Foreignization and domestication of culture specific items in two vietnamese translations of the english novel the wind in the willows

48 Answer to research question 2: Which domestication and foreignization-oriented procedures are the most dominant as the treatment of all the culture-specific items in general and for

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

VƯƠNG THU HẰNG

FOREIGNIZATION AND DOMESTICATION OF CULTURE-SPECIFIC ITEMS IN TWO VIETNAMESE TRANSLATIONS OF THE ENGLISH

NOVEL “THE WIND IN THE WILLOWS”

(Ngoại lai hóa và bản địa hóa các yếu tố đặc thù văn hóa trong hai bản dịch

Anh-Việt “Gió qua rặng liễu” và “Gió đùa trong liễu”)

M.A MAJOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Linguistics Code: 8220201.01

HÀ NỘI - 2020

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

VƯƠNG THU HẰNG

FOREIGNIZATION AND DOMESTICATION OF CULTURE-SPECIFIC ITEMS IN TWO VIETNAMESE TRANSLATIONS OF THE ENGLISH

NOVEL “THE WIND IN THE WILLOWS”

(Ngoại lai hóa và bản địa hóa các yếu tố đặc thù văn hóa trong hai bản dịch

Anh-Việt “Gió qua rặng liễu” và “Gió đùa trong liễu”)

M.A MAJOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Linguistics Code: 8220201.01

Supervisor: Assoc Prof Dr Lê Hùng Tiến

HÀ NỘI - 2020

i

DECLARATION

I hereby state that the major programme thesis entitled “Foreignization and Domestication of Culture-specific Items in Two Vietnamese Translations of the English Novel “The Wind in the Willows”” has been conducted and submitted in

partial of fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts at the Faculty

of Postgraduate Studies, University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi I confirm that this submission is my own work and has not been submitted for any other degree, and all the references to other works mentioned in the paper have been cited properly, to the best of my knowledge and belief

Vương Thu Hằng

Hà Nội, June 2020

Next, I feel profoundly grateful to my supervisor, Assoc Prof Dr Lê Hùng Tiến, for his enthusiastic support and encouragement that helped me surmount difficulties Without his valuable contributive advice, this study could not have been completed

Besides, my heartfelt thanks are given to my classmates from class QH2016D1 for standing by my side and urging me on throughout the research period I genuinely appreciate their support and constant encouragement

Also, I am much obliged to other fellow friends of mine Thanks to their positive suggestions and encouragement, I could possibly gain great inspirations Their provision

of rare and precious reference materials was real help to me

Ultimately, I am deeply indebted to my husband and my whole family for their wholehearted support Thanks to them, I could maintain high motivation and study in favorable conditions

is more prevailing than domestication to treat 171 culture-specific items in both of the translations Intratextual gloss and linguistic (non-cultural) translation are the most dominant foreignizing procedures, and deletion and absolute universalization are the most dominant domesticating procedures The procedures used to treat each type of culture-specific items are also identified Most of food and drink items are foreignized through linguistic (non-cultural) translation and intratextual gloss Toponyms are frequently foreignized through repetition and extratextual gloss Ecological items are mainly foreignized through linguistic (non-cultural) translation

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES, AND ABBREVIATIONS vi

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Statement of the problem and rationale for the study 1

1.2 Aims and objectives of the study 4

1.3 Scope of the study 4

1.4 Organization 6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Culture-specific items 7

2.1.1 Definition of culture-specific items 7

2.1.2 Categorization of culture-specific items 8

2.1.2.1 Klingberg (1986) 8

2.1.2.2 Newmark (1988) 11

2.1.2.3 Stempleski and Tomalin (1993) 14

2.1.2.4 Aixelá (1996) 15

2.1.2.5 Davies (2003) 16

2.1.2.6 Other theoretical frameworks of CSIs in the 21st century 17

2.1.2.7 Taxonomy of culture-specific items adopted in this research 19

2.2 Domestication and foreignization 21

2.2.1 Concepts of domestication and foreignization 21

2.2.2 Local procedures of domestication and foreignization of CSIs 23

2.2.2.1 Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) 23

2.2.2.2 Aixelá (1996) 25

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2.2.2.3 Hervey and Higgins (1992) 29

2.2.2.4 Bastin (in Baker, 1998) 32

2.2.2.5 Laviosa and Braithwaite (1998) 33

2.2.2.6 Harvey (2000) 36

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 40

3.1 Research method 40

3.2 Research corpus 41

3.3 Procedure of data collection 42

3.4 Procedure of data analysis 44

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 47

Answer to research question 1: To what extent are the culture-specific items domesticated and foreignized in the two Vietnamese translations “Gió qua rặng liễu” by Nguyên Tâm and “Gió đùa trong liễu” by Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh? 48

Answer to research question 2: Which domestication and foreignization-oriented procedures are the most dominant as the treatment of all the culture-specific items in general and for each type of culture-specific items in particular? 61

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 77

5.1 Recapitulation 77

5.2 Implications 80

5.3 Limitations 83

5.4 Suggestions for further research 84

REFERENCES 86 APPENDIX 1 I APPENDIX 2 XVII

TT1: “Gió qua rặng liễu” translated by Nguyên Tâm (2006)

TT2: “Gió đùa trong liễu” translated by Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh (2017)

List of tables

Page

Table 1.1: Taxonomy of culture-specific items by Aixelá (1996) 15

Table 1.2: Taxonomies of culture-specific items in the 21st century 18

Table 1.3: Taxonomy of culture-specific items synthesized in this

Table 4.1: Frequency and percentage of the overall strategies of

domestication and foreignization applied in “Gió qua

Table 4.2: Frequency of domestication and foreignization for each

Table 4.3: Frequency of domestication and foreignization-oriented

Table 4.4: Frequency of foreignization and domestication-oriented

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List of figures

Page

Figure 1.1: Newmark’s taxonomy of culture-specific items (1988) 12

Figure 1.2: Taxonomy of culture-specific items by Stempleski and

Figure 1.3: Taxonomy of culture-specific items by Davies (2003) 17

Figure 2.1: Aixelá’s taxonomy of domestication and

Figure 2.2: Hervey and Higgins’s taxonomy of foreignization and

Figure 2.3: Taxonomy of domestication and foreignization-oriented

procedures adopted in this research based on the

Figure 4.1: Percentage of the types of culture-specific items collected

Figure 4.2: Percentage of foreignization and domestication-oriented

Figure 4.3: Percentage of foreignization and domestication-oriented

Figure 4.4: Percentage of foreignization and domestication-oriented

procedures applied to treat CSIs about food and drink 71

Figure 4.5: Percentage of foreignization and domestication-oriented

procedures applied to treat ecological CSIs 73

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

This chapter makes the statement of the research problem and gives the rationale

of the study Besides, it presents the aims and objectives of the study, its significance and its organization

