Đánh giá dựa theo nhu cầu tài liệu tiếng anh chuyên ngành english course for nursing students dành cho sinh viên năm t

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES ------ NGUYỄN THỊ VÂN THE NEEDS-BASED EVALUATION OF ESP MATE

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

- -

NGUYỄN THỊ VÂN

THE NEEDS-BASED EVALUATION OF ESP MATERIAL “ENGLISH COURSE FOR NURSING STUDENTS” FOR SECOND YEAR STUDENTS

AT THANH HOA MEDICAL COLLEGE

(ĐÁNH GIÁ DỰA THEO NHU CẦU TÀI LIỆU TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH “ENGLISH COURSE FOR NURSING STUDENTS” DÀNH CHO SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ HAI TRƯỜNG CAO ĐẲNG Y TẾ THANH HÓA)

M.A MINOR THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology Code: 60.14.10

Hanoi, 2012

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

- -

NGUYỄN THỊ VÂN

THE NEEDS BASED EVALUATION OF ESP MATERIAL “ENGLISH COURSE FOR NURSING STUDENTS” FOR SECOND YEAR STUDENTS

AT THANH HOA MEDICAL COLLEGE

(ĐÁNH GIÁ DỰA THEO NHU CẦU TÀI LIỆU TIẾNG ANH CHUYÊN NGÀNH “ENGLISH COURSE FOR NURSING STUDENTS” DÀNH CHO SINH VIÊN NĂM THỨ HAI TRƯỜNG CAO ĐẲNG Y TẾ THANH HÓA)

M.A MINOR THESIS

Field: English Teaching Methodology Code: 60.14.10

Supervisor : Nguyễn Ba ̀ng, M.A

Hanoi, 2012

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Certificate of originality of the thesis ……… i

Acknowledgements ……… ii

Abstract ……… iii

Table of contents ……… iv

Abbreviations ……… vii

List of figures ……… viii

List of tables ……… ix

’ PART I: INTRODUCTION 1 I.1 Rationale ……… 1

I.2 Aims of the study ……… 2

I.3 Scope of the study ……… 2

I.4 Methods of the study ……… 2

1.5 Organization of the study ……… 2

PART II: DEVELOPMENT 4 Chapter 1: Literature Review 4 1.1 An Overview of English for Specific Purpose ……… 4

1.1.1 Definition of ESP ……… 4

1.1.2 Classification of ESP ……… 4

1.1.3 Characteristics of ESP Course ……… 6

1.1.4 Characteristics of English for Medical Purpose ……… 7

1.2 Material Evaluation ……… 7

1.2.1 Definition of Material Evaluation ……… 7

1.2.2 Types of Material Evaluation ……… 8

1.2.3 Purposes of Material Evaluation ……… 8

1.2.4 Models for Material Evaluation ……… 9

1.3 Needs-Based Evaluation ……… 11

1.3.1 Need Definition ……… 11

1.3.2 Need Analysis/Assessment Definition ……… 12

1.3.3 Models of Need Assessment ……… 13

1.3.4 Steps in Need Analysis ……… 14

1.3.5 Techniques for Need Analysis ……… 15

1.4 Material Adaptation ……… 15

1.4.1 Defining Adaptation ……… 15

1.4.2 Purposes of Adaptation ……… 15

1.4.3 Areas for Adaptation ……… 16

1.4.4 Techniques for Adaptation ……… 16

Chapter 2: Research Methodology 18

2.1 The Current Situation of Teaching and Learning ESP at TMC ……… 18

2.1.1 The Context ……… 18

2.1.2 The Course Objectives ……… 18

2.1.3 The Material Description ……… 19

2.2 The Research Question ……… 19

2.3 The Participants ……… 19

2.4 The Data Collection Instruments ……… 19

2.5 The Procedure ……… 20

Chapter 3: Findings and Discussion 21

3.1 Objectives ……… 21

3.2 Contents ……… 22

3.3 Methodology ……… 27

PART III: CONCLUSION 31

III.1 Conclusion ……… 31

III.2 Recommendations ……… 31

III.2.1 Objective Adjustments ……… 31

III.2.2 Content Improvements ……… 32

III.2.3 Methodology Improvements ……… 33

III.3 Limitations of the Study ….……… 34

III.4 Suggestions for Further Research ….……… 34

REFERENCES 35

ABBREVIATIONS

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Types of ESP (From Strevens, 1977, Robinson 1991) ……… 5

