Improving english vocabulary retention by using memory strategies

68 ABBREVIATIONS LLS: Language Learning Strategies VLS: Vocabulary Learning Strategies L2: Foreign Language VKS: Vocabulary Knowledge Scale M: Mean Score TOEIC: Test of English for Inte

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

HOÀNG THỊ PHƯƠNG LOAN

IMPROVING ENGLISH VOCABULARY

RETENTION BY USING MEMORY STRATEGIES:

AN ACTION RESEARCH

NÂNG CAO KHẢ NĂNG LƯU NHỚ TỪ VỰNG TIẾNG ANH BẰNG CÁCH SỬ DỤNG CÁC THỦ THUẬT GHI NHỚ:

NGHIÊN CỨU HÀNH ĐỘNG

M.A Combined Program Thesis

Field: English Teaching Methodology

Code: 60.14.10

HANOI – 2013

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

HOÀNG THỊ PHƯƠNG LOAN

IMPROVING ENGLISH VOCABULARY

RETENTION BY USING MEMORY STRATEGIES:

HANOI – 2013

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Candidate‘s statement……… i

Acknowledgement……… ii

Abstract……… iii

List of tables and figures……… vii

PART A: INTRODUCTION……… 1

1 Statement of the problem and rationale for the study……… 1

2 Aims of the study and research questions……… 3

3 Significance of the study……… 4

4 Scope of the study……… 4

5.Methods of the study……… 5

6 An overview of the rest of the paper……… 6

PART B: DEVELOPMENT……… 7

CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW……… 7

1.1 Language Learning Strategies……… 7

1.1.1 Definition of Language Learning Strategies……… 7

1.1.2 The importance of Language Learning Strategies in Language Learning and Teaching………

9 1.1.3 Features of Language Learning Strategies……… 10

1.1.4 LLS – a sufficient condition for successful learning? ……… 12

1.2 Vocabulary and Vocabulary Learning Strategies……… 13

1.2.1 Vocabulary 1.2.1.1 Definition ………

13 13 1.2.1.2 The importance of vocabulary in second language learning…… 14

1.2.1.3 Vocabulary retention and memory systems‘ process of working 14

1.2.2 Vocabulary learning strategies (VLS)……… 17

1.2.2.1 Definition ……… 17

1.2.2.2 Classification of VLS……… 18

1.3 Memory strategies……… 24

1.3.1 Definition of memory strategies……… 24

1.3.2 Why memory strategies? 24

1.3.3 Classification of Oxford‘s Memory strategies……… 25

1.3.3.1 Grouping……… 27

1.3.3.2 Associating……… 27

1.3.3.3 Using imagery……… 28

1.3.3.4 Placing a new word into a context……… 29

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY……… 30

2.1 The background of the study……… 30

2.1.1 The study setting ……… 30

2.1.2 Participants……… 31

2.1.3 Materials……… 31

2.1.4 TOEIC and TOEIC vocabulary……… 33

2.2 Implementation of the Action Research……… 34

2.3 Data collection instruments……… 36

2.3.1 Vocabulary Knowledge Scale ……… 36

2.3.2 Interview……… 37

2.3.3 Pre-test and post-tests ……… ……… 38

2.3.4 Learners‘ diaries.……… 39

2.3.5 Questionnaire.……… 40

2.4 Data collection procedure……… 41

2.5 Methods and data analysis procedures……… 43

CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION……… 45

3.1 Research question 1……… 45

3.1.1 Results from VKS……… 45

3.1.2 Result from the interview……… 46

3.2 Research question 2……… 50

3.2.1 Results from the immediate post-test ……… …… …

3.2.2 Results from the delayed post-test ………

50 53 3.3 Research question 3……… 56

3.3.1 Results from learners‘ diaries ……… 56

3.3.2 Results from the self-report column in the immediate post-test ………… 58

3.4 Research question 4……… 59

3.4.1 Students‘ attitudes towards the strategy training scheme……… 59

3.4.2 The students‘ attitudes towards four sub-memory strategies……… 62

3.4.3 Students‘ suggestions for future program……… 63

CHAPTER 4: RECOMMENDATIONS……… 67

4.1 Strategy training……… 67

4.2 Suggested activities for introducing and practicing memory strategies 72

4.3 Other recommendations for teachers……… 72

PART C: CONCLUSION……… 74

1 Major findings of the study……… 74

2 Limitations of the study……… 75

3 Suggestions for further study……… 76

REFERENCES……… 77

Appendix 1: Vocabulary teaching schedule……… II Appendix 2: Schmitt‘s taxonomy of VLS……… IV Appendix 3: Oxford‘ taxonomy of LLS……… VI Appendix 4: VKS test……… VIII Appendix 5: Pre-test/post-test 1/post-test 2……… X Appendix 6: Questionnaire……… XVI Appendix 7: Sample of in-class & at-home handouts……… XVIII Appendix 8: Sample of learners‘ diaries……… XXVIII Appendix 9: Suggested activities employing memory strategies……… XXXIX

LISTS OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND ABBREVIATIONS

Table 1: Definitions of Language Learning Strategies……… 8

Table 2: Features of Language Learning Strategies……… 10

Table 3: A collection of some important principles needed to retain vocabulary items……… 16

Table 4: Gu & Johnson‘s taxonomy of VLS……… 20

Table 5: Nation‘s taxonomy of VLS……… 21

Table 6: Oxford‘s memory strategies……… 25

Table 7: Student profile……… 31

Table 8: Schedule of vocabulary teaching for TOEIC A class……… 32

Table 9: Students‘ problems in independent learning vocabulary……… … 49

Table 10: Strategies used as reported in students‘ diaries……… …… 51

Table 11: Report of strategies used in the immediate post-test…… ……… 52

Table 12: Mean scores gained by the group in the pre-test and immediate post-test……… 52

Table 13: Individuals‘ performance in the pre-test and immediate post-test…… 53

Table 14: Mean scores gained by individuals in the pre-test and immediate post-test……… 55

Table 15: Mean scores gained by the group in the pre-test and delayed post-test………

55 Table 16: Individuals‘ performance in the pre-test, immediate post-test and delayed post-test………

57 Table 17: Mean scores gained by individuals in the pre-test, immediate post-test and delayed post-test………

58 Table 18: Students‘ preference of four sub-memory strategies……… 62

Table 19: Students‘ suggestions for future program……… 63

Table 20: Types of strategy training……… 67

FIGURES Figure 1: Diagram of Direct Strategies……… 23

Figure 2: Diagram of Indirect Strategies……… 23

Figure 3: Action research circle……… 34

Figure 4: Data collection procedure……… 41

Figure 5: Results from VKS test……… 45

Figure 6: The whole group‘s performance in the pre-test and immediate post-test………

51 Figure 7: Individuals‘ performance in the pre-test and immediate post-test……… 52

Figure 8: The whole group‘ performance in the pre-test and the delayed post test 54 Figure 9: The whole group‘ performance in the pre-test, immediate post-test and delayed post-test………

54 Figure 10: Individuals‘ performance in the pre-test, immediate post-test and delayed post-test………

56 Figure 11: Strategies used as reported students‘ diaries……… 57

Figure 12: Importance of the strategy training scheme……… 59

Figure 13: Effectiveness of the strategy training scheme……… 60

Figure 14: Pleasure during the strategy training scheme……… 61

Figure 15: A model for strategy training……… 68

ABBREVIATIONS

LLS: Language Learning Strategies

VLS: Vocabulary Learning Strategies

L2: Foreign Language

VKS: Vocabulary Knowledge Scale

M: Mean Score

TOEIC: Test of English for International Communication

PART A: INTRODUCTION

This chapter sheds light on the statement of the problem and rationale for the study

as well as its aims and research questions Moreover, the scope and the significance of the study are also presented in this part Lastly, the chapter concludes with an overview of the rest of the paper, serving as a useful compass to help the reader stay on track throughout the research

1 Statement of the problem and rationale for the study

―I’m sure that I have seen this word before but…I do not remember its meaning Sorry

teacher.‖

―Teacher, could you tell me the best way to learn vocabulary? I have tried a lot but it is

always easy for me to forget the meanings of words that I have learned.”