1.1 Statement of the problem and rationale for the study

In the present era of globalization and integration, translation has become increasingly significant in various areas in countries across the world because it is necessary for people to overcome the language barrier in order to successfully communicate with one another Translation has been defined over the past decades Among the earliest definitions, the one proposed by Hartman and Stock (1972 - Cited

in Tiến & Bắc, 2008) said that translation was the substitution of a source language unit with an equivalent target language unit Then, Larson (Cited in Tiến & Bắc, 2008) defined translation as a procedure of three major steps of examining SL factors, grasping their meaning then and reconstructing it with TL units appropriate for the target culture

It could be seen that Larson’s definition shows more interest in the naturalness of translation In other words, Larson’s approach seems more TL-oriented Besides, Munday (2001) considered translation as either “the general subject field, the product (the text that has been translated) or the process (the act of producing the translation, otherwise known as translating)” (pp 4-5) Generally, there have been various definitions of translation, and each emphasizes different issues in translation Among them, there have been discussions about whether translation should be SL-oriented or TL-oriented The task of translation has never been easy due to many factors including complicated cultural and linguistic factors among which are culture-specific items Concerning cultural translation, culture-specific items are embedded with very special connotation; therefore, the successful translation of one “cultural word” has never been

an easy task To deal with culture-specific words or phrases, there are two basic strategies proposed by Venuti (1995) Controversy surrounding domestication and

be missed

Internationally, there have been various studies on the same research problem Locally, there is a research gap in existing research As for the pair of English and Vietnamese, there has been a shortage of studies conducted in the same way as this

research Nguyễn Thị Hương (2011) carried out a study named “Foreignization and domestication in Trinh Lu's Vietnamese translation of “Life of Pi" by Yann” The study

examined a collection of 33 CSIs adopting the taxonomy of CSIs proposed by Espindola (2006) and the framework of translation procedures by Kwiencinski (2001) and resulted

in the finding of the dominance of foreignization through the English-Vietnamese translation In 2014, Dương Thị Ngọc Anh researched on the domestication and

foreignization in the English-Vietnamese translation of “Let’s pretend this never happened” by Jim Brenton in her bachelor thesis The study, combining different

models of CSIs and translation procedures, focused not only on CSIs but also on other aspects including wordplay and syllables The result based on the analysis of 45 CSIs showed a similarity with the finding of the afore-mentioned research by Hương (2011) that foreignization occurred more frequently than domestication Apparently, CSIs have gradually received more attention when in the following year Lã Thị Hồng Hải (2015) and Phạm Thị Quỳnh Anh (2015) both carried out studies on them despite their different

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approaches Hải (2015) laid more emphasis on CSIs together with idioms and colloquialisms Meanwhile, Anh (2015) concentrated on proper names The former research applying the theory offered by Venuti (1995) and Aixelá (1997) displayed the result that most of the time, foreignization was adopted to treat CSIs but domestication was preferred by the translator to deal with idioms and colloquialisms This research did not focus on discussing in detail procedures as the manifestation of domestication and foreignization The latter study centered around 109 proper names and disregard other types of CSIs The result showed little difference from the previous ones Accordingly, foreignization appeared to be dominant Recently, the prominent study related to the translation of culture-specific items conducted by Triệu Thu Hằng (2019) discusses the translation quality assessment rather than the translation strategies, particularly domestication and foreignization So far, there have been a considerable quantity of papers striving to explore the translation of CSIs, especially the domestication and foreignization strategies international; however, nationally, in Vietnam, this area has not attracted sufficient attention that it deserves A certain number of works have been implemented and showed a resemblance in the dominance of foreignization over domestication in the treatment of CSIs Nonetheless, they discover dissimilar aspects of CSIs using various taxonomies and frameworks In addition, the size of their data is still modest Therefore, no valid generalization has been made about the treatment of CSIs

in English-Vietnamese translation This current situation sets a reasonable requirement for further research on this issue

This research will explore more about this phenomenon in the way of examining the translator’s application of domestication and foreignization in translation, specifically translating a children’s novel as a novel written for children will necessarily use either of the above strategies to deal with culture-specific items for children’s understanding

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1.2 Aims and objectives of the study

The purpose of this research is to describe and explore the manifestation of domestication and foreignization in the two Vietnamese translations of the English children’s novel “The wind in the willows” by two translators Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh and Nguyên Tâm The research does not aim to assess the quality of the translations The major aim of the research is to identify the domestication and foreignization of culture-specific items appears in the novel for children To compare and contrast the phenomenon in the two works done by two different translators to figure out the way they deal with culture-specific items using the strategies, which, together with other and further research, contributes to the enablement of the suggested approaches to translating culture-specific items as for the type of literature for children To reach the above goals, the study will answer the following questions:

1 To what extent are the culture-specific items domesticated and foreignized in the two Vietnamese translations “Gió qua rặng liễu” by Nguyên Tâm and “Gió đùa trong liễu” by Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh?

2 Which domestication and foreignization-oriented procedures are the most dominant as the treatment of all the culture-specific items in general and for each type

of culture-specific items in particular?