Figure 2: Types of ESP (From Hutchinson and Water, 1987) ……… 5

Figure 3: Four-Step Macro-Evaluation (Hutchinson and water, 1987) ……… 9

Figure 4: Framework for Material Analysis and Evaluation (Littljohn,1998)……… 11

Figure 5: Skill Importance Ranking ……… 43

Figure 6: Skill vs Class-Time Distribution ……… 43

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Teachers’ views on the appropriateness of the material to the course objectives 21 Table 2: Students’ views on the appropriateness of the material to the course objectives 21

Table 3: Teachers’ views on the appropriateness of the contents of material 23

Table 4: Students’ views on the appropriateness of the contents of material 24

Table 5: Teachers’ views on the methodology of the material 27

Table 6: Students’ views on the methodology of the material 28

PART I: INTRODUCTION I.1 Rationale

Since the early 1960s, English for specific purposes (ESP) has grown to become one of the most prominent areas of English Language Teaching The growth of ESP has also generated an increasing number of specialized textbooks The importance of the textbook is undeniable since it determines the major part of classroom teaching and student learning Although choosing a textbook is daunting, it has a significant influence on the ability of students to meet their language learning objectives and affects both the process of learning and outcomes Nevertheless, as Swales (1980) states, textbooks, especially course books, exhibit problems and in extreme cases are examples of educational failure Thus, to have a successful language teaching program, it is necessary to have good materials, and to make the most effective use of a textbook, it is necessary for teachers to carefully examine all aspects of the textbook and compare it against an assessment tool The present ESP textbook taught at Thanh Hoa Medical College (TMC) was collected and edited from various sources To some extent, its objectives meet teaching and learning’s goals such as the vocabulary and reading development However for communicative target in learning language it does not meet teaching and learning requirement It includes the texts then the exercises, the exercises are only questions to check reading comprehension and the same kind of questions for all 17 units that gives students a bore There is no tape, no video, no suggested references books or sources presented in the material Also this textbook is used

to teach all second year students of different faculties such as: students of nursing, students

of mid-wife studying… This material has been used at TMC for several years but no evaluation or consultation has been conducted to check its strengths and weaknesses and to see how well it suited the desired and attainable goals of the course As teachers and students’ recent complaints and dissatisfaction about the textbook, evaluating the textbook based on teachers’ and students’ needs is necessary to decide whether to continue using the material, or to look for a new one, or to adapt orientation Besides, the textbook evaluation helps teachers move beyond impressionistic assessments and it helps them to acquire useful, accurate, systematic, and contextual insights into the overall nature of material, and thus they can respond to the students’ needs and maximize their learning opportunities For

those reasons, the topic “The Needs-Based Evaluation of ESP Material “English Course

for Nursing Students” for Second Years Students at Thanh Hoa Medical College” was

chosen with the intention that it will not only help improve the material’s quality but also enhance the learning efficiency as well as stimulate students’ interest in language learning

I.2 Aims of the study

The study aims to evaluate the material “English Course for Nursing Students” in

terms of appropriateness of its objectives, contents and methodology from both the teacher’s and the student’s perspective The findings will help the teachers to adjust the exploitation of the material so that they can make optimum use of strong points and adapt

or substitute weak points from other medical materials

I.3 Scope of the study

In material evaluation, there has been a great number of criteria that should be taken into consideration such as: the audience, the content, the methodology, the cultural bias, the layout, the authenticity, and so on In this study, the criteria for evaluation were based on Hutchinson and Water’s (1987) with focus on the three following criteria: objectives of the material, contents of the material, and methodology

I.4 Methods of the study

This study employs survey research with two methods, including survey questionnaires and informal interviews These methods are described in detail in chapter two

I.5 Organization of the study

The study consists of 3 parts:

Part I - Introduction - presents the rationale, aims, scope and methodology of the study Part II - Development - includes 3 chapters:

Chapter 1 – Literature review – provides a theoretical basis for the study First, it

surveys the literature on the theories of the basic concepts such as English for Specific Purposes and English for Medical Purposes, regarding the definition, classification, and characteristics Second, it reviews material evaluation, need analysis in terms of definition, types, purposes and models The last part of the chapter presents the issues involving material adaptation which serve as a base for the improvements recommended at the end of the study

Chapter 2 – Methodology – includes an overview of the approach used in

conducting the study It also provides a thorough description of the data collection procedure as well as the analytical procedure