“At first, I can remember all the words that you have taught us but… after a few days,

it seems to be very difficult for me to recall their meanings although they look really familiar to me.”

“I can’t remember all things about a word, like how to pronounce it, whether it is a verb or a noun, when I can use it…”

“Teacher, how can I remember the words that I have learnt?”

…

Those are questions and comments that my students often share with me They all know the importance of learning vocabulary; however, they seem to be frustrated with trying to learn new words This can be shown by the way they express themselves in English confusingly; their gesture of slightly scratching their head when they have to deal with words that they do not know; and their low marks in vocabulary test From this reality, a challenging question is set for teachers of English in general and me - one teacher

of English in particular: “How to help students retain vocabulary effectively?‖

From my own experience as a student, I used to ask myself a question like my

students now: “How can I remember this word?” It was very easy for me to understand the

meaning and get the right pronunciation of a word at first, but it was also easy for me to forget those things a short time later It therefore resulted in bad marks in my reading comprehension tests and the way I tried to use suitable words when I had to present in class One day, there appeared an idea in my mind – that I think is a turning point in the way I have dealt with learning vocabulary: that was the time when my teacher gave us an

example to explain the meaning of the word: ―embarrassed‖ She said, ―Just imagine, you

are in a restaurant with a very important person and you carelessly pour your entire café

cup on his clothes….yup and that will be the time you feel so “embarrassed” So we all understood that ―embarrassed‖ showed the feeling when we did something wrong and we did not know what to do then I myself think that this associating way is very simple but

really impressive and effective As a result, I remember that word for my life Thus, after graduating from university and being an English teacher, I started to study the very first readings about Vocabulary and Vocabulary Learning

Vocabulary plays an important part in language learning as Schmitt (2010) stated,

―Learning vocabulary is an essential part of mastering a second language‖ (p 4) This view has been strongly approved by all partners involving in learning process For example, McCarthy (1990, p.viii) added ―no matter how well the student learns grammar,

no matter how successfully the sounds of L2 are mastered, without words to express a wider range of meanings, communication in an L2 just cannot happen in any meaningful way‖ The learners will certainly face difficulties when communicating in English without equipping themselves with necessary vocabulary items Furthermore, vocabulary deficiency can be reason for weakness in many language skills, namely reading and listening comprehension, speaking competence, writing performance and grammatical accuracy Learning vocabulary is no doubt an indispensable step of L2 acquisition However, learning but not remembering is not successful learning Students should be taught how to remember vocabulary or recall necessary vocabulary when needed In

general, they must be provided the way to process information deeply

Studying VLS has been an interest for a great deal of psychologists, linguists and language teachers for a long time There are numerous studies conducted about VLS, their effectiveness in learning vocabulary Almost these researchers have attempted to develop a framework of category of VLS They are: O‘Malley and Chamot (1990), Oxford (1990); Stoffer (1995); Gu and Johnson (1996), Schmitt (1997), Nation (2001), to name but a few

At the University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, vocabulary learning and teaching ―have yet to receive adequate attention‖ and that ―vocabulary is often integrated into other communicative skills and the task of vocabulary acquisition is totally left to students Also, the research interest among the university staff and students has seemingly moved away from this field‖ (Ngo, 2009, p

2) He also critically pointed out that at post-graduate library where research papers in English were deposited, lecturers‘ research on vocabulary could hardly be found Besides,

he also described a dramatic fall in the number of graduation papers concerning about this issue by giving out some alarming figures: ―while up to 9 graduation papers in 1998 dealt with vocabulary, the figure dropped to 4 in 1999 and only 1 in 2002, and 2003‖ In May,

2009, he himself conducted a research on ―Vocabulary Level and Vocabulary Strategies of ULIS First Year Mainstream English Majors‖ In this research, he aimed at finding out the vocabulary level of the first year students, what strategies they used in their vocabulary learning and what problems they encountered with vocabulary learning strategies

This research took no attempt to fill the gap in changing and correcting the previous scholars‘ VLS systems, identifying the vocabulary level or the numbers of vocabulary strategies used among students, but practically focused on applying some specific strategies in vocabulary learning and examining their effectiveness

In conclusion, with all the reasons from my own experience, my teaching and learning situation and the large gap in studying VLS in my university, I would like to devote my time and effort researching to my thesis: ―Improving English Vocabulary

Retention by using Memory Strategies- An Action Research” as an answer to the very beginning question - ―How to help my students retain vocabulary effectively?”

2 Aims of the study and research questions

Initially, the study aimed at identifying the problems with vocabulary that students were facing with Secondly, it was intended to improve the students‘ vocabulary retention

by teaching them some helpful memory strategies, namely grouping, associating, using imagery and placing new words into a context The study also aimed at finding out how much students obtained the memory strategies learnt; by the way, the strategy used the most by students could also be revealed Finally, it attempted to collect not only students‘ attitudes towards the strategy training scheme in general and four sub-memory strategies in particular but their own suggestions for a better future teaching and learning program as well

In short, the study was conducted to answer the four following research questions:

1 What are the problems that the students encounter in their independent vocabulary learning?

2 How does learning the 4 sub-memory strategies help to improve students' vocabulary retention?

3 How much do the students obtain the memory strategies learned in their independent learning?

4 What are the students’ attitudes towards teaching and learning the 4 memory strategies and their suggestions for future teaching and learning program?

sub-3 Significance of the study

In spite of not being the trailblazing study on the application of learning memory strategies on vocabulary retention, this one would be of great benefit for the students who are learning English in general and the ones who are dealing with TOEIC vocabulary in particular, their teachers, and other researchers who are interested in the topic

To begin with, the treatment in the research hoped to hand over students a new way

of approaching vocabulary learning, escaping from the traditional way of listing and learning by heart new words Especially, the recommendations of the research would not only help students to deal with vocabulary problems of impending TOEIC Test, but also improve their life-long vocabulary studying since ―vocabulary learning never stops, even long after grammar system is firmly in place‖ (Thornbury, 2002, p 160)

As for TOEIC instructors in particular and teachers dealing with English vocabulary in general, the findings of the study could be a source of references for them to make a decision on how best to facilitate their students‘ lexicon extension

Last but not least, regarding to the researchers sharing the same interest in vocabulary, this study would be a reliable resource of related literature review and a good reference for them to continue their future work

4 Scope of the study

This study was conducted on 9 students ageing from twenty to twenty two in one TOEIC class These students came from different universities in Hanoi They started the course with rather limited knowledge about TOEIC test and their TOEIC scores at the beginning of the course test ranged from 220- 395

Taken from Oxford‘s (1990) classification of learning strategies, grouping, associating, using imagery and placing new words into a context were four specific memory strategies introduced in this thesis With the application of these four memory

strategies, the teacher - researcher hoped to bring something new and effective in her teaching vocabulary to her students to improve their vocabulary learning

