Các phương pháp dịch tên riêng trong văn học thiếu nhi nghiên cứu so sánh hai bản dịch tiếng việt bảy truyện ngắn của beatrix potter

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION GRADUATION PAPER STRATEGIES FOR TRANSLATING PROPER NA

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI

UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION

GRADUATION PAPER

STRATEGIES FOR TRANSLATING PROPER NAMES

IN CHILDREN’S LITERATURE:

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF

TWO VIETNAMESE TRANSLATIONS OF

BEATRIX POTTER’S SEVEN SHORT STORIES

Supervisor: Ngô Hà Thu, MCS Student: Ngô Đỗ Trâm Anh Course: QH2011.F1.E20

HÀ NỘI – 2015

ĐẠI HỌC QUỐC GIA HÀ NỘI

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ KHOA SƯ PHẠM TIẾNG ANH

KHÓA LUẬN TỐT NGHIỆP

CÁC PHƯƠNG PHÁP DỊCH TÊN RIÊNG TRONG VĂN HỌC THIẾU NHI: NGHIÊN CỨU SO SÁNH HAI BẢN DỊCH TIẾNG VIỆT BẢY TRUYỆN NGẮN CỦA BEATRIX POTTER

Giáo viên hướng dẫn: Ngô Hà Thu, MCS Sinh viên: Ngô Đỗ Trâm Anh

Khóa: QH2011.F1.E20

HÀ NỘI – 2015

I hereby state that I: Ngo Do Tram Anh, QH2011.F1.E20, being a candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Arts (TEFL) accept the requirements of the College relating to the retention and use of Bachelor’s Graduation Paper deposited in the library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper deposited in the library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the librarian for the care, loan or reproduction of the paper

Signature

Date

I would also like to take this chance to extend my appreciation to those who carefully responded to my questionnaires and actively participated in my interviews Lastly, I am incredibly thankful for the support and motivation from my family and friends throughout the four years of tertiary education as well as their help and encouragement during the time I conducted this graduation paper

ABSTRACT

Translation with its expanded role as a means of communication has attracted translators’ and researchers’ attention and spurred numerous debates about the optimal translation strategies for various components of language, one of which is characters’ names in imaginative literature, especially children’s literature, as they contain implications about features or fates of the characters Nonetheless, seldom have those studies evaluated the translation strategies or provided a guideline on when or for whom

to use what strategy Also, the previous findings cannot be generalized since the effectiveness of a translation strategy may vary according to time and geographical areas Furthermore, many strategies proposed cannot be employed to translate from English into Vietnamese Thus, it is important to conduct a study to figure out the optimum strategies

by investigating the reception of Vietnamese readers of various ages and levels of foreign

language proficiency towards strategies employed to translate proper names The

research used two Vietnamese translations of Beatrix Potter’s seven children’s classics by two translators, Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu, as case studies By reading and analyzing documents, administering questionnaires to 239 participants and carrying out interviews with some participants, the study found that older readers and readers whose level of foreign language proficiency is higher are generally in more higher favor of the foreignization and the semantic adequacy of the translated names On the other hand, younger people and people with lower foreign language proficiency level, including most children, prefer domestication, i.e phonologically appealing, memorable and readable names Therefore, in order to guarantee children an exhilarating reading experience, the translator should use strategies such as phonological replacement and substitution, which can be combined with rendition and translation of connotation(s) if a name has semantic

or semiotic meaning or connotation(s) Concurrently, with a view to motivating children

to learn foreign languages and cultures, original names should be put in footnotes