Chapter 3 – Result and discussion – reports the findings of the survey and

discusses the prominent aspects

Part III – Conclusion – makes conclusion of the study; recommends the improvements to

the material; expresses the limitations and suggestions for further research

PART II: DEVELOPMENT Chapter 1: Literature Review 1.1 An Overview of English for Specific Purpose

1.1.1 Definition of ESP

The concept of ESP has been basically agreed by numerous researchers to be a kind

of language learning which has its focus on all aspects of language pertaining to a particular field of human activities while taking into account the time constraint imposed

by learners Hutchinson and Waters (1987:19) states “ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and methods are based on the learners’ reasons for learning.” Widdowson (1983:5) makes it more specific when linking tasks with the direct purpose of an ESP course: “ESP is essentially a training operation which seeks to provide learners with restricted competence to enable them to cope with certain clearly defined tasks These tasks constitute the specific purposes, which the ESP course is designed to meet.”

ESP is also defined as “a particular case of general category of special purpose language teaching” of which, advantages are widely recognized as : being focused on the learner’s needs, relevant to the learner, successful in imparting learning, and last but not least, more cost-effective than “General English” (Adapted from Streven)

From the definitions, ESP can be seen that it is not necessarily concerned with a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or ability range, ESP should be seen simple as an “approach” to teaching that meets learner’s needs

1.1.2 Classification of ESP

ESP is traditionally divided into two major areas: English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) and English for Academic Purpose (EAP) EOP involves work-related needs training while EAP, academic study needs EOP is taught in a situation in which learners need to use English as part of their work and or profession, whereas EAP is taught generally within educational institutions and is provided when the students specialize or intend to specialize in a specific field or subject Nevertheless, school-subject ESP has been divided into such situations where English is a separate subject on the curriculum but

with a related content to other subjects (independent ESP), and where English is the means for other subject to be learnt (integrated ESP) These types of ESP are summarized as:

Figure 1: Types of ESP (From Strevens, 1977, Robinson 1991)

To make the ESP classification more clearly, Hutchinson and Water (1987) divide

it into three branches with each branch subdivided into two smaller ones: EOP and EAP as follows:

Figure 2: Types of ESP (From Hutchinson and Water, 1987)

ESP

Pre-experience Simultaneous Post-experience

Discipline-based School subject

Pre-study In-study Post-study Independent integrated

ESP - English for Specific Purposes

English for Science English for Business English for & Technology & Economics Social Study

e.g English e.g English e.g English e.g English e.g English e.g English for medical for for for for for studies technicians Economics Accountancy Psychology Law

1.1.3 Characteristics of ESP Course

According to Carter (1983), there are three features of ESP courses: a) authentic material, b) purpose-related orientation, and c) self-direction The use of authentic content materials, modified or unmodified in form, is indeed a feature of ESP Purposed –related orientation refers to the simulation of communicative tasks required of the target setting Finally, self-direction is the characteristic of ESP courses in that the “….point of including self-direction …is that ESP is concerned with turning learners into users”

Hutchinson and Waters (2007) also point out the traditional ESP course design has two major drawbacks: Firstly, the development in the learner of a capacity to communicate

is neglected, and secondly, there is a failure to analyze and take into account the realities of the ESP learning situation

In giving ESP definition, Dudley-Evans and St John suggest the following absolute characteristics and variable characteristics

Three absolute characteristics are:

- ESP is designed to meet specific needs of learners

- ESP makes use of the underlining methodology and activities of the disciplines it serves

- ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, and register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities

Four variable characteristics are:

- ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines

- ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English

- ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level or in

a professional work situation It could, however, be used for learners at secondary school level

- ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students Most ESP courses assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with for teaching the beginners of English as well

1.1.4 Characteristics of English for Medical Purpose

English for Medical Purpose is a subset of English for Specific Purposes Education that most often focuses on teaching aspects of medical English, particularly terminology (Hull, 2004) The language of medicine is quite unique It is fraught with technical, academic language and replete with slang, colloquialisms, abbreviations and acronyms It has its own rules and structures Health professionals must read, write, interpret, give directions, etc… Using a wide variety of abbreviations and acronyms are extremely career-specific Medical English is also contextual Doctors and nurses use academic and technical language interspersed with common speech and workplace jargon It rarely focuses on complete or proper sentence structure