In this thesis, the number of vocabulary employed in the treatment was taken from

the book 600 Essential Words for the TOEIC (Lougheed, 2008) Vocabulary was then

categorized into different topics to deliver to students (see Appendix 1)

5 Methods of the study

The current action research combined both qualitative and quantitative approaches The action actually taken was a vocabulary learning strategy training scheme designed for the duration of nine weeks

5.1 Data collection methods

Data was collected by means of a Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) test, interviews, learners‘ diaries, tests and questionnaires Firstly, a VKS test and a group interview took place before the treatment to identify students‘ problems when dealing with vocabulary Furthermore, a system of tests, namely pre-test, post-test 1 and post-test 2 was employed to measure the improvement of students‘ vocabulary retention in terms of short-

term and long-term after being introduced four sub-memory strategies In addition, during

the treatment, a number of diary entries which were weekly written by students helped to point out the most popular strategies used by students Finally, a questionnaire was distributed via emails to students in order to collect the students‘ attitudes towards teaching and learning the 4 sub-memory strategies and their suggestions for future teaching and learning program

5.2 Data analysis methods

The collected data was categorized under the four research questions To be specific, the data from the VKS test and a group-interview served to answer the first question, the learners‘ diaries addressed the second one, the test scores for the third and questionnaire data referred to the last question

Regarding to the first question, in the VKS test, the students represented how much they had known the word by marking it from 1 to 5 with reference to the 5 scales The teacher then counted the number of each mark for each student, expressed the figure as a percentage and illustrated them in a bar chart In the interview, after the students tried to express their problems in vocabulary learning (both in Vietnamese and in English), the data was translated, generalized, calculated, and described in a table

Next, for the tests, mean scores of the pre-test, and two post-tests were computed and compared with each other in pairs By this way, the improvement of students‘ vocabulary retention in short term and long term could be revealed

With reference to the third question, all the 144 learners‘ diary entries were collected The teacher then calculated the number of each strategy used in each entry These figures were then converted to percentages and given under the format of a pie-chart

to see the most popular strategies

Finally, the data from questionnaire was independently analyzed according to three different parts The first part included three smaller questions addressing three aspects of attitudes towards the strategy training scheme, namely the importance, the effectiveness and the pleasure For each question, the researcher then used calculating percentages to illustrate the data and presented them in three different pie-charts In the second part, after counting all the marks given for each strategy, a mean score was identified The strategy having the highest mean score would be the most favorite one In the last part, data was counted, illustrated by percentages and displayed in a table so that the researcher could make a conclusion of ideas and suggestions for the course, perceived by the students

6 An overview of the rest of the paper

The rest of the paper is categorized into these following parts:

Part B: Development: is divided into three chapters:

• Chapter 1: (Literature review): introduces the theoretical foundations for the

whole study

• Chapter 2: (Methodology): elaborates on the participants, the method used, the

instruments, the data collecting and the data analysis procedure

• Chapter 3: (Results and discussion): presents and analyses all the correct data to

help find out the answers to the three research questions

• Chapter 4: (Recommendations): presents the author‘s suggestions on the learning

and teaching vocabulary strategies based on the research findings and the related literature

Part C: Conclusion: summarizes all the major points in the study, reveals the limitations

of the study and proposes some suggestions for further research

PART B: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter, as its name, provides an overview of the literature related to the study, stretching from the larger to the smaller items in a unified language learning system: from language learning strategies, then vocabulary learning strategies, next, memory strategies and last four sub-memory strategies Besides, this review also reveals some critical analysis about the systems of classifying vocabulary learning strategies as well as the research gap, thus motivating to carry out the study

1.1 Language Learning Strategies

1.1.1 Definition

―Give a man a fish and he eats for a day Teach him how to fish and he eats for a lifetime”

Wenden (1985, cited in Griffiths, 2004) The target of education is not for only today, but for a person‘s whole life Thus, if teachers just give students the answers, their immediate problems may be solved However, if they are taught the way to work out the problems by themselves, they can manage their own learning during their life Therefore, in language teaching and learning, utilizing language learning strategies (LLS) is of great significance

In order to understand what Language Learning Strategies (LLS) are, it is

advisable for the writer to provide a definition of ―strategy‖ first and explain why this term

was chosen for the current study

As the basic meaning in military settings, ―strategy‖ was known as ―the

generalship/ the art of the war‖ or specifically as ―the optimal management of troops, ships or aircraft in a planned campaign‖ (Oxford, 1990, p 7) When moving to

educational field, the strategy concept has been transformed into ―learning strategies‖, which commonly means ―operations employed by the learner to aid the acquisition,

storage, retrieval and use of information‖ (Rigney, 1978, cited in Oxford, 1990, p 8)

Together with ―strategy‖, in his study, Griffiths (2004) also gave out a list of some other alternative terms which are ―more or less synonymous‖ such as ―learning behaviours‖ by Wesche (1977) and Politzer & Mc Groarty (1985); ―tactics‖ by Seliger (1984) and

―techniques‖ by Stern (1992) (p 1) As the fact that Rubin (1975) used ―strategy‖ ―in

perhaps the earliest study in this area and it enjoys the widest currency today‖, ―strategy‖

is used as the official term for this study

Defining LLS is still a controversial issue There has been no general accepted definition of LLS so far The researchers tend to define LLS in their own way of teaching context; as a result, different expressions have been given Singleton (2008) has managed

to collect and illustrate some prominent definitions of LLS in the following table:

Table 1: Definitions of Language Learning Strategies (Singleton, 2008, p 51)

Whereas the early definitions took more concerns about the outcome of LLS like linguistic and sociolinguistic competence, regulating learners‘ learning, facilitating learning; the recent ones tend to focus on the process and characteristics of LLS Some definitions are very broad, while the others seem to be rather specific For instance, Rubin (1987) mentioned about all things learners do to help regulate their studying; whereas, Ellis (1995) just acknowledged LLS in terms of mental and behavior activity

In general, from the table, LLS can be interpreted as ―specific actions, behaviors, steps or techniques that learners used (often deliberately) to improve their progress in

developing their competence in the target language” (Singleton, 2008, p 52)

1.1.2 The importance of Language Learning Strategies

Training students how to use LLS has been proved to give them a big help in language learning In Oxford‘s definition mentioned above, the significance of LLS has

been highlighted as one kind of ―weapons‖ which can ―make learning easier, faster, more

enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and transferrable to new situations‖ Once the learners are equipped with learning strategies, they will be more confident, more motivated and more active in their own learning In other words, learning strategies can help to compensate the weakness in their learning style However, it is not true that all the learners who use learning strategies will be successful in studying language Oxford (1990) emphasized although ―strategies are especially important for language learning‖, only

―appropriate language learning strategies resulted in improved proficiency and greater

self-confidence” (p 1) There have been many researchers studying the differences between

―good learners‖ and ―bad learners‖ in their ways of using strategies Chamot (2004) stated,

―Differences between more effective learners and less effective learners were found in the number and range of strategies used, in how the strategies were applied to the task, and in whether they were appropriate for the task‖ (p 18) The students with strategic way of thinking and working will know what and how they should do to achieve success when dealing with language skills In academic field, this can be easily seen when comparing them with the ones who do not use any kind of learning strategies or use strategies inappropriately

Moreover, language learning strategies are demonstrated to ―encourage greater overall self- direction for learners‖ (Oxford, 1990, p 10) Self-direction can be acknowledged as the ability to be self-responsible and active in grasping new language