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i

ABSTRACT ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vi

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Statement of the problem 1

1.2 Research objectives and research questions 4

1.3 Significance of the study 5

1.4 Methods of the study 5

1.5 Scope of the study 6

1.6 Overview of the study 6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1 Translation 7

2.1.1 Definition 7

2.1.2 Translation process 8

2.1.3 Translation strategies 8

2.2 Readership 109

2.2.1 Definition 109

2.2.2 The impact of readership on translation 10

2.3 Children’s literature 1110

2.3.1 Definition of children’s literature and its characteristics 1110

2.3.2 Readership of children’s literature 12

2.4 Proper names in children’s literature 12

2.4.1 Definition of literary proper names 12

2.4.2 Types of literary proper names and their characteristics 13

2.4.3 Characteristics of proper names in children’s literature 1615

2.4.4 Translation of literary proper names 16

2.4.5 Translation of proper names in children’s literature 2019

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 22

3.1 Research subjects 22

3.2 Participants 23

3.3 Research instruments 25

3.3.1 Research Question 1 25

3.3.2 Research Questions 2 and 3 25

3.4 Data collection procedures 26

3.5 Data analysis methods 27

3.5.1 Quantitative data analysis 27

3.5.2 Qualitative data analysis 27

3.6 Data analysis procedures 27

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 28

4.1 Research Question 1: What are the strategies used by the two translators (Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu) to translate proper names in Beatrix Potter’s seven short stories into Vietnamese? 28

4.2 Research Question 2: Which translated version is more favored by each group of

readers of different ages and levels of foreign language proficiency? What are the

possible reasons? 33

4.3 Research Question 3: Which strategies are the most effective for translating proper names in Beatrix Potter’s seven short stories? 41

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 4443

5.1 Summary of findings 4443

5.2 Limitations of the study and suggestions for further research 4544

REFERENCES 4746

APPENDICES 5953

Appendix 1: Proper names in Beatrix Potter’s seven stories by categories; Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu’s translations and translation strategies 5953

Appendix 2: Classification of names according to translation strategies 60

Appendix 3: Questionnaire (in English) 64

Appendix 4: Questionnaire (in Vietnamese) 67

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i Formatted: Default Paragraph Font, Check spelling and

grammar

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Strengths of nine translation strategies 39

Table 2 Proper names in Beatrix Potter’s seven stories by categories; Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu’s translations and translation strategies 54

Table 3 Group 1 of names categorized according to translation strategies 60

Table 4 Group 2 of names categorized according to translation strategies 61

Table 5 Group 3 of names categorized according to translation strategies 61

Table 6 Group 4 of names categorized according to translation strategies 61

Table 7 Group 5 of names categorized according to translation strategies 62

Table 8 Group 6 of names categorized according to translation strategies 62

Table 9 Group 7 of names categorized according to translation strategies 63

Table 1 Strengths of nine translation strategies 39 Formatted: Default Paragraph Font, Check spelling and

grammar

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Groups of participants 23

Figure 2 Translation strategies used to translate three types of names by Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu 29

Figure 3 Translation strategies used to translate three types of names by Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu 31

Figure 4 Translation strategies employed by Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu 32

Figure 5 Readers' preferences for translated names in Group 1 33

Figure 6 Readers' preferences for translated names in Group 2 35

Figure 7 Readers' preferences for translated names in Group 3 35

Figure 8 Readers' preferences for translated names in Group 4 36

Figure 9 Readers' preferences for translated names in Group 5 37

Figure 10 Readers' preferences for translated names in Group 6 37

Figure 11 Readers' preferences for translated names in Group 7 38

Figure 1 Groups of participants 23 Formatted: Default Paragraph Font, Check spelling and

grammar

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The first chapter states the rationale for the study, identifies the objectives

together with research questions as the guidelines for the whole research,

the significance, methods, scope and outline of the paper

1.1 Statement of the problem

The growing importance of translation as a means of communication in the

globalized world has provoked numerous debates about the superior strategies for

translating multiple components of language Among those components, proper

namesareis one of those that are rarely viewed as a meaningful and functional unit

of language; thus, they do not require translation This view has been shared not

only by laymen but also by experts like Mill (1959, p 20), who wrote that “proper

names are not connotative” and are “unmeaning mark[s]” Vendler (1971) also

stated that “proper names have no meaning” besides identifying meaning, and

hence, do not need to be translated (p 117) This view is actually true for most

proper names in real life, which are usually transferred or naturalized into TL

However, many other linguists have put forward the opposite view,

especially when it comes to proper names in imaginative literature such as short

stories, novels or jokes Jespersen (192475, pp 65-66) said that proper names, like

common nouns, have certain attributes Searle (1975) pointed out that proper

names have senses (p 139) This view is more likely to be applicable to literary

names because most writers do put effort into giving their characters memorable

names as a name is what creates the very first impression about of a character

Rowling said in an interview that she loved names: “I collect them […] If I hear a

good name, I have got to write it down And it will probably crop up somewhere”

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(2000) Tolkien (1975) even wrote “Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings”