1.3 Scope of the study

The study focuses on the field of culture-specific items and their translation strategies of domestication and foreignization together with local procedures Its major aims to discover the overall strategies that translators have used to tackle those culture-specific items in English-Vietnamese translation to check whether foreignization or domestication is more prevalent The results can help discover a way to overcome possible translation difficulties encountered by translators, especially those lacking experience when dealing with CSIs

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The subjects that are used in the research are the whole book “The wind in the willows” written by Kenneth Grahame and their Vietnamese versions “Gió qua rặng liễu” translated by Nguyên Tâm (2006) and “Gió đùa trong liễu” translated by Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh (2017) The source text has a total of 12 chapters It retells a story of main characters who are animals living in the context of the Great Britain in somewhere between the Victorian and Edwardian periods It is said that even though “The wind in the willows” is a children’s novel, it is suitable for the readers of different ages as well

In the Introduction of the novel itself written by the publisher Wordsworth Editions, it

is stated that “this one was about animals such as could be loved equally by young and old” (Grahame, 1993, p 7) The world of the animals in the story reflects much of the world of the British people at that time

The CSIs taken from the ST are mostly at the word or phrase level Rare cases are in full sentences This is partly because this study has adopted a less linguistically oriented approach, which often focuses on the analysis of syntactic, grammatical and other linguistic aspects of the CSIs, but a more culturally oriented approach based on the chosen framework of CSI categorization adapted from different works, particularly Espindola (2005) and the theory of domestication and foreignization-oriented procedures proposed by Aixelá (1996) There might be a variety of CSIs in the ST but only potential CSIs fulfilling the definitions and falling into the adopted taxonomy have been chosen Therefore, certain units such as idioms, metaphors, wordplays and so forth are not the focus of this study

Based on the research questions which have been raised in the previous part, the study concentrates on the identification of the types of CSIs and the domestication and foreignization-oriented overall strategies and local procedures to treat the whole range

of selected CSIs and each type of CSIs The manner in which and the reason why the translators have decided to adopt a certain procedure or follow either of the two strategies are not the goals of this study and are considered as the suggestions for further study That means further research could be carried out to clarify how the translators

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rendered the items or what steps they actually took to translate them and factors interfering in their translation process

1.4 Organization

The study has been organized into 5 chapters as following:

Chapter 1 - Introduction consists of the statement of the research problem, the rationale

of the study, the aims and objectives of the study, its significance and organisation Chapter 2 - Literature review presents the theoretical background of the study, including the theory about definition, types and characteristics of English culture-specific items and the translational theory which focuses on translation definition, culture-specific term translation difficulties and strategies

Chapter 3 - Methodology shows and justifies the research methods, specifically research sampling, data collection and analysis procedures

Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion presents the research findings which respectively answer to the research questions

Chapter 5 - Conclusion summarizes the key results of the study, points out its limitations and eventually offers suggestions for further research

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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the theoretical background of the study, which includes the definitions and categories of English culture-specific items and the translational perspectives which emphasize the translation strategies and local procedures to treat culture-specific items, is presented In other words, the typical taxonomies of culture-specific items and translation procedures, which are oriented towards foreignization and domestication, are displayed, analyzed and synthesized to build the theoretical frameworks

2.1 Culture-specific items

In the field of translation, culture-specific items are undeniably important and interesting They are so highly concerned that many studies have researched on them in terms of their definition and categorization A variety of culture-specific items are popular in texts, especially literary works They reflect certain aspects of the native culture mentioned in the work

2.1.1 Definition of culture-specific items

When discussing translation and culture in “A textbook of translation” published

in 1988, Peter Newmark agrees that culture is suggestive of “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression.” He proposed different concepts about language, which includes

“cultural” and “universal” to help distinguish cultural manifestations In his viewpoint,

he saw no translation challenge in translating universals Translation issues would rise

in processing cultural words “unless there is cultural overlap between the source and the target language (and its readership)” (p 94) Following his proposal of cultural words versus universal words, Peter Newmark also expressed his ideas which signifies that

dialect words are not viewed as cultural words if they represent universals rather than

those carrying cultural connotations Besides, he also touched upon the concept of

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“cultural focus”, which is “when a speech community focuses its attention on a particular topic” (p 94), leading to the development of a multitude of terminology Cultural focus usually goes hand in hand with translation challenges due to cultural gap, which is also called cultural distance between SL and TL Together with his definition

of cultural words, Newmark also discusses that language is not considered a component

of culture but it contains “all kinds of cultural deposits” from the grammar, ways of address to the lexis “The more specific a language becomes for natural phenomena (e.g., flora and fauna) the more it becomes embedded in cultural features, and therefore creates translation problems” (p 95) Cultural words are detectable because they cannot be translated directly in a literal way, which cannot transfer the meaning properly, even in case of cultural customs depicted in ordinary language Peter Newmark also points out that cultural objects may consist of “a relatively culture-free generic term or classifier” and “various additions in different cultures” In addition, his study also presents the idea that cultural words are “always less context-bound than ordinary language” (p 96)

According to Mustafar (2018), regarding their definition, CSIs belong to the terminology of the ST and are related to the SC It poses a difficulty to translate them due to the differences in content, subject matter, system from the TT and TC, which results in the lack of translation equivalents

2.1.2 Categorization of culture-specific items

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more specific, literary references refer to those about characters and incidents in

literary productions as well as titles of literary writings and other publications In addition, they could be loanwords from other languages but not necessarily from the source language According to Klingberg, those languages could be either imagined or unimagined The familiarity of literary terms and the status of publication titles help the translator make decision on appropriate translation procedures to deal with them

Foreign language occurring in the ST should be regarded in this manner as well The

similarity and dissimilarity of the foreign language happening in the ST to the target readership should be major factors for the translator to opt for a translation procedure

Cultural references relevant to mythology and popular belief include

“supernatural beings, concepts, events, and customs” (Dukmak, 2012, p 70) There are some special cases which could occur to the cultural references of this kind These terms could have equivalents in the TL, or they could convey a unique sense in the SL which

is confusing to the TL readership In another case, the words could be coined by the ST writer Besides, cultural words belong to this type could be unknown to the majority of people in the TC They might be familiar ideas to the SL readership but not the TL readership Eventually, cultural words of this category could originate from another language with a form resembling to some extent to the form of the TL terms

Culture-specific items about historical, religious and political background

pose a translation issue which is closely related to the research objectives of this study which is about translation strategies of domestication and foreignization due to possible

“different religious faiths and customs” and “difficulties arising from dealing with

political references” (Dukmak, 2012, p 72) Buildings, home furnishing and food are

of great attraction to readers particularly children According to Klingberg (Cited in Dukmak, 2012, p.73), “children are interested in the detailed description of food in

literature” as well as “what children eat and drink in a different culture” Customs and practice, play and games of the SC which are foreign to or different from the TC also