Owing to the traditional education system, many learners are passive and ―spoon-fed‖

learners (Oxford, 1990, p 10) who sit and wait until they are told what to do and how to solve the problems This makes their study more and more difficult and they themselves certainly cannot catch up with the updated knowledge LLS are expected to alter this kind

of attitude and behavior towards learning, change passive learners into self-directed ones who can gradually gain more confidence, proficiency and involvement in learning process

Obviously, LLS have played a very important part in language teaching and learning For more understanding about LLS, the nature and key features will be discussed

in the next part

1.1.3 The features of Language Learning Strategies

Once teachers and learners get a good hold of LLS‘ characteristics, it is possible for them to have a deeper and more precise understanding of LLS‘ concepts and a more appropriate way of applying LLS in their own work

This part briefly concerned about two approaches of Oxford (1990) and Singleton (2008) when these two researchers presented the main features of LLS in their books

In her book titled Language Learning Strategies – What Every Teacher Should

Know (1990), Oxford summarized some key features of LLS as follows:

Table 2: Features of Language Learning Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p 9)

To begin with, LLS were discovered to help learners gain knowledge better, thus have a function to orient learners to the target of learning language, communicative

competence Learning strategies help learners to participate in authentic communication in

an active and effective way The proof is that while ―social strategies provide increased interaction and more empathetic understanding, two qualities necessary to reach communicative competence‖, memory strategies help to ―understand and recalling new information‖, and compensation strategies ―aid learners in overcoming knowledge gaps and continuing to communicate authentically‖ etc (Oxford, 1990, p 9)

Agreeing with Oxford about the contribution of LLS in stimulating learners‘ direction, Singleton added ―LLS enable learners to self-regulate their own learning and become autonomous and effective outside the classroom‖ (Singleton, 2008)

self-In terms of the change in teachers‘ role when applying LLS in language class, both the two researchers confirmed its essential movement If the traditional teacher in the past was identified as a manager, a director, an instructor, a judge, a leader now they are expected to become a helper, a guide, a consultant, a facilitator This alteration does not reduce the role of teachers, but strengthen their participations, make them more creative and flexible in working environment Changing teachers‘ roles also require full awareness

of responsibility and direction from learners Once this can be done, the relationship between teachers and learners as well as the effectiveness of teaching and learning will certainly be guaranteed

In addition, two scholars also shared the same view about the problem orientation, action basis and involvement beyond just cognition of LLS Obviously, learners often use LLS when problems befall; for example, memory strategies are mobilized when there is something necessary to be remembered; guessing strategies become useful when students come up against a difficult foreign language reading Besides, as ―LLS are specific actions

or techniques used by learners‖ (Wenden, 1987, cited in Singleton, 2008, p 55), these actions ―are naturally influenced by learners‘ more characteristics or traits, such as learning style, motivation and aptitude‖ In addition, LLS do not only concern about ―mental process or cognitive functions‖, but they also involve ―social, metacognitive and affective aspects‖

As for the observability of LLS, there is an agreement among researchers that some

of the LLS can be observed, while others cannot For instance, when teachers use images

to illustrate the meaning of the words, students can have a look at them; however, when mental associations are made, it is unobservable

Both Oxford (1990) and Singleton (2008) admitted, ―The issue of consciousness and LLS is still controversial Many researchers agree, however, that LLS are often used

deliberately and consciously, but their use can become automatic, i.e subconscious.‖ It can

be seen that whether LLS are ―conscious, potentially conscious or subconscious‖, it

depends on each learner and the task they are engaged in (Singleton, 2008, p 55)

Besides, Singleton (2008) has discussed one more time some factors affecting the choice of LLS which were formerly mentioned in Oxford They can be degree of awareness, stage of learning, task requirements, teacher expectations, age, sex, nationality, general learning style, learner belief, motivation level and purpose of learning

In short, almost twelve features of LLS listed in Oxford‘s study are mentioned and restated in Singleton (2008), but there are still some differences While Singleton (2008)

omitted teachability, Oxford (1990) highlighted it as one important feature of LLS by

proving that LLS are ―easier to teach and modify‖ through strategy training She considered such training a big help for students to learn why they should use LLS, when they can use them and how they can flexibly utilize them in different situations

Furthermore, to supplement for the system of LLS‘ characteristics, Singleton (2008,

p 56) added two more features of systematization and finiteness In the first place, when studying LLS‘ systemization, he supported the view of Bialystok (1990), ―learners do not incidentally discover a language strategy; they use them systematically on the basis of their knowledge.‖ As an illustration, in ancient times, some kinds of memory devices were used

to help story tellers remember their lines These techniques were still rather simple and naturalistic Throughout the history, when more and more knowledge is updated, strategies have been changed by the best language users who gradually ranged language techniques from naturalistic practice to analytic and rule-based ones (Oxford, 1990, p 1) For the

finiteness of LLS, he considered LLS not an ―idiosyncratic creation‖ of each learner and

the number of LLS is limited and completely enumerated

All in all, features of LLS have called a lot of interest from researchers and been more and more fulfilled to accommodate learners with a comprehensive insight about learning strategies in general and LLS in particular

1.1.4 LLS – a sufficient condition for successful learning?

Although LLS are especially important for language learning, is using only LLS enough for the learners to achieve success?

Nowadays, Communicative Language Teaching has been widely used and prevailed in almost language schools in the world This has brought about the movement between the role of teachers and learners; a teacher-directed class has been moved to a learner-directed one, in which a learner will have to learn the way to take control of their

own study This heavy task cannot be fulfilled with just LLS The saying goes: you can

bring a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink In language learning field, the

importance of learners during language learning process should be highlighted If a teacher just provides his/her students with LLS without waking their awareness of self-learning, proficiency cannot occur Language learning is a life-long learning, the teacher can help students today but not forever Learners need to work through their whole life by themselves Therefore, it is the language teachers‘ duty to help their students become more

autonomous in their own study Talking about this, another term called ―learner

autonomy‖ should be concerned

―Learner autonomy‖ is considered a complicated concept to define, but for the

purpose of this thesis, a definition of Richards and Schmidt (2002) can be such a satisfactory one: learner autonomy in language teaching ―is the principle that learners should be encouraged to assume a maximum amount of responsibility for what they learn and how they learn it‖ (p 297)

In this thesis, the combination between the provision of LLS to students and the act

of waking up their responsibility in learning is carefully taken into account

1.2 Vocabulary and Vocabulary Learning Strategies

1.2.1 Vocabulary

1.2.1.1 Definition

Vocabulary is considered a very important aspect of language, yet one of the major challenges that L2 learners have to face during the process of learning a language Before discussing the significance of vocabulary, it is first necessary to clarify the working

definition of vocabulary Originally, vocabulary dated from the Medieval Latin word

vocābulārium as perceived from the freedictionary.com According to Oxford Advanced

Learner‘s Dictionary (7th

edition, p 1707), vocabulary can be defined as (1) ―all the words

that a person knows or uses‖ and (2) ―all the words in a particular language‖ In these

above senses, there appears the term ―words‖ for twice Regarding the connection between

vocabulary and word, McCarthy (1990) stated, ―When we speak of the vocabulary of a

language, we are speaking primarily, but not exclusively, of the words of that language‖ (p.3) Also in the Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary (7th

, p 1758), word ―is a single unit of language which means something and can be spoken or written‖ In short, as the researcher‘s perception, word is somewhat the representation of vocabulary in spoken or written form