With regard to the level of Medical English, Hull believes that Medical English can not be taught at the level of or in the same methods of basic English language teaching Hull assumes that all EMP learners are health professionals or in the midst of health studies at the college or university level Therefore, career-specific, highly technical language must be contextually based The goal of learning English at this level is not to learn grammar and structure primarily, but to acquire and use the language of practice and social relations within the career

1.2 Material Evaluation

1.2.1 Definition of Material Evaluation

According to Dudley (1998), “Evaluation is a whole process which begins with determining what information to gather and ends with bringing about the change in current activities or influencing future ones” (p.128)

Material evaluation is “A process not a final product” (Nunan,1998) with

“Attempts to measure the value of materials” (Tomlinson,1998, p.3)

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) define: “Evaluation is basically a matching process: matching needs to available solutions” (p.97) They also note that evaluation is really a matter of judging the fitness of something for a particular purpose “Given a certain need, and in the light of the resources available, which out of number of possibilities can represent the best solution There is no absolute good or bad – only degrees of fitness for the required purpose”

Although each researcher has his/her own way of giving opinion on evaluation they still come to the agreement that evaluation is a process of collecting data giving judgments based on the collected data, and the most importantly, evaluation must include action

1.2.2 Types of material evaluation

Regarding types of material evaluation, Tomlinson (1988) indicates that for each dimension of evaluation, there are certain types of evaluation These dimensions include: approach, purpose, focus, scope, the evaluators, the timing and types of information

Cunningsworth (1995) points out that there are three types of material evaluation, i.e pre-use evaluation, in-use evaluation and post-use evaluation This classification is similar to Ellis (1997) with different names, i.e Preliminary, Formative and Summative evaluation respectively The first type, pre-use evaluation is carried out before a course begins in order to select the most relevant and suitable materials for a particular group of learners This is probably the most difficult kind as there is no actual experience of using the course book In-use evaluation is a kind of evaluation for suitability, involving

“matching the course book against a specific requirement including the learner’s objectives, the learner’s background, the resources available, etc.” (Cunningsworth, 1995, p.14) The third type, post-evaluation refers to an assessment of a textbook’s fitness over a period of continual use Evaluation of this kind can be practical in helping to decide whether to use the same textbook on the future occasion

1.2.3 Purposes of Material Evaluation

According to Cunningsworth (1995), through evaluation, it can be assessed whether the course book is the most appropriate for the target learners at various levels and in various teaching settings

Robinson (1991) states that evaluation can be used as part of quality control Through evaluation, the advantages and disadvantages can be known as well as the effectiveness of the being used materials

Apart from its contribution to the evaluation of the effectiveness of materials, Torres (1993) adds an additional benefit: It can afford general insights into how teachers use materials, and therefore suggest directions both for materials development and professional development activities

Alderson (1992) set out a list of purposes of material evaluation as follows:

- To decide whether materials have had the intended effect

- To identify what effect materials have had

- To vindicate a decision

- To justify future courses of action

- To compare approaches/methodologies

- To identify areas for improvement in future use

- To show the positive achievements of teachers and students

- To motivate teachers

- To allay suspicions among parents or sponsors

1.2.4 Models for material evaluation

With regard to the material evaluation process, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) recommend a four-step macro-evaluation presented in the following model:

Figure 3: Four-step macro-evaluation (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987)

What realization of the criteria

do you want in your course?

These authors advise to present the criteria for objective and subjective analysis in

a checklist, and the evaluators should supplement other criteria they think important to them in the process of evaluating Then follow the three steps: 1) identify the evaluator’s requirements; 2) analyze the material; 3) comparing findings those two aspects by awarding points Total the points and analyze the result However, the two researchers note that the highest number of points does not necessarily indicate the most suitable material,

as the points may be concentrated in one area

Ellis (1997) suggests a Micro-evaluation model which is probably clearer and more detailed:

1 Choosing a task to follow;

2 Describing the task with specification of input, procedures, language activities, and outcome;

3 Planning the evaluation with reference to the dimensions above;

4 Collecting information before, while and after the task was used, and what and how the task was performed;

5 Analysis of the information collected;

6 findings of the evaluation and making recommendation for future teaching;

7 Writing the report

He points out the advantage of this model is that it can be more manageable than a macro-evaluation Nevertheless, this type of evaluation can only be conducted when the materials are being used in the classroom

Littljohn (1998) suggests a preliminary framework for material analysis and evaluation as follows:

Figure 4: Framework for material analysis and evaluation (Littljohn, 1998)

Within the scope of this study, the model of Hutchinson and Waters seems to be the most appropriate to follow

1.3 Needs-based Evaluation

1.3.1 Need Definition

Various writers have discussed the concept of need One of the best known is Abraham Maslow (1954), who developed the notion of a “hierarchy of needs” Based on ascending levels of more complex needs , Maslow hypothesized that, once a lower level

ANALYSIS OF TARGET

SITUATION OF USE

- The cultural context

- The institution

- The course (proposed aims,

content, methodology, measures

- What is their explicit nature?

