problems that involve cultural differences, as well as factors influencing translators‟ strategy Typically, this type of research is conducted based on content analysis of strategies used in a translation, or comparison of domestication and foreignization use across more than one translations In the vast majority of explored literature, translations selected for analysis were of the literary genre or the less common genre of film subtitle translation Similar studies in English to Vietnamese translation have often adopted the same approach and are mostly case studies

Another feature, as mentioned above, is that these studies frequently investigate translation problems such as CSIs, idioms, wordplay, syllables,

styles and tones Among these, CSIs have often been the most intensively discussed category, indicating that this may be an area of interesting results

Domestication and foreignization studies in general and CSI focused studies in particular have pointed out strong foreignizing tendencies Qafzezi (2013) concluded that 71% of analyzed items were foreignized in English to Albanian translation, while in English to Iranian translation, Moridi, Laskarian, and Sayadian (2015) recognized a 74% frequency of foreignization Additionally, some studies have also observed a shift in translation strategies towards greater use of foreignizing techniques Moridi et al (2015) linked this shift in to the changing cultural context of the Iranian society

In Vietnam, literary case studies have yielded similar findings Studies

by Duong (2014), Pham (2015) and La (2015) showed that foreignization was the most commonly adopted strategy for translation of proper names Duong (2014) and La (2015) found domestication more prevalent in translation of common expressions and colloquialism, while for CSIs choices were often more neutral and varied Overll, though the conclusions may together indicate a general pattern, certain limitations remain in these studies Firstly, they solely focused on literary translations Secondly, they were typically case studies that could not reflect choices of a wider translator population And lastly, possible links between translation and globalization as well as their implications have not been brought into discussion By improving upon these limitations, new light may be shed on this well-studied matter

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

This chapter details the methodology employed in the research based on the previous theoretical review This includes the research approach, data collection procedures with specifications of participants and instruments, and data analysis procedures

3.1 Research approach

This study adopted the triangulation technique, combining quantitative and qualitative approaches

For a start, the quantitative approach was employed to gather a variety

of descriptive data from a larger sample size, which not only better represented the English to Vietnamese translator population, but also allowed the researcher to identify trends among the sample population This approach was chosen with the consideration that previous similar studies on globalization and translation or domestication and foreignization had typically been (1) qualitative and based on specific cases, (2) restricted to the literary genre, and (3) more focused on observation of translations than translators Thus, the approach was intended to provide a new perspective and more comprehensive conclusions to the issue raised in research question 1 This was performed by means of a survey collecting the translation strategies of participants Afterwards, statistics were generated and analyzed to establish general associations between variable aspects such as translation choices and features

of the population Observations from data analysis were used as the basis for subsequent qualitative investigation of underlying factors

The qualitative approach, in the form of follow-up interviews, was adopted to provide insight into the issues in question It enabled participants to discuss factors behind their choices, personal viewpoints and relevant

experiences During interview data analysis, crosschecking and comparing with earlier quantitative data was also ensured This was crucial for answering research question 2 and 3, as the quantitative approach could not represent translator choices in all cases or generate in-depth data on underlying factors and possible connections to globalization

By combining both approaches, the study was able to synthesize and validate information across various sources, thus ensuring higher

generalizability and reliability as well as producing higher quality findings

of translation experience to collect demographic data for the research

To ensure convenience for survey takers and encourage participation: (1) The questionnaire consisted of only multiple-choice items, written in Vietnamese with points of focus highlighted in each question

(2) Explanations of the questionnaire‟s purpose (collecting opinions rather than making assessments) and anonymity were included

(3) The questionnaire was created and shared online among social networks of translators and translation students to better reach a wide sample and allow participants to contribute data at their convenience Google Forms was chosen as the platform for the questionnaire as it is a free, simple and user-friendly survey creator that many people are familiar with Printed copies were also handed out to guarantee participation in cases where participants were more accessible offline

3.2.1.2 Designing process

This questionnaire was designed in three stages:

(1) Literature review: Related theories and former studies were

reviewed to determine the translation units and strategies that reflect the use of domestication and foreignization Different theories were combined to establish

a framework for this study, as presented in Chapter 2 Table 2 (procedures in 3 levels of domestication and foreignization) was created as a basis for forming answer options reflecting different levels of domestication and foreignization strategies Table 5 (units that illustrate use of domestication and foreignization) was created to form question stems to observe translator choices across different types of culture-specific item

(2) Construction: Based on the devised framework, one English to

Vietnamese translation problem was selected to represent each Table 5 category Options of more domesticated, more foreignized and/or neutral translations (Table 2) were provided for each problem, along with an “Other” option as the researcher‟s options may not adequately represent survey participants‟ choices

(3) Pilot study: The questionnaire was sent to 6 participants and the

research supervisor for testing Based on the returned responses and comments,

the researcher then identified problems and revised the questionnaire for higher validity

The full version of the questionnaire can be found in both English and Vietnamese in Appendix 1

3.2.1.3 Participants

Participants in the survey were intended to include a wide variety of translators, reflecting different perspectives and levels of competence to allow for comparison and contrast and findings in various aspects Accordingly, the sample was intended to consist of at least 100 people who were selected based

on the following criteria:

(1) Experienced in English to Vietnamese translation through formal training and/or translation work

(2) Of various age groups from at least 20 years old, to ensure a certain degree of experience and knowledge as translators

(3) Including both males and females

(4) Varying in levels of translating experience

The simple random sampling strategy was employed In reality, the survey received a total of 171 responses, including translators from all demographic groups as specified in Table 6 Among survey takers, 5 people also voluntarily contributed their personal viewpoints and comments on the surveyed issue

Table 6 Survey respondent demographics

Gender

Total number of

3.2.2 Semi-structured interviews

3.2.2.1 Description and design

To gain better insights for research questions 2 and 3, interviews were carried out following questionnaire data analysis The interviews were semi-structured, which enabled not only researcher guidance to produce relevant findings but also more flexibility for discussion of perspectives and arising elements, if any

In general, all interviewees were asked to clarify and explain factors behind their choices and discuss the relation to globalization A sample of general interview questions can be found in Appendix 2 Each interview also included additional questions, which varied based on results concluded from the participant‟s questionnaire response and further issues that were relevant in each case New viewpoints raised by previous interviewees were also added to the discussion where reasonable to compare and contrast the perspectives of different translators Interviews were performed online or in person depending

on interviewees‟ availability and recorded in each case for analysis