In addition, in terms of vocabulary teaching and learning, vocabulary should not be recognized as individual or separated words with fixed meanings More than that, it can be

a combination of words such as collocations (make a complaint, have breakfast…), word units (it‘s amazing how, well and truly…), polywords (at the weekend/ in his opinion…), institutionalized expressions (I‘ll take it, I got it…) or even sentence frames (there is/ there are…) (Lewis, 1993, pp 92-94)

multi-1.2.1.2 The importance of Vocabulary

―…without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be

conveyed‖

David Wilkins (1972, cited in Thornburry, 2002, p 13) Above was the way that David Wilkins, a British linguist acknowledged vocabulary and the significance of vocabulary Thornburry (2002) once more emphasized this by

restating an advice given to the students in the course book titled Innovations, ―If you

spend most of your time studying grammar, your English will not improve very much You will see most improvement if you learn more words or expressions You can say very little with grammar, but you can say almost everything with words‖

In terms of second language teaching and learning; however, vocabulary had been ignored for such a long time In the past, when the Direct Method and Audiolingualism prevailed, teaching of grammatical structures attracted special concern The advent of the Communicative Approach since 1970s has raised awareness of the key role of teaching and learning vocabulary Much more attention has been given to the vocabulary research, in which researchers have attempted to find the relationship between learning strategies and language competence, the factors enhancing vocabulary acquisition, and so on

1.2.1.3 Vocabulary retention and memory systems’ process of working

In the Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary (2005), retention is defined as ―an ability to remember things‖ (p 1297) There is also another definition in the website

http://en.wikipedia.org , in which retention in learning can be defined as ―the ability to

retain facts and figures in memory‖ Although no definition of vocabulary retention in the literature has been found by the researcher, for the purpose of this study, vocabulary retention can be clarified as the storage of vocabulary in the memory, which becomes available for usage when needed

As mentioned above, learning vocabulary is an essential part of mastering a language To achieve vocabulary, learners not only have to learn but to remember a lot of words Indeed, ―learning is remembering‖ (Thornburry, 2002, p 2) He also added the fact that remembering words is not something like remembering grammar as ―it is essentially a rule-based system, vocabulary knowledge is largely a question of accumulating individual items‖ (p 2) Talking about the relationship between learning and remembering, people mention about the connection between language exposure and memory While the term memory more often refers to later storage and retrieval of information, language exposure refers more to processes in the initial acquisition or encoding of information These two factors have reciprocal relationship with each other Information is learned only when it can be retrieved later, and retrieval cannot occur unless information is learned

Not only the relationship between language exposure and memory, but also the way how information can be stored in the memory should be taken into consideration Thanks for this, it is entirely possible for us to explain why some chunks of information seem to stay still, whereas some slip away quickly This is no doubt a matter of concern for both teachers and learners so as to promote effective learning and retention of new language items

Types of memory

The role of memory is crucial in any kind of learning and vocabulary learning is no

exception What we usually think of as ―memory‖ in day-to-day usage is actually long-term

memory, but there are also important short-term store and working memory, which must be

worked through before a long-term memory can be established memory.net)

Short-term store is defined as ―the brain‘s capacity to hold a limited number of

items of information for periods of time up to a few second It is the kind of memory involved in holding in your head a telephone number for as long as it takes to be able to

dial it; or to repeat a word that you‘ve heard the teacher modeling‖ (Thurnburry, 2002, p

23)

Working memory can be thought of as the ability to remember and process

information at the same time This is one kind of process when words are focused long

enough to perform operations on them This is said to be the place where some cognitive tasks such as reasoning, learning and understanding happen (Thornburry, 2002, p 23) It holds a small amount of information (typically around 7 items or even less) in mind in an active, readily-available state for a short period of time (typically from 10 to 15 seconds, or sometimes up to a minute) (http://www.human-memory.net)

Unlike working memory where the capacity to retain words is limited, long-term memory has an enormous capacity and intends for storage of information over a long

period of time However, Thornburry (2002) stated, ―the fact that learners can retain new vocabulary items the length of the lesson (i.e beyond the few seconds‘ duration of the short-term store) but have forgotten them by the next lessons suggests that long-term memory is not always as long-term as we wish Rather, it occupies a continuum from the

―quickly forgotten‖ to the never forgotten‖ (p 24) Thus, it is necessary for the language learners to learn how to move information from the quickly forgotten to the never forgotten To do this, the support of some typical techniques plays such a very important

part In his book How to Teach Vocabulary, Thornburry listed a number of principles

generalized from many research findings in the table follows:

Repetition The time-honored way of memorizing new material is through repeated

rehearsal of the material while it is still in working memory However, simply repeating an item (rote learning) seems to have little long-term effect unless some attempt is made to organize the material at the same time

Retrieval The act of retrieving a word from memory makes it more likely that the

learner will be able to recall it later

Spacing It is better to distribute the memory work across a period of time rather than

to mass it together in a single block For example, when teaching students a new set of words, it is best to present two or three items first, then go back and check them, and then some more, and backtrack again…

Pacing As having different learning styles, learners should be given opportunities to

pace their own rehearsal activities

Use Put words to use is the best way of ensuring they are added to long-term

Imaging Easily visualized words are more memorable than words that don‘t

immediately evoke a picture

Mnemonics These are tricks to help retrieve items or rules that are stored in memory and

that are not yet automatically retrievable

Motivation The only strong motivation makes is that the learner is likely to spend more

time on rehearsal and practice, which in the end will pay off in terms of memory

Just as it is important for learners to make cognitive judgments, it may be

also important to make affective judgments like ―Do I like the sound or look

of the word? Do I like the things that the word represents?‖

Table 3: A collection of some important principles needed to retain vocabulary items

(Adapted from Thornburry, 2002, pp.24-26) The above part has revealed the operating process of three kinds of memory The challenge for a language learner is to transform material from short-term and working memory into long-term memory as once the piece of information has been stored in long-term memory; it can remain there for a very long time, and sometimes even for the rest of one‘s life (http://thebrain.mcgill.ca) Moreover, a number of effective techniques help to retain vocabulary items has just been suggested in the above table This thesis (using memory strategies to improve vocabulary retention) is therefore completely reasonable and practically conducted to test the effectiveness of the techniques in specific student subjects

1.2.2 Vocabulary learning strategies

1.2.2.1 Definition

Vocabulary Learning Strategies (VLS) are one part of LLS which in turn are part of general learning strategies (Nation, 2001) In a specific way, VLS can be concluded as

―specific strategies utilized in the isolated task of learning vocabulary in the target language‖ (Singleton, 2008) However, it does not mean that VLS are only for vocabulary learning, they can be found useful in other types of tasks For instance, when identifying the list of learning strategies used by successful learners, a few VLS was found such as guessing a word‘s meaning from the context, identifying the grammatical category of a word, looking up words, and so on (Hosenfeld, 1984, cited in Singelton, 2008, p 52) Conversely, some general learning strategies such as planning and assessment can be used

in learning vocabulary Nation (2001) defined VLS with the following important features: (1) they involve choice;

(2) they are complex, i.e consisting of several steps;

(3) they require knowledge and benefit from training; and

(4) they increase the efficiency of vocabulary learning and use

(cited in Singleton, 2008, p 52) While research into language strategy field dated from 1970s, by the 1990s, a number of study on VLS were conducted In many studies, a number of general LLS were found to be VLS or be used for vocabulary learning The reason may be ―learning individual lexical items is more manageable than strategically tackling larger, more holistic elements of language proficiency like the four skills or grammatical knowledge‖ (Schmitt, 2010) Some other studies oriented to the effectiveness of applying individual strategy in vocabulary learning