(1975) to serve as a handy tool for translators to translate proper names in his book Thus, it should be the job of a translator to render literary proper names adequately As a result, quite a few studies have been conducted to address the problem of translating proper names Newmark (1988) suggested that names that have connotations should first be translated into TL and then naturalized into a new SL proper name (p 215) Nevertheless, this strategy can only be used to translate names when SL and TL are cognate with each other such as English and French or Dutch and German Meanwhile, Nida (1964) proposed three solutions to translating proper names, namely, (1) adapting the sound of SL names to TL, (2) borrowing the orthographic form of SL names and (3) “compromising”, i.e familiar names should have the written form and pronunciation of TL and unfamiliar names should be naturalized (p 194)

Many other researchers such as Davies (2003), Fernandes (2006), Coillie and Verschueren (2006) partly based themselves on Newmark (1988)’s theory of translation procedures to coin their own sets of strategies and to figure out the most dominant ones Nonetheless, rarely have these studies provided an assessment of the effectiveness and suitability of those strategies in producing adequate translation of literary proper names or stated any general rule on when or for whom to use what strategy Moreover, even though some of them did so, the body of research remains inconsistent as the success of a strategy for translating proper names may vary according to periods of time and geographical areas As a consequence, the results of previous studies cannot be generalized Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a research to evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies used

to translate proper names in children’ literature based on the reception of contemporary Vietnamese readers of various ages and levels of foreign language proficiency

The thesis will only examine literary proper names in children’s literature for two main reasons Firstly, characters’ names in children’s literature are usually meaningful and related to the characteristics of the characters because unlike most names in everyday life, literary names actually carry the authors’ implications about some features or fates of the characters (Garcés, 2003, p 122; Fernandes,

2006, p 46) Some examples are Dark Lord in Tolkien’s The Lord of the Ringss

(Tolkien, 1954), Piglet (young pig ) in Milne’s Winnie-the-Pooh (Milne, 1926),

Mr and Mrs Beaver in Lewis’s The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (Lewis, 1950) and Wormtail in Rowling’s Harry Potter series (Rowling, 1999) Secondly,

stories for children can be around for centuries and are still enjoyed by children all over the world Although the plots of many children’s books probably never get old, the language, especially in the translated version, does as languages change constantly and readers’ preference changes with time, with age, with the people and the events they encounter on a daily basis Hence, it is necessary to carry out a research to investigate the preference of the contemporary readership regarding translated proper names in children’s literature

The researcher uses two translations of Beatrix Potter’s seven short stories

(The Tale of Peter Rabbit (1902), The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin (1903), The Tale of Benjamin Bunny (1904), The Tale of Jeremy Fisher (1906), The Tale of Tom Kitten (1907), The Tale of Jemima Puddle Duck (1908), The Tale of Samuel Whiskers (1908)) of two translators Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu as the case The

reason for this choice is that Beatrix Potter’s stories are considered children’s classics Additionally, they contain names that are typical of children’s literature

such as Cotton-tail, Nutkin, Jack Sharp, Old Brown, etc These names have

meaning in English and describe important attributes of the characters Therefore, careful attention needs to be paid to the translation of these proper names In order

to investigate readers’ response to the translated proper names, the researcher chooses two translations so that comparison and contrast can be made Since most

of the names present in the stories are characters’ names, the concern of this thesis

is limited to names of animate beings (e.g people, personified animals/objects/etc., fictional creatures, etc.)

All of the aforementioned rationales have heightened the need for a study

on “Strategies for Translating Proper Names in Children’s Literature: A Comparative Study of Two Vietnamese Translations of Beatrix Potter’s Seven Short Stories”

1.2 Research objectives and research questions

The thesis is expected to work out a variety of strategies used by two translators, namely Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu, to translate proper names in Beatrix

Potter’s seven short stories (The Tale of Peter Rabbit (1902), The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin (1903), The Tale of Benjamin Bunny (1904), The Tale of Jeremy Fisher (1906), The Tale of Tom Kitten (1907), The Tale of Jemima Puddle Duck (1908), The Tale of Samuel Whiskers (1908)) Subsequently, the researcher will identify

the strengths and weaknesses of each strategy for translating proper names perceived by readers of various ages and foreign language, English in this case, proficiency levels Conclusions about the optimum translationng strategies for readers of different ages and levels of foreign language proficiency can then hopefully be made

To achieve the aforementioned objectives, the thesis attempts to answer the three following questions:

1 What are the strategies used by the two translators (Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu)

to translate proper names in Beatrix Potter’s seven short stories into

Vietnamese?