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cause translation challenges, in which the translator possibly needs to think about suitable translation strategies to treat them properly

Regarding flora and fauna, translation issues arise when there is no name

referring to trees, flowers, bushes and creatures in the TC Besides, when the SL names

of plants and animals could make mention of multiple species in the SC The category

of personal names, titles, names of domestic animals and names of objects received

great concentration from Klingberg Personal names are subdivided into five smaller groups The first group centers around “personal names belonging to everyday language”, which do not bear any particular meanings such as the names “Andrew, Matthew, Priscilla and Esme” in Joan G Robinson's When Mamie Was There (1967) (Dukmak, 2012, p 75) Next, it is about “personal names belonging to everyday language, the meaning of which has been utilized by the author in a way not intelligible

to the readers of the target text” such as “the name “Goodenough” from The Borrowers Afield (1995) by Mary Norton” (Dukmak, 2012, p 75) The third type is comprised of

“personal names not belonging to everyday language and with a meaning essential for the understanding’, which are said not be popular nowadays any longer and could be illustrated by “Jenny Peace, Dolly Friendly, and Lucy Sly” (Dukmak, 2012, p 75) In addition to the three previous subcategories of personal names, the fourth subdivision is made up of “fictitious personal names with a special melodious ring” as illustrated by

“Mumintrollet, Snorkarna and Snusmumriken from The Finn Family Moomintroll

(1984) by Tove Janson” (Dukmak, 2012, p 75) Lastly, the other fifth subdivision is composed of “personal names which are loans from a primary language” (Dukmak,

2012, p 76) The primary language mentioned here could be either a fictitious primary language or a real one A fictious primary language means that the primary language

might originate from a mythical nation such as the name “Zardeenah” in The Horse and his Boy by C S Lewis (Dukmak, 2012, p 76) With regard to titles, there are familiar

English titles such as “Mr., Mrs., and Miss” and also mythical titles such as “Tisroc’ as

“the title of the ruler of ‘Calormen’ in The Horse and his Boy” (Dukmak, 2012, p 76)

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With reference to names of domestic animals, they are supposed to be coped with in the same manner as personal names However, in several cases, names of domestic animals could carry “a descriptive meaning” which might require translation or explanation (Dukmak, 2012, p 76) For instance, ““a dog called “Scamp” and a horse called

“Prince”” are the examples of names with descriptive meanings (Dukmak, 2012, p 76) Names of objects include names of boats and could bear a particular meaning in them such as “The Adventure” appearing “in the English Finn Family Moomintroll” (Dukmak, 2012, p 77) Another major category in the framework of cultural references

by Klingberg in 1986 is geographical names As regards geographical names such as

“Thames”, “Fosse Way”, Klingberg’s viewpoint is that their “standard forms” could exist in the target language or not (p 77) They could include “a common noun” in them

In some cases, geographic names could become ambiguous to understand for the target readership The final significant category in the framework of cultural references

proposed by Klingberg is weights and measures Translation matters can arise when

non-metric measures such as “mile” occur in the source texts For some languages there

is no equivalents for such non-metric measures in the target language Pertaining to currency, several foreign currencies could pose translation challenges such as “half-crown” (p 78) Unfixed exchange rates are a matter to consider when dealing with currency translation

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Figure 1.1: Newmark’s taxonomy of culture-specific items (1988)

Firstly, as for Ecology, cultural words belonging to this type are geographical features

which “are usually value-free, politically and commercially”, according to the Newmark (1988, p The popularity of ecological words is affected by “the importance of their country of origin and their degree of specificity”, which could contribute to whether they could be considered cultural words or not “The importance, and geographical and political proximity of their countries” can increase or decrease the familiarity of cultural local words Several ecological features can “become more or less a lexical item in the

‘importing’ TL” if they are commercially significant Furthermore, a couple of ecological features may not be interpreted “denotatively or figuratively, in translation”

in the places where those ecological features “are irregular or unknown” (Newmark,

1988, pp 96-97) As proposed by Newmark, “the species of flora and fauna are local and cultural, and are not translated unless they appear in the SL and TL environment” (Newmark, 1988, p 97) When they are used in a technical manner, terms describing

Food, clothes, houses and towns, transport

Social culture Work and leisure

Organisations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts

Political and administrative, religious, artistic

Gestures and habits

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“botanical and zoological classifications” could be considered as an international

language Next, about Material culture (artefacts), Newmark has clarified material

culture into smaller subcategories such as food, clothes, houses, transport and flora and fauna Regarding food, according to Newmark (1988), “food is for many the most sensitive and important expression of national culture” (p 97) In English, foreign food terms such as Italian and Greek terms, particularly French words, could appear in different settings including menus, cookbooks, food guides, tourist brochures, journalism Those food terms require the translator to decide appropriate translation procedures to resolve the translation issue, which is the cultural aspects of those terms Clothes are another potential culture-bound case In English, many words referring to women’s clothes are French At the same time there are many national costumes typical for each country worldwide They may require the translator to explain for TL readers

or to use generic nouns or some classifiers, or even replace the cultural clothes-relevant terms Similar to food and clothes, “many language communities have a typical house which for general purposes remains untranslated” (Newmark, 1988, p 98) as well as different parts of the houses could be cultural words As for transport, there are many neologisms, vogue-words as well as anglicisms created by innovations together with commercialization In his work, it is also noted that different carriage terms could produce local color However, nowadays, many terms related to transport such as cars and planes are near-internationalisms, probably for the educated laymen Concerning

the division of social culture, which centers around work and leisure terms, it is

essential to figure out the denotative and connotative meaning of the terms Several expressions could pose translation challenges, which are “the connotative difficulties of words” (Newmark, 1988, p 98) Terms about working classes could be used for a particular purpose As for entertainment, culture-specific items include “national games with their lexical sets”, several non-team games, card-games or gambling games

(Newmark, 1988, p 99) About the category of organisations, customs, activities, procedures, concepts, Newmark (1988) emphasizes terms reflecting the political

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aspects, social features of a country This major category contains institutional terms such as “the title of a head of state”, “the name of a parliament”, government-relevant terms, ministries, parties, a public body, national organisations, government posts, political concepts Terms falling into this category could be historical institutional terms, international institutional terms, religious terms, artistic terms including “names of buildings, museums, theatres, opera houses” and so forth (Newmark, 1988, p 99) Newmark recommends considering transference or naturalization with description depending on the educational level of TL readership and the universality of the terms

The final group of cultural words are associated with gestures and habits Some

gestures and habits, which are “often described in non-cultural language” exist in several cultures but not in other ones, or some occur in different cultures with different meanings (Newmark, 1988, p 103); therefore, in situations with ambiguity, the translator needs to distinguish between the description and the function of the gestures and habits, especially the TL readership and settings for the most satisfactory translation

2.1.2.3 Stempleski and Tomalin (1993)

From a pedagogical approach to teaching culture, in their work named “Culture awareness” first published in 1993, Stempleski and Tomalin reviewed “achievement culture” and “behaviour culture”, which respectively foregrounds “elements of British and American culture - history, geography, institutions, literature, art and music – and the way of life” and “culturally-influenced beliefs and perceptions, especially as expressed through language, but also through cultural behaviours” (p 6) The categorization adopted by Stempleski and Tomalin (1993) is manifested through the diagram below

items are divided into two fundamental groups, which are proper nouns and common expressions

Proper nouns Conventional names and loaded names

Common expression Objects, institutions, habits, opinions restricted to culture

Table 1.1: Taxonomy of culture-specific items by Aixelá (1996)

In details, proper names are classified into two categories, which are conventional

names carrying no meaning and loaded names Conventional names include “important toponyms, historical fictional or non-fictional names like saints, kings, etc.” (p 60)

Products

• Literature, forklore, art, music, artefacts

Behaviours

• Customs, habits, dress, foods, leisure

Ideas

• Beliefs, values, institutions

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Loaded names are literary ones, which “range from faintly “suggestive” to overtly

“expressive” names and nicknames” (p 59) Loaded names subsume fictional or fictional ones connected with history or culture As regards to the other group of culture-

non-specific items, common expressions incorporate “the world of objects, institutions,

habits and opinions restricted to each culture and that cannot be included in the field of proper names” (Aixelá, 1996, p 59) According to Aixelá (1996), culture-specific items pertaining to this group are of more considerable perplexity with “supratextual, textual

or intratextual factors” (p 60)

2.1.2.5 Davies (2003)

In her commonly cited work named “A goblin or dirty nose? The treatment of culture-specific references in translations of the Harry Potter books” published in “The Translator” in 2003, Eirlys E Davies proposed her distinction of culture-specific items

in an alternative approach to this translation issue, which shows a wider perspective (Dukmak, 2012) The culture-specific items in her research gathered from Harry Potter books were categorized into “networks of culture-specific items” (Dukmak, 2012, p 79) Davies (as cited in Dukmak 2012) did not cope with culture-specific items singly but paid more attention to “their global effect of the whole text” (p 79)

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Figure 1.3: Taxonomy of culture-specific items by Davies (2003)

The first network embodies items which are illustrative of the British features of the setting such as “food, traditions and school customs” (p 79) Apart from references to

“realistic background” of Harry Potter books, with respect to the second network of culture-specific items, it contains literary expressions, wordplay such as “puns (e.g Diagon Alley, Floo powder), anagrams (e.g Erised, Tom Marvolo Riddle rearranged into I am lord Voldemort), evocative acronyms (S.P.E.W., N.E.W.T.S.) and sound patterns (Moaning Myrtle, Rita Skeeter)”, proper names, fictional toponyms and non-fictional place names (Dukmak, p 83)

2.1.2.6 Other theoretical frameworks of CSIs in the 21 st century

The 21st century has witnessed continued interests in matters about specific items There have been a variety of studies, which have adopted the theories of distinguished scholars in the previous time and proposed different models of the categories of culture-specific items The following table shows several representative theoretical frameworks by way of illustration

culture-Networks of culture specific items

Food, traditions, school customs

Literary references and wordplay (toponyms, proper names, puns, anagrams, acronyms, sound patterns)

CSIs by Firooskoohi &

Zare-Behtash (2009)

CSIs by Espindola & Matielo (2011)

Table 1.2: Taxonomies of culture-specific items in the 21 st century

As Espindola in 2005 independently and in 2006 and 2011 in collaboration with her research fellows undertook different research studies on the translation of subtitles in the field of audiovisual or multimedia translation, the framework of a total of 12 types

of culture-specific items was adopted Among those culture-specific item categories,

toponyms pertain to the proper names of locations, geographical zones, or sections of

the terrestrial sphere or their natural and non-natural attributes Connected with

anthroponyms, they signify the names of average or widely-publicized people or the

nicknames given to them and names indicating regional background and enabling the

establishment of identity Another type of culture-specific items, forms of entertainment, concerns multifarious forms of recreation, which could be demonstrated

by recitals, with their offered services such as receptions, banquets and business meals

One further type of culture-specific items in this framework is means of transportation,

which relate to the modes of carrying passengers and transferring freight With respect

local institution is manifested as associations, federations, institutions which focus on

tackling issues concerning different aspects such as politics, religions, education,

administration and health Next, measuring system is an additional type which

incorporates units of “the size, weight, speed, length” and so forth (Espindola, 2005, p

20) The category of food and drink covers items belong to the source of sustenance Scholastic references are cultural items connected with schools, learning and education Concerned with religious celebration, this subdivision involves spiritual

events, holy incidents, sacred occurrences or divine gatherings and activities The final

category is dialects which Espindola adopted the definition Halliday (1978) offered to

explain As stated by Halliday, dialects signify “user-related variation, which determines speakers’ status as regards social class, age, sex, education, etc.” (Espindola, 2015, p 20) The framework proposed by Espindola appears to be inclusive and comprehensive

In 2009, Firooskoohi and Zare-Behtash put forward the model of eleven culture-specific items, eight of which resemble the types in Espindola’s frame They added date, costume and clothes and idiom and omitted legal system, local institution, scholastic reference and religious celebration

2.1.2.7 Taxonomy of culture-specific items adopted in this research

Based on the taxonomies of culture-specific items proposed by scholars through time, this research has adopted the following taxonomy of CSIs

6 Measuring system and currencies

7 Food and drink

8 Costume and clothes

9 Ecology

10 Scholastic references

11 Buildings and home furnishings

12 Fictional characters, mythological,

religious, literary references, beliefs, values, customs, traditions, habits

13 Legal system, local institutions,

military, historical and political references, organizations

14 Others (dialects, idioms,

wordplays, sound patterns, acronyms, foreign language in the

ST, dates, work, gestures, archaisms, etc.)

Table 1.3: Taxonomy of culture-specific items synthesized in this research

The chosen taxonomy has been built on the foundation of the earlier frameworks, notably the models proffered in the 21st century by Espindola in 2005, 2006 and 2011 for their meticulousness It is the synthesis of the reviewed taxonomies The integration

of the taxonomies via the identification of their similarities and differences has facilitated the establishment of the adopted taxonomy with greater particularity and thoroughness The models do not apply the classification of CSIs into a few large groups such as material culture and social culture as in Newmark’s taxonomy in 1988 or into divisions such as products or behaviors as in Tomalin and Stempleski (1993) The arrangement of CSIs into two wide groups including proper names and common expressions by Aixelá (1996) is rather over-general when common expressions may include miscellaneous items

The synthesized taxonomy comprised of 14 distinct categories and another kind including assorted subtypes which could not be classified into the other 14 well-defined categories and which are basically not targeted items of this research such as dialects,

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idioms, wordplays, dates They are not focused on as this research does not intend to analyze the CSIs from a linguistic approach by concentrating on the linguistic features and origins of culture-bound idioms, proverbs, fixed expressions or wordplays Furthermore, the majority of those items such as foreign language in the ST in the taxonomy by Klingberg (1986) in nature would refer to a concrete object or a certain intangible concept or phenomenon belonging to one of the other 14 categories What is more, items including dates and gestures are less expected to occur highly frequently in the chosen source text and target texts via the researcher’s general readings for pleasure before selecting the works as the sources of data for this research Besides, as mentioned above, because this research takes an approach towards cultural items and the treatment

of those items in translation rather than linguistic features of item and the SL, other textual items including metaphors and syntax are not taken into consideration in the taxonomy adopted by this research

All in all, the taxonomy with 14 categories as displayed visually in the table above is quite inclusive since it includes seemingly all types proposed in the reviewed theoretical frameworks by the scholars With its high thoroughness and particularity, the taxonomy is employed as the key framework to identify and categorizing culture-specific items occurring in “The wind in the willows” by Kenneth Grahame and its two Vietnamese translations, “Gió qua rặng liễu” translated by Nguyên Tâm and “Gió đùa trong liễu” translated by Nguyễn Thị Cẩm Linh

2.2 Domestication and foreignization

2.2.1 Concepts of domestication and foreignization

The translation of CSIs has caused a challenging task and controversial matters for translation researchers and practitioners and those who work in relevant areas The translation of culture-specific items (CSIs) can present real difficulties for translators from different perspectives According to Aguilera (2008) and Toury (1980) as cited in Al-Rikaby, Mahadi, Lin and Tan (2018), “First, culture-bound terms, at the text level

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such as social terms, rhetorical devices and genre-specific norms, tend to be tackled within the frameworks of contrastive rhetoric and contrastive pragmatics, drawing on pragmatics and discourse theories such as deixis, presuppositions, implicatures and coherence And according to Holmes (1988) as cited in Al-Rikaby, Mahadi, Lin and Tan (2018), “culture-bound terms at the lexical and semantic levels such as those relating to customs, traditions, attires and cuisines are often dealt with within the taxonomies of cultural categories.” This research has laid emphasis on the CSIs collected from the British novel “The wind in the willows” at the lexical and semantic levels and focused

on the treatments for them based on the theory of domestication and foreignization through the two Vietnamese translations

In the field of translation, there are two major opposite trends of the translation

of CSIs One conviction is that CSIs should be remained in the translations so that the source culture can be exposed to the target readers On the other hand, some hold the view that CSIs should be translated in a way that the target readers do not have to struggle to understand the difference between the source culture and the target culture The former refers to the translation strategy known as foreignization while the latter refers to the opposite translation strategy called domestication They are two major options frequently chosen to deal with culture-specific items in translation

As stated by Firoozkoohi and Zare-Behtash (2009), it was Lawrence Venuti who coined and first used the terms “domesticating” and “foreignizing” as translation methods (p 1577) However, it was also claimed in their work that the concepts of domestication and foreignization were previously mentioned by Schleiermarcher, who was a German philosopher The concepts originated from the philosopher’s talk in 1813 Touching translation strategies, one of the most fundamental and highly-concerned issues, Schleiermarcher admitted only domestication and foreignization as the sole methods a translator could select to employ in the translation process Back to that time,

as regards domestication, the method was described as the manner in which the translator facilitates the reader’s reading process by making the author’s writing more

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reader-friendly In contrast, the adoption of foreignization is when the translator does not impinge upon the author’s side Accordingly, with respect to foreignization, the reader inevitably makes more efforts to construe what is read without the translator’s interference which happens when domestication is employed As believed by Schleiermarcher, the method of domesticating represents “an ethnocentric reduction of the foreign text to target-language cultural values” while the other method of foreignizing represents “an ethnodeviant pressure on those values to register the linguistic and cultural differences of foreign text” (as cited in Firoozkoohi & Zare-Betash, 2009, p 1577) It is also maintained that it is the translator who should demonstrate preference for source culture over target culture make selection for foreignization or it could work contrariwise In addition, the degree of foreignization and domestication depends on the translator as the decision maker In domestication, the translation complies with the usual and comprehensible forms and styles of the target language without foreign peculiarity for the comfort of the readership of the target text Meanwhile, foreignization enables the translation to maintain the disparities between the source culture and target culture, hence the translation can reserve the oddity and break the rules and norms of the target text and culture

2.2.2 Local procedures of domestication and foreignization of CSIs

Over the course of translation history, there have been a multitude of scholarly attempts to approach the CSIs applying the theory of domestication and foreignization

as the treatments for those cultural references As the result, several frameworks of more specific procedures belonging to the two major strategies of domestication and foreignization to address and handle different categories of CSIs have been developed

2.2.2.1 Vinay and Darbelnet (1958)

First and foremost, Vinay and Darbelnet (cited in Munday, 2001) proposed the

system of two general translation strategies called “direct translation and oblique

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translation” (p 56), in which direct translation refers to the literal translation and

oblique translation is synonymous with free translation The two opposite translation strategies are divided into sub-components, which are seven translation procedures

Three translation procedures belong to the group of direct translation are borrowing, calque and literal translation Meanwhile, four procedures under the group of oblique translation are transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation In detail, borrowing is the transference of SL words to the TL text Calque is considered to be a

unique form of the borrowing procedure, in which the SL units are moved into a literal translation Borrowed and loan words tend to fully incorporate into the target language

In several cases if their meaning changes, false friends can occur in the pair of SL and

TL According to Vinay and Darbelnet in the work by Munday (2001), beside borrowing

and calque, literal translation is the other procedure belonging to the group of direct

translation, which is equivalent to foreignization Literal translation in their definition is

“word-for-word translation”, which is the “most common between languages of the same family and culture” (p 57) When literal translation appears to be unfeasible due

to the loss or change of meaning or “structural and metalinguistic requirements”, oblique translation, which includes the procedures demonstrating domestication, could be applied (p 57)

Among four procedures categorized into the indirect translation strategy,

transposition involves “a change of one part of speech for another without changing

the sense” (p 57) In Vinay and Darbelnet’s view, transposition is “the most common structural change undertaken by translators” (Munday, 2001, p 57)

Example:

ST: He is an excellent talker

TT: Hắn là kẻ nói năng giảo hoạt

Modulation is not oriented to structural variation but the alteration in “semantics and

point of view of the SL” (Munday, p 57) In some situations, a literal translation is still acceptable as regards grammatical aspects; nevertheless, it may sound unidiomatic and

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rather perplexing The application of modulation in translation could reduce possible unnaturalness The sub-categories of modulation are “abstract for concrete, cause-effect, part-whole, part-another part, reversal of terms, negation of opposite, active to passive (and vice versa), space for time, rethinking of intervals and limits (in space and time), change of symbols (including fixed and new metaphors)” (Munday, p 58)

Example: ST: To cost an arm and a leg - TT: Đắt cắt cổ

Next, equivalence is popularly employed in the translation of idioms and proverbs, in

which the ST and TT would adopt dissimilar styles and structures to convey the message

or the sense Besides, Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) also introduced adaptation, which is

the final procedure belonging to the group of domestication-oriented procedures, in their taxonomy of translation procedures Adaptation could be used when there is a gap between the SC and TC A culture-specific item appearing in the ST could be altered into another reference

This taxonomy has become popular; however, still, it adopts more of a linguistic approach For instance, transposition emphasizes on the part of speech of cultural items and considers the structural alteration in their translated versions The grammatical aspect is highly stressed for this procedure Modulation is also a case in point Modulation is illustrated by perspective differences but its subtypes also include the change from passive voice into active voice, which is still about grammatical features

2.2.2.2 Aixelá (1996)

One of the best-known and influential works centering around the two translation strategies of domestication and foreignization is the taxonomy including eleven procedures, which were proposed by Aixelá in 1996 In his view, his proposed categorization scale of translation procedures to treat CSIs was methodologically useful, although there could presumably be “border cases of fuzzy or overlapping nature” (p 60) The translator could combine various translation procedures to treat identifiable CSIs in the same TT, which seems reasonably practicable Aixelá looked at the

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“conservative or substitutive nature” of the translation sub-strategies of domestication and foreignization (p 61) In other words, the group of foreignization-oriented procedures enables the conservation of the original references in the ST Meanwhile, the group of domestication-oriented procedures results in the substitution of the CSIs in the

ST by items which are closer to the TC This scale proposed by Aixelá, “from a lesser

to a greater degree of intercultural manipulation”, consists of conservative procedures,

illustrated by repetition, orthographic adaptation, linguistic (non-cultural) translation, extratextual gloss and intratextual gloss, and substitutive procedures, exemplified by synonymy, limited universalization, absolute universalization, naturalization, deletion and autonomous creation (p 61) The scale is visualized by

the following figure

Figure 2.1: Aixelá’s taxonomy of domestication and foreignization-oriented

procedures (1996)

In detail, among foreignization-oriented procedures or conservative procedures,

repetition is considered the most extreme Adopting this procedure, the translator

Repetition

Orthographic adaptation

Linguistic cultural) translation

Absolute universalization

Naturalization

Deletion

Autonomous creation

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conserves the CSIs in the ST to a maximum, which possibly intensifies the foreignness

or peculiarity of CSIs to the TL readers The alien “linguistic form and cultural distance”

of the CSIs may decrease the accessibility of the TT but could make the TL readers be aware of culture differences (p 61) That the majority of toponyms, or place names, are transferred into the TL without translation can epitomize the deployment of repetition

As for orthographic adaptation, there are sub-procedures such as “transcription and

transliteration” (p 61) According to the study, orthographic adaptation is adopted when the source CSIs are written in an alphabet which is disparate in comparison with the one

of the TL In this day and age, orthographic adaptation is applied in translation if there

is a presence of CSIs belonging to third cultures, which means those references do not originally derive from the SL and obviously not from the TL either

Example: ST: Gothic - TT: Gô-tích

As regards linguistic (non-cultural) translation, the translator opts for a TL reference

whose denotation is remarkably close to the source item and through which the aspect

of the SC is still identifiable Linguistic (non-cultural) translation is frequently adopted

to deal with “units of measure and currencies” or “objects and institutions which are alien to the receiving culture but understandable because analogous and even

homologous to the native ones” (p 62) In connection with extratextual gloss, this

procedure is the application of the aforesaid procedures together with the clarification and explanation of the CSIs in terms of their meaning or any possible implications in the forms of “footnote, endnote, glossary, commentary / translation in brackets, in italics” (p 62) The so-called untranslatable CSIs, including “quotations in third languages [ ] to offer data about famous people and to explain puns” are reportedly treated in this manner (p 62) The other sub-strategy in the category of foreignization-

oriented or conservative procedures is intratextual gloss Intratextual gloss bears a

similarity to extratextual gloss in that the translators offer a further explanation in addition to applying the above procedures, which are repetition, orthographic adaptation and linguistic (non-cultural) translation to treat CSIs; however, the explanation is

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integrated into the main TT “as an indistinct part of the text, usually so as not to disturb the reader’s attention” (p 62) The CSIs which are not fully expressed in the ST or altered by a pronoun can become explicit by way of intratextual gloss

Example: ST: Buggin’s - TT: Hãng Buggins

Concerning domestication-oriented procedures in the framework proposed by

Aixelá in 1996, there are six procedures which are synonymy, limited universalization, absolute universalization, naturalization, deletion and autonomous creation First,

applying synonymy, the translator uses a “parallel reference to avoid repeating the

culture-specific item” (p 63) This procedure was illustrated by the translation of the CSI “Barcadi” in the ST in English into “libation of the delicious liquor of sugar cane”

in the TT in Spanish and into a Spanish word meaning “rum” to avoid the repetition of

“Bacardi” in the TT in Spanish (p 63) Next, limited universalization is adopted when

the CSI appears to be too alien and obscure for the readers of the TT to interpret and is resultingly replaced by the translator with another CSI which still represents the SC but

is more accessible “for the sake of credibility” (p 63) This procedure was exemplified

by the English-Spanish translation of “an American football” into “a ball of rugby” or

“five grand” into “five thousand dollars” (Aixelá, 1996, p 63) Meanwhile, absolute universalization is the procedure in which the translators decide to eliminate any

strange connotations and “choose a neutral reference for their readers” instead of “a better known CSI” as in limited universalization (p 63) By way of illustration, the English word “corned beef”, which is a CSI of SC in the English-Spanish translation example shown by Aixelá (1996), was translated into a neutral reference in Spanish which means “slices of ham”, which carries no obvious foreign connotations for Spanish readers Another instance is the English word “a Chesterfield” was rendered into a neutral Spanish word which simply means “a sofa” (p 63) Both limited universalization and absolute universalization are the procedures which are chosen by virtue of

credibility In relation to naturalization, the CSIs are added into “the intertextual corpus

felt as specific by the target language culture” (p 63) According to Aixelá (1996), this

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procedure does not prove applicable broadly in literature, apart from children’s literature though there has been a tendency for the translators to shun the employment of naturalization in their translation of children’s literature Naturalization should be distinguished from linguistic (non-cultural) translation, which is a procedure belonging

to the category of foreignization in that the former involves a “cultural substitution” while through the latter the translated references still reflect the aspects of SC (p 64)

Example: ST: A dozen - TT: Một chục

Another procedure which is typical of domestication is deletion In this procedure, the

CSIs are omitted in the TL translation The employment of deletion is not widely acknowledged by translation theorists and is normally not recommended for translation practitioners on account of work ethic Nonetheless, in practice, deletion is not infrequently applied According to Aixelá (1996), what lies at the root of the choice of deletion includes the inappropriateness of the CSIs with regard to the ideology and style

of the TC and TL, the excessive obscurity of the CSIs and the inapplicability of other procedures such as the foreignization-oriented procedures such as intratextual gloss and extratextual gloss due to the inner or outer factors such as the translator’s personal decision or the prohibition of the publishing house The final domestication-oriented

procedure in Aixelá’s taxonomy is autonomous creation Aixelá assumed that

autonomous creation is “a very little-used strategy in which the translators decide [ ]

to put in some nonexistent cultural reference in the source text” (p 64) The procedure was said to be most frequently applied in the translation of movie titles as for English-Spanish translation

The approach to the treatment of CSIs that the taxonomy displays does not place heavy emphasis on the linguistic characteristics of the items but it adopts a theoretical position more on culture and translation procedures

2.2.2.3 Hervey and Higgins (1992)

(p 28) The aforesaid five-point scale ranges from exoticism to cultural transplantation Between the two extremes of the scale, the other three procedures are cultural borrowing, calque and communicative translation The scale can be visually

represented in the Figure 2.1 beneath

Figure 2.2: Hervey and Higgins’s taxonomy of foreignization and domestication

procedures (1992)

The translation which lays emphasis on “cultural foreignness in a TT” represents

exoticism (p 30) Adopting this procedure, the translator maintains the linguistic and

cultural attributes of the SL in the TT without much modification, which results in that the unfamiliarity of the SC is clearly indicated in the TT Meanwhile, the other extreme

Cultural transplantation

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called cultural transplantation is described as a procedure “resulting in the text being

completely rewritten in an indigenous target culture setting” (p 30) According to Hervey and Higgins, the two extremes are not normal translation practice These categories should be avoided by the utilization of the other three alternatives in between

In regard to cultural borrowing, when the use of exact TL equivalents or appropriate

TL expressions to translate SL words is unworkable, one solution is “to transfer a ST expression verbatim into the TT” (p 31) In addition to cultural borrowing, in the theory

suggested by Hervey and Higgins, communicative translation is an alternative way to

handle the translation of CSIs This procedure focuses on the dealing with set phrases, idioms or proverbs It is defined as the use of “a TL expression standard for an equivalent target culture situation in the TT” to translate “a SL expression standard for that situation” (p 21) Despite the differences between the SC and the TC, the communicative equivalents of a variety of SL fixed phrases such as proverbs, idioms and clichés are readily available in the TL To ensure the stylistic effect which is brought

to the ST by those set phrases, identifiable corresponding TL set phrases are easily opted for by the translator Nevertheless, there are arguably a plethora of SL set phrases, the communicative equivalents of which are hardly distinguishable To respond to such difficult situations in translating culture without using literal translation which can breed exoticism contributing to the lack of plausibility of the TT, the translator can resort to communicative paraphrase “by rendering the situational impact of the phrase in question with a TT expression that is not a cliché but is nevertheless plausible in the context defined by the TT” (p 32) Finally, in the taxonomic system proposed by Hervey and Higgins, besides exoticism, cultural borrowing, communicative translation and cultural

transplantation, calque is a procedure of literal translation in nature It “exhibits a certain

degree of exoticism, bringing into the TT the cultural foreignness and strangeness of the source culture” (pp 32-33) Calque involves the borrowing of SL grammatical structure The meaning of calqued phrases may not be understandable in the TT Successful cases