1.2.2.2 Classification of VLS

Starting from the 1990s, studying VLS has been an interest for a great deal of scholars, linguists and language teachers Besides a lot of studies about the relationship between learning strategies and language competence, the differences between the better learners and their peers in the way of using learning strategies or the factors affecting LLS, VLS choice in learning and teaching, developing a comprehensive list or taxonomy of VLS has also been paid attention to by many researchers Among them were some prominent ones such as Stoffer (1995), Gu and Johnson (1996), Schmitt (1997) and Nation (2001)

All these studies have attempted to present as complete a list of VLS as possible

and Schmitt‘s taxonomy of VLS has been considered the most appropriate and efficient one

Stoffer (1995)

The research by Stoffer (1995) was recognized as ―a considerable promise in providing an empirical basis for category assignment‖ (Schmitt, 1997, p 204) In her vocabulary strategy survey, Stoffer included 53 items and then clustered them into 9 groups such as:

(1) strategies involving authentic language use,

(2) strategies involving creative activities,

(3) strategies used for self-motivation,

(4) strategies used to create mental linkages,

(5) memory strategies,

(6) visual/auditory strategies,

(7) strategies involving physical action,

(8) strategies used to overcome anxiety and

(9) strategies used to organise words

(Stoffer, 1995, cited in Schmitt, 1997, p 205) The most frequent strategy was the fourth one: creating mental linkage strategies One more interesting discovery in this study was the fact that learners who learn a language which is distant from English like Russian, Chinese or Japanese tends to use VLS more often Her study is ―one of the first attempts at categorization of VLS, and therefore worth noting‖ (Singleton, 2008)

Gu and Johnson (1996)

Studying on Chinese ELF learners, Gu and Johnson divided 91 statements in their vocabulary learning questionnaire into four big groups: metacognitive, cognitive, memory and activation strategies

Metacognitive strategies are composed of selective attention (what words are

important to learn and are essential for adequate comprehension of a passage) and

self-initiation strategies (a variety of means to clarify the meaning of vocabulary items)

Cognitive strategies include guessing strategies, skillful use of dictionaries and

note-taking strategies

Memory strategies are comprised of rehearsal and encoding categories Word lists

and repetition are examples of rehearsal strategies Encoding strategies entail such strategies as association, imagery, visual, auditory, semantic, and contextual encoding as well as word-structure

Activation strategies involve the strategies through which the learners actually use

new words in different contexts such as setting example sentences

(Gu& Johnson, 1996, cited in Ghazal, 2007, Singleton, 2008) These above strategies suggested by Gu and Johnson can be illustrated in a table as

belonging to two big groups: discovery strategies and consolidation strategies The

majority of the strategies listed were collected from a number of reference books, textbooks, Japanese learners‘ reports and several teachers‘ own experience For Schmitt,

discovery strategies are used when the learners want to determine the meaning of the

words they meet for the first time; or in his words when ―learners are faced with discovering a new word‘s meaning without recourse to another person‘s experience‖ (p 205) This group includes determination and social strategies When encountering the new word, the learner can firstly rely on some available source such as: dictionary, pictures/ gestures or the word‘s part of speech to identify the meaning; secondly, they can use social

strategies to ask teachers or classmates for translation or explanation The second big group

is consolidation strategies for practice and retaining the words once it has been

encountered This group comprises of social, cognitive, memory and metacognitive strategies (see Appendix 2 for Schmitt‘s taxonomy in details)

Nation (2001)

Another taxonomy of VLS has been conducted recently by Nation (2001), in which Singleton (2008) considered, ―the fundamental feature is that the types of strategies refer to various aspects of vocabulary learning‖ Nation introduced 11 VLS in his taxonomy with

three big groups: planning, sources and processes The strategies of planning involve

decisions about which lexical items to attend to, as well as how to focus attention and how often to give attention to the item Learners are expected to know which vocabulary they need, where they can find information, which aspect of knowledge is required Meanwhile,

sources strategies concern ways to find out information about words This information

may include all aspects of word knowledge and can be found in the word itself (word part analysis), the context (guessing from context), sources of reference (dictionaries) or L1

(via analogy) The final set of strategies, processes includes ways to remember words and

make them available for use The following table demonstrates briefly VLS categories according to Nation‘s approach

Table 5: Nation’s taxonomy of VLS (Nation, 2001, p 218)

In a nutshell, when bringing the above classification systems of VLS to compare with

each other, it can be seen that the strongest point of Nation‘s taxonomy is probably its

simplicity Nation only used plain terms to mention different classes and types of strategies This is entirely opposite with Gu and Johnson‘s taxonomy in which psychological terms such as metacognitve, cognitive, activation, self- initiation, etc are widely used Schmitt‘s taxonomy may be the most extensive and detailed one, in which he inherited, collected experience and systematized strategies in a relatively clear way It is not easy to decide which taxonomy is better Although they might be different in some ways, they all serve to ―provide a list of widely applicable vocabulary learning strategies‖ (Ghazal, 2007, p 87) This research took no attempt to fill the gap in changing and correcting the previous scholars‘ VLS system, this study only focused on applying some specific strategies in vocabulary learning in practice and examining the effectiveness of them Although among all classifications, Schmitt‘s taxonomy might receive more appreciation, it is not necessary for this study to employ such complicated and detailed strategies in Schmitt‘s taxonomy The specific strategies used in this study were taken from Oxford‘s (1990) classification of LLS due to its clarification and simplicity

Oxford’s taxonomy

Although Oxford has not taken further steps in classifying VLS, for the purpose of the thesis, four memory strategies were taken from her model as their obviousness in definition and differentiation with others Oxford (1990) included in her system of LLS

two big groups: direct and indirect learning strategies Direct strategies are used directly to

learn a target language, in which memory strategies (e.g.: grouping or using imagery) help the learners to store and retrieve new information, cognitive strategies (e.g.: summarizing

or reasoning deductively) help the learners to produce new language by different tools; and compensation strategies (e.g.: guessing and using synonym) help the learners to use the language regardless of their lack of knowledge

Figure 1: Diagram of Direct Strategies (Oxford, 1990, p.38)

Unlike direct strategies, indirect strategies are used ―indirectly and support learning

without involving the target language directly‖ (Oxford, 1990, p 135) This group included these following strategies: metacognitive strategies that help the learners to control their own learning, affective strategies that help the learners to arrange their emotions and motivations and attitudes, and social strategies that help the learners to cooperate and learn with their peers

Figure 2: Diagram of Indirect strategies (Oxford, 1990, p.136)

The more detailed Oxford‘s taxonomy can be seen in appendix 3

1.3 Memory strategies

1.3.1 Definition of memory strategies

As one group of direct learning strategies set in Oxford (1990), memory strategies (traditionally known as mnemonics) have been found to enhance remembering through the connection of new knowledge with familiar words and images These strategies involve relating the word to be retained with some previously learned knowledge, using some form

of imagery, or grouping, and so on

Thompson (1987) defined memory strategies as the following:

…mnemonics work by utilizing some well-known principles of psychology: a retrieval plan is developed during encoding, and mental imagery, both visual and verbal, is used They help individuals learn faster and recall better because they aid the integration of new material into existing cognitive units and because they provide retrieval cues (cited in Schmitt, 1997)