2 Which translated version is more favored by each group of readers of different

ages and levels of foreign language proficiency? What are the possible

reasons?

3 Which strategies are the most effective for translating proper names in Beatrix

Potter’s seven short stories from the perspectives of the sampled readers?

1.3 Significance of the study

Firstly, by compiling and assessing strategies used to render proper names

in Beatrix Potter’s seven short stories from English into Vietnamese as well as

suggesting the most effective strategies based on readers’ reception, the researcher will draw out implications about the strategies for translating proper names in children’ literature that satisfy readers of a variety of ages and foreign language proficiency levels and thence hopefully bring about more enjoyable reading experience for Vietnamese readers As Vietnamese readers at different ages and levels of foreign language proficiency will be investigated, the researcher will also

be able to figure out some characteristics and preferences of contemporary Vietnamese readers

Secondly, the thesis can be useful for students and translators who have to deal with literary proper names This research can at least inform them of the appropriate translationng strategies favored by Vietnamese readership

Thirdly, this study can also serve as a source for future researchers to refer

to when they investigate related issues This thesis by no means aims to make any generalizations about any translating issues However, it is hoped to contribute to the existing body of research on the translation of proper names in particular and

on translation in general

1.4 Methods of the study

The researcher used both quantitative and qualitative methods to collect data for the research After document reading and analysis had beenwere used to answer the first research question, a survey using questionnaires and semi-structured interviews was conducted with the sampled readers to find the answers

to the second and third research questions The data gathered were subsequently processed to draw out findings and implications

1.5 Scope of the study

This study examineds strategies used to translate proper names in children’s literature, using two translations of Beatrix Potter’s seven short stories as the cases The evaluation of the effectiveness of each strategy wasis based on the response of Vietnamese readers to each strategy The sample of the research wasislimited to 239160 people, who weare divided into eight groups of different ages and foreign language proficiency levels

1.6 Overview of the study

The thesis has five chapters:

Chapter 1: Introduction states the rationale, objectives, significance, methods,

scope and overview of the study

Chapter 2: Literature review lays the theoretical foundation for the research by

defining and discussing key terms and frameworks

Chapter 3: Methodology describes in detail the data collection and data analysis

methods and procedures the thesis adopts

Chapter 4: Findings and Ddiscussions answers the three research questions to

figure out the strategies used by two translators to translate proper names seven short stories of Beatrix Potter and then point out the strengths and weaknesses of each strategy as well as make suggestion regarding the optimum strategies as perceived by Vietnamese readers of different ages and foreign language proficiency levels

Chapter 5: Conclusion summarizes the main points of the study, points out the

limitations and makes suggestions for further studies

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

critically reviewing literature about translation, readership, children’s

literature, proper names in children’s literature and their translation.

2.1 Translation

2.1.1 Definition

Since translation studies officially became an academic subject sixty years

ago, the term “translation” has been given various definitions by different

scholars It can be used to refer to the subject, the product or the process The

process of translation, according to Newmark (1988, p 5), involves “rendering the

meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the

text.” This definition corresponds to Jakobson (2000)’s concept of “interlingual

translation” (p 114) Newmark (1981, p 8) also defined translation as “a craft”,

indicating that translation is a complicated process that requires translators to have

enough skills to take into account various factors, such as the context, rules of the

two languages, intention and writing style of writers (1981, p 15) Meanwhile,

according to Nida and Taber (1969), “translation is reproducing in the target

language the closest natural equivalent of the message of the source language” (p

12) However, concerning this task of translation, there is a contrasting opinion

proposed by Mounin (1963, p 24) that it iwas impossible to reproduce the original

text and even affirmed that “the only pity about a translation is that it is not the

original” This implied that even though translation could be a bridge to bring

readers closer to the ST and source culture, it is not an ideal process

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To sum up, there has not been any universal definition of translation Nonetheless, this research adopts the viewpoint of Newmark (1981, 1988) because

it concentrates on analyzing and evaluating the translating strategies that are chosen when translators have specific intention and intended audience in mind, which is suitable for the goals of the thesis