- What is required by users?

- What is implied by their use?

To description:

- aspects of design

- aspects of publication

MATCH AND EVALUATION

How appropriate are the respects of design and the aspects of publication to the target situation of use?

ACTION

Adopt the materials Reject the materials Adapt the materials Supplement the materials Make the materials a critical object

need is met, human move on to other higher order needs Basic needs for sustenance and safety give way to higher needs for love from others, self-love, and self-actualization Often criticized for simplicity and linearity, Maslow’s model nevertheless suggests that needs are knowable, and that meeting one set of needs may leave a person open to experiencing another set of more complex needs

Bradshaw (1972) developed taxonomy of four types of social need In this scheme, normative needs are those defined by professionals in given situations; as such, they are likely to be paternalistic Felt need is equated with want and may not truly represent need

at all Expressed need is felt need turned into action; in other words, it is demand Finally, comparative need is the gap between service receipts between similar groups

York (1982) politicized the definition of need as a social problem when he stated that “social concerns come to be defined as social problems through a political process in which varying actors have stakes in divergent outcomes” (p.53) Mc Killip (1987) suggested that need was a “value judgment that some group has a problem that can be solved” (p.7)

For all, need is defined as a gap-between the real and ideal conditions that is both acknowledged by community value and potentially amenable to change

1.3.2 Need Analysis/Assessment Definition

Needs assessment has been defined in many ways According to the United Way of America (1982) “need assessment is a systematic process of collection and analysis as inputs into resource allocation decisions with a view to discovering and identifying goods and services The community is lacking in relation to the generally accepted standards and for which there exists some consensus as to the community’s responsibility for their provision.” (p.2) York (1982) stated simply that needs assessment is a “measure of how much of what is needed” For Mc Killip (1987) needs assessment is a process of “ordering and prioritization” of community needs

These definitions implicitly assume that needs assessment is basically a method of data collection or population description The present population to those who can and will utilize it to make judgments about policy and programs Needs assessment is population-specific, but systemically focused, but systemically focused, empirically based, and outcome-oriented Need assessment, then is a form of applied research that extends beyond

data collection and analysis to cover the utilization of the finding In other words, needs assessment is a process of evaluating the problems and solutions identified for a target population In this process, it emphasizes the importance and relevance of the problems and solutions

1.3.3 Models of Need Assessment:

McKillip (1987) provides three models of needs assessment:

This model is the most straightforward and widely used, especially in education This

model emphasizes normative expectations and involves the three phases: [1] Goal setting, identifying what ought to be; [2] Performance measurement, determining what is; [3] Discrepancy identification, ordering differences between what ought to be and what is

utilization by the target population

This model is an adaptation of multiattribute utility analysis (MAUA) to problems of modeling and synthesis in applied research

The decision-making model has three stages: [1] Problem modeling: In this stage,

need identification takes place The decision problem is conceptualized by options and

decision attributes; [2] Quantification: In this stage, measurements contained in the need

identification are transformed to reflect the decision makers’ values and interests; [3]

Synthesis: In this stage, an index that orders options on need will be provided This index

also gives information on the relative standing of these needs

1.3.4 Steps in Needs Analysis:

McKillip (1987) identified five steps in needs analysis:

Step 1: Identify users and uses of the need analysis: The users of the analysis are

those who will act on the basis of the report; Knowing the uses of the need analysis can help focus on the problems and solutions that can be entertained

Step 2: Describe the target population and the service environment: For example,

geographic dispersion may include transportation, demographic characteristics of the target population, eligibility restrictions, and service capacity Client analysis refers to the comparison of those who use services with those who are eligible to use services Resource inventories detail services available

Step 3: Identify needs

• Describe problems

According to McKillip (1987), three types of problems are identified by need analysis:

[1] Discrepancies: “Problems are revealed by comparison of expectations with outcomes Discrepancies are problems” (p 11); [2] Poor outcome: Problems involve those at-risk of developing poor outcomes; [3] Maintenance need: “A group with maintenance needs can

develop poor outcomes if services presently offered are withdrawn or altered” (p 11) Bradshaw identified four types of outcome expectations that support judgments of

needs: [1] Normative need: Expectations based on expert identification of adequate levels

of performance or service (This type of expectations may miss real needs of target

population); [2] Felt need: Expectations that members of a group have for their own

outcomes (e.g., parents’ expectations about the appropriate amount of elementary level

mathematics instruction); [3] Expressed need: Expectations based on behavior of a target

population Expectations are indicated by use of services (e.g., waiting lists, enrollment

pressure, or high bed occupancy rates); [4] Comparative need: Expectations based on the

performance of a group other than the target population (Comparative expectations mainly depend on the similarity of the comparison group and the target population In addition, such expectations can neglect unique characteristics that invalidate generalizations)

• Describe solutions

According to McKillip (1987), there are three criteria (dimensions) for evaluating

solutions: [1] Cost analysis; [2] Impact; [3] Feasibility

Step 4: Assess the importance of the needs

Once problems and their solutions have been identified, needs are evaluated

Step 5: Communicate results

Finally, the results of the need identification must be communicated to decisions makers, users, and other relevant audiences

1.3.5 Techniques for Need Analysis

- Resource Inventory: Information is gathered from service providers, either by survey or interview; Provides a systematic mapping of services available, points to gaps and to widely available services, and may identify services that planners were not aware of

- Secondary Data Analysis: Target population description; Synthetic estimation; Client analysis; Direct and at-risk indicators

- Surveys: Key informants; Client satisfaction; Training surveys

- Group Procedures: Focus groups; Nominal groups; Public hearing and community forums

1.4 Material Adaptation

1.4.1 Defining Adaptation

Madsen and Bowen (1978) claim that “every teacher is in a very real sense an adapter of the material he uses”, employing “one or more of a number of techniques: supplementing, editing, expanding, personalizing, simplifying, modernizing, localizing, or modifying cultural/situational content” Ellis, M (1986) mentions the processes of

“retaining, rejecting, re-ordering and modification”, and Tomlinson(1998) refers to

“reducing, adding, omitting, modifying and supplementing

1.4.2 Purposes of Adaptation

No textbook is perfect Any textbook should be used judiciously, since it can not cater equally to the requirements of every classroom setting (William, 1983, p.251) That is why a textbook should be adapted Teachers, with direct personal knowledge of their classroom teaching, should see textbooks as their servants instead of masters; as a resource

or an “idea bank” which can stimulate teachers’ own creative potential (Cunningsworth,

1984, p.65) Adapting materials helps teachers to maximize the value of the book for the benefit of their learners Hence they can improve it so that it is suitable for the particular situation (Apple and Jungck, 1990; Shannon, 1987)

1.4.3 Areas for Adaptation

McDonough and Shaw (1993) identify the possible areas to adapt as follows:

- Lack of grammar coverage in general

- Lack of practice of grammar points of particular difficulty

- Reading passages contain too much unknown vocabulary

- Comprehension questions are two easy

- Subject matters are inappropriate for learners

- Photographs and other illustrative materials are not culturally acceptable

- Amount of material is too much/too little to cover

- Lack of guidance of teachers on group work and role play

- There are no vocabulary list or a key to exercises

However, they also note that more areas could be added to this list, depending on actual contexts

1.4.4 Techniques for Adaptation

There are various ways to adapt materials Tomlinson (1998) suggests the following options:

- Omission: The teacher leaves out things deemed inappropriate, offensive and unproductive … For the particular group

- Addition: Where there seems to be inadequate coverage, the teachers may decide to add material, either in form of texts or exercise material

- Reduction: Where the teacher shortens an activity to give it less weight or emphasis

- Extension: Where an activity is lengthened in order to give an additional dimension

- Rewriting/modification: Teachers may occasionally decide to rewrite material, especially exercise material, to make it more appropriate, more communicative, more demanding, more accessible to their students

- Replacement: Texts or exercise material which is considered inadequate for whatever reason may be replaced by more suitable material

- Re-ordering: Teachers may decide that the order in which the materials are presented is not suitable for their students They can then decide to plot different course through the materials from the one writer has laid down This chapter has addressed key notions about ESP and examined issues in material evaluation and adaptation These issues, where possible, have been supported by academic literature It is hoped that they serve as a consolidate basis to carry out the study in the next chapter