In a more simple way, memory strategies can be defined as ―…systematic strategies for strengthening long-term retention and retrieval of information‖ (adopted from the website http://education.calumet.purdue.edu )

1.3.2 Why memory strategies?

Memory strategies were taken as the answer to the problem of the present thesis for the two following reasons:

To begin with, learning vocabulary is not an easy task To achieve fluency in communicating, language learners have to remember a large amount of vocabulary As Lord (cited in Oxford, 1990, p 39) stated, ―Vocabulary is by far the most sizeable and unmanageable component in the learning of any language, whether a foreign or one‘s mother tongue because of ten of thousands of different meanings‖ Oxford confirmed that with the help of memory strategies, language learners can entirely overcome this problem

as ―they enable learners to store verbal material, and then retrieve it when needed for communication‖ Besides, as stated in the above part, to retain information, it is necessary for the learners to transform what they learn from the working memory to the permanent long-term memory Choosing memory strategies is one of good choices in this case since

―the memory strategy of structure reviewing helps move information from the ―fact level‖

to the ―skill level‖ (Oxford, 1990) This completely satisfies the learners‘ need since ―when

information has reached the skill level, it is more easily retrieved and less easily lost after a period of disuse‖ (Oxford, 1990, p 40) The effectiveness of memory strategies (mnemonics) was also admitted in Thornburry (2002) when he said, ―Mnemonics are tricks

to help retrieve items or rules that are stored in memory and that are not yet automatically retrievable‖ (p 25)

Secondly, the vocabulary textbook 600 Essential Words for the TOEIC comprises

of many word lists which are said to be presented in the TOEIC test These word lists are

―de-contextualized‖ vocabulary items As Oxford and Scarcella (1994, cited in Nemati,

2009) observed ―while de-contextualized learning (word list) may help students memorize

vocabulary for tests, students are likely to rapidly forget words memorized from lists‖. In this case, rote repetition cannot be a good choice for the students to retain the words a long time after the lesson They should be taught on how to process the words deeply Of ―de-

contextualized‖ vocabulary memorization strategies, ―memory strategies” are strategies

which ―involve deep semantic processing of target word and have been shown to be more effective than memorization techniques which just involve shallow processing such as oral rote repetition‖ (Oxford, 1990) Given the above reasons, the appliance of memory strategies in this thesis is no doubt a reasonable one

1.3.3 Classification of Oxford’s Memory strategies

Oxford (1990)‘s system of memory strategies consists of ten items as follows:

Oxford’s memory

strategies

Definition

Grouping Classifying or reclassifying language material into meaningful

units, either mentally or in writing, to make the material easier to remember by reducing the number of discrete elements

Associating/

elaborating

Relating new language information to concepts already in memory, or relating one piece of information to another, to create associations in memory

Placing new words

into a context

Placing a word or phrase in a meaningful sentence, conversation,

or story in order to remember it

Using imagery Relating new language information to concepts in memory by

means of meaningful visual imagery

Semantic mapping Making an arrangement of words into a picture, which has a key

concept at the center or at the top, and related words and concepts linked with the key concept by means of lines or arrows

Using keywords Remembering a new word by using auditory and visual links

Representing sounds

in memory

Remembering new language information according to its sound

Structured reviewing Reviewing in carefully spaced intervals, at first close together

and then more widely spaced apart

Using physical

response or sensation

Physically acting out a new expression (e.g., going to the door),

or meaningfully relating a new expression to a physically feeling

or sensation (e.g., warmth)

Using mechanical

techniques

Using creative but tangible techniques, especially involving moving or changing something which is concrete, in order to remember new target language information

Table 6: Oxford’s Memory strategies (Adapted from Oxford, 1990, pp 40- 43)

In this study, among ten memory strategy items classified by Oxford (1990) mentioned above, the four sub- memory strategies, grouping, associating, using imagery

and placing new words into a context, were selected for some following reasons To begin

with, these strategies all enable learners to store material and then retrieve it when needed for communication, which was fit for the aims of the study Secondly, these four sub- memory strategies are also four ones which were suggested in the introduction of the book

600 Essential Words for TOEIC – a book used as the course book for the treatment in this

study Last but not least, the selection of these four memory strategies also resulted from the teacher- researcher‘s previous pilot teaching in one class at her university The following sections would serve as a help for the readers to have closer view to these kinds

of strategies

1.3.3.1 Grouping

Grouping or thematic grouping is one of basic strategies in vocabulary learning

This strategy involves the selection and grouping of vocabulary in topics or themes In Oxford (1990)‘s words, it involves ―classifying or reclassifying language material into meaningful units, either mentally or in writing, to make the material easier to remember by

reducing the number of discrete elements‖ (p 40) The topics or themes may be situations, places, feelings, subjects, jobs, among many other possibilities The primary purpose of this strategy is to provide students with basic contextualization and memorization techniques Thematic grouping has been widely used in course- books, dictionaries (monolingual and bilingual) and picture/photo dictionaries, explicitly or implicitly, in a range of teaching methods and approaches This strategy may be put into practice in a number of techniques, which include monolingual or bilingual lists and theme-based syllabuses

Grouping applies any time that a number of items share the same attributes and can

be put into meaningful groups It can serve to organize students' thoughts as they begin a writing or speaking task For example, a student has a hard time remembering the names of furniture in English, so she groups them according to where each item belongs in a house;

or a business major student will try to remember words by dividing them into smaller groups such as marketing vocabulary, accounting vocabulary, and human resources vocabulary, and so on

sub-1.3.3.2 Associating

Associating strategy is used when you ―relate new language information to concept already in memory, or relate one piece of information to another to create associations in memory‖ (Oxford, 1990, p 41) These associations can be simple or complex, mundane

or strange, but they must be meaningful to the learner Associations can be between two things, such as ―bread‖ and ―butter‖, or they can be in the form of multipart

―development‖ such as ―school- book- paper- tree- country- earth‖ They can be also a part of a network, such as a semantic map (Oxford, 1990, p 41)

There are some kinds of associations such as associating words by their structure

(habitué' with habitual), usage (aglet which is the tip of a shoelace with anklet which is an ornament worn on the ankle), meaning (agrarian which means related to agriculture with agro which means the same) and pronunciation (agro which is related to agriculture with

aggro which leads to aggressive)

This following example is one way to deal with associations that an English teacher can use in his/her class:

Word Associations: Things you can search for:

Money Jobs

Word Associations: Places where you see warnings:

Electric wires Subways Cigarette packages

(Lougheed, 2008 )

1.3.3.3 Using imagery

Oxford (1990) defined using imagery as ―relating new language information to concepts in memory by means of meaningful visual imagery, either in the mind or in an

actual drawing‖ (p 41) In the book titled Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and

Pedagogy, Norbert Schmitt and Mc Carthy (1997) just wrote down, ―new words can be

learned by studying them with pictures of their meaning instead of definitions.‖ The image can be a picture of an object, a set of locations for remembering a sequence of words or expressions, or a mental representation of the letters of a word This strategy can be used to remember abstract words by associating such words with a visual symbol or a picture of a concrete object Learners can create their own mental images of a word's meaning Imagery has been shown to be more effective than mere repetition for reading passages and sentences, suggesting it could well be more effective for vocabulary too New words can also be associated with a particularly vivid personal experience of the underlying concept,

for example, a learner mentally connecting the word snow to a memory of playing in the

snow while a child

Students use or create an image that helps them remember information It can be as simple as a pencil drawing, or as complex as a "mental movie." An image also helps students recall vocabulary without translating from their native language Complex images can help students check their comprehension; if there are inconsistencies, then they may need to review the information Using imagery is well suited to any task that involves vivid images or where it is useful to put abstract ideas in concrete form For instance, in order to remember idiomatic expressions, students create funny pictures that illustrate them