2.1.2 Translation process

In order to identify the contributing factors to strategy selection, the researcher bases her analysis on Nida (1964)’s three-stage process of translationsince “Nida and Taber’s own description of the process emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems” (Munday, 2001, p.39):

- Analyzing the surface structure of the ST into the basic elements of the deep structure (analysis of the ST);

- Transferring the basic elements of the deep structure from the SL source language to the TL target language;

- Restructuring the target language semantically and stylistically into the surface structure of the TT

(cited in Munday, 2001, p 39)

2.1.3 Translation strategies

The growing importance of translation as a means of communication in the globalized world has provoked numerous debates about what the superior translating strategy is The debates take place not only among different translators but also within each translator’s mind For centuries, these debates had stayed mostly in the realm of linguistics However, approximately after the 1970s, when theorists-translators such as Lefevere, Simon and Venuti went beyond language

and focused on “the larger issues of context, history and convention” (eds Bassnett

& Lefevere, 1990, p 11), a “cultural turn” (Snell-Hornby, 1995) was observed In this “cultural turn”, besides theorists- translators who were concerned about the power relations in the postcolonial world, Venuti emerged as one of advocates of the role of the translator at “the interface between the source culture and the foreign” (Munday, 2001, p 144) This role is closely associated with Venuti’s theory of domestication and foreignization, which deals with the impact of cultural and ideological difference on translation While some translators prefer domestication (e.g Nida and his concept of dynamic equivalence “[aiming] at complete naturalness of expression, and [trying] to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture” (Nida, 1964, p 159), others, among whom Venuti is a typical example, are in favor of foreignization, a style he defined as “a non-fluent and estranging translation style designed to make visible the presence of the translator by highlighting the foreign identity of the ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture” (cited 1995in Munday 2001, pp 30145-306) The concepts of domestication and foreignization, though termed differently, have been discussed by many scholars such as Schleiermacher, Nida and Venuti According to Venuti (1995), domestication is a strategy adopting a “transparent, fluent and ‘invisible’ style in order to minimize the foreignness of the TT” (cited in Munday 2001, p 146) In this way, the writer and the foreign culture are brought towards the reader In contrast, foreignization “[signifies] the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text” (Venuti, 1995, p 23) In other words, this translating strategy takes the reader abroad Domestication and foreignization can be realized by multiple translation procedures They are not mutually exclusive, i.e the realization of one does is not the negation of the other They are two ends of a spectrum

2.2 Readership

2.2.1 Definition

Readership is a group of readers that a text is aimed at According to Newmark (1988, p 15), three types of reader are expert, the educated layman and the uninformed Readers are categorized based on their interest in the topic of the text, their knowledge of the problem and culture as well as their language proficiency and preference

2.2.2 The impact of readership on translation

Nida (1964) underlined the importance of readership when discussing dynamic equivalence A translated text must meet the receptor’s “linguistic needs and cultural expectation” (Nida, 1964, cited in Munday, 2001, p 42) Therefore, the ultimate goal of dynamic equivalence is to achieve “the closest natural equivalence to the source-language message” (Nida, 1964, p 166) so that the translation can produce an effect on TL readers as similar as possible to the effect that the original version has on SL receptors Nida’s dynamic equivalence (1964,

p 166) resembles Newmark’s communicative translation (1988, p 41) or Nord’s instrumental translation type (2005, p 81), which is also a TL receptor-oriented approach A comprehensive understanding of the target readership can assist translators greatly in choosing suitable translating strategies (Reiss & Vermeer,

1984, p 101) Based on the topic of and the language employed in the original, a translator can define the readership of the original and the translation (Newmark,

1988, p 13) A group of readership can be characterized by age, education, culture, interest, knowledge, of certain subjects, etc These features can serve as bases for translators to make decisions regarding “the degree of formality, generality and emotional tone” of the translation (Newmark, 1988, p 13) Newmark (1988, p 13) suggesteds that a text normally aims at “an educated,

middle-class readership in an informal, not colloquial style.” Generally, a translator needs to identify his or her readership before translating

2.3 Children’s literature

2.3.1 Definition of children’s literature and its characteristics

There cannot be a single definition of children’s literature since “works of literature and whole literary genres acquire different meanings and are redefined again and again It might, therefore, well