1.3.3.4 Placing new words into a context

Placing a new word into a context can be interpreted as ―placing a word or phrase

in a meaningful sentence, conversation, or story in order to remember it‖ (Oxford, 1990, p

41) This strategy involves a form of associating/ elaborating, in which the new information is linked with a context This strategy is not the same as guessing intelligently, which involve using all possible clues, including the context, to guess the meaning

For example, you might not understand the word, acerbity, by itself, but this sentence ―The acerbity of the lemon caused the little girl to spit out the bite she had just

taken‖ makes you understand that the general meaning of acerbity must be ―bitter or sour‖

The context clues "lemon" and "spitting out the bite", which provide more information in

the sentence, help you understand what the vocabulary word means

The strategies discussed above are useful in improving one‘s own vocabulary But learners cannot learn these strategies on their own They need some external help in the way of providing strategy training by their teachers

CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY

The following chapter depicts in detail the methodology of this research paper It includes first the background of the study, the size and characteristics of the sample, the materials used, then the implementation of an action research as well as the description of data collection instruments Furthermore, an elaborate report on the procedures of data collection and data analysis is also incorporated

2.1 The background of the study

2.1.1 The study setting

The study was conducted at one English centre situated in Hanoi capital, Vietnam This centre specializes in teaching English for the beginners who want to take a TOEIC

test in the future There are three main courses for learners, namely (1) Foundation course

(to equip students with general knowledge of four skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing, a system of basic vocabulary and grammar at elementary and pre-intermediate

level; (2) TOEIC A course (to provide students with the beginning knowledge of TOEIC

test by practicing reading and listening comprehension; furthermore, to supply students with a system of frequently used TOEIC vocabulary and a more detailed and advanced

system of grammar points); and (3) TOEIC B course (to train students with necessary

strategies for the test) In this research, the class was at TOEIC A level, at which all the students had passed the first course – Foundation one They all met each other twice a week (on Tuesday and Friday evenings from 6p.m to 8p.m) for the lessons

In terms of the course schedule, it took learners 22 sessions (11 weeks) to finish the course Each session was about two hours

Regarding the objectives of the course, as its name (TOEIC A), this course aimed at helping students to get acquainted with the TOEIC Test‘s format (Listening and Reading) and also providing them with a system of 12 grammar points and basic vocabulary for

TOEIC The main textbook of the course was Starter TOEIC For each session, the teacher

managed to help students to cover one grammar part, one reading or listening part and one vocabulary part which had been clarified in the schedule (see Appendix 1)

The study room was a small room (about 15 square meters), suitable for 12 - 15 students with such modern facilities as tables, desks, a white board, an air conditioner and

a projector All the students were arranged into two rows of desks facing the teacher A

small aisle was left so that the teacher could move backwards and forwards and give lectures as well as participating students‘ group activities

2.1.2 Participants

The subjects of this study were 9 students from twenty to twenty two years old They were three boys and six girls In spite of coming from different universities in HN, they all shared the common goal: taking TOEIC test and getting a suitable certificate required for their future job With a little knowledge about TOEIC test, their performance for the entrance test only ranged from 220- 395 The following table illustrates brief information of 9 participants, including their coded name (X1 to X9) and their TOEIC input marks

Table 7: Student profile

The researcher in this study was also the teacher of the class, who has been working

as a lecturer at the University of Languages and International Studies, Hanoi National University, Vietnam for three years so far This class was the one in which she did her part-time job In this action research, she was both the practitioner and the researcher Not only was she responsible for the design and implementation of the vocabulary-learning strategy training, but she collected and analyzed the data as well

2.1.3 Materials

All the vocabulary being taught in this course was taken from the book entitled 600

Essential Words for the TOEIC by Dr Lougheed - 3rd edition (2008) It should be noted that in the course‘s schedule, vocabulary teaching and learning was treated as a separated

part with others as it was added as a supplementary material to provide learners with

necessary TOEIC words There were four big topics of TOEIC vocabulary included in the

course: General Business, Personnel, Purchasing, and Financing & Budgeting Each topic

was then divided into three or four small sub- topics

W 1

1 Orientation

2 TOEIC Vocabulary in general

W 2

3 General Business: Contract

4 General Business: Marketing

W 3

5 General Business: Business Planning

6 General Business: Conferences

W 4

Personnel: Job advertising and Recruiting

8 Personnel: Applying and Interviewing

W 5

9 Personnel: Hiring and Training

10 Personnel: Salaries and benefits

19 Financing and Budgeting: Accountings

20 Financing and Budgeting: Investments

W 11

22 Revision and Tests Table 8: Schedule of Vocabulary Teaching for TOEIC A class

Each sub-topic included about 8-10 words regardless of their word-family

According to the schedule of the course, the teacher was in charge of designing in-class

and at-home handouts for students to study In the former ones, teachers gave out the

activities, through which students were helped to approach new vocabulary items using four sub-memory strategies in turn At-home handouts were delivered to students after each lesson as a way to revise vocabulary items and let students self-practise with VLS Specially, this process would be all reported in learners‘ diaries later (see Appendix 7 for the sample of handouts)

2.1.4 TOEIC and TOEIC vocabulary

TOEIC test stands for the Test of English for International Communication by ETS (Educational Testing Service) TOEIC test questions are based on real-life work settings in

an international environment; for example: meetings, travel, telephone conversations, and

so on

In terms of TOEIC test‘s purpose, for organizations, the TOEIC test is appropriately used to test the English levels of the staffs, to recruit, promote or deploy employees Sometimes, they can use TOEIC test scores to select staffs for English technical training or working abroad, sometimes for assessment of the effectiveness of the English training programs to staffs For individuals, TOEIC scores are used to demonstrate learners‘ ability to use English, to apply for new jobs or to set up English learning goals

and to monitor their progress (adapted from www.toeic.com.vn)

There are three types of TOEIC tests such as TOEIC Listening and Reading test; TOEIC Bridge test; and TOEIC Speaking and Writing test At the present, the TOEIC Listening and Reading test is widely applied in Vietnam When the TOEIC Listening and Reading test is taken together with the TOEIC Speaking and Writing test, TOEIC test scores provide an accurate measure of proficiency in all four English language skills

The TOEIC Listening and Reading test is a two-hour multiple-choice test consisting of 200 questions divided into two parts: 100 questions in listening comprehension and 100 questions in reading comprehension Each candidate receives independent marks for written and oral comprehension on a scale from 5 to 495 points The total score then adds up to a scale from 10 and 990 points The TOEIC certificate exists in five colours, corresponding to achieved results: orange (10-215), brown (220-465), green

(470-725), blue (730-855) and gold (860-990) (adapted from www.toeic.com.vn)

Like other international exams, to be ready for the TOEIC test, test-takers are expected to equip themselves with a strong system of English vocabulary Since every single question on the test will measure our understanding of English vocabulary words, by improving vocabulary, one can earn a much higher score on his/ her exam Thus, it is obvious that a strong English source of vocabulary items is critical in a TOEIC test However, at the beginning of the course, many people wonder: ―What is TOEIC vocabulary?‖; ―Is there any difference between TOEIC vocabulary and vocabulary in general?‖; ―Are TOEIC words all specialized ones?‖ To take an easier way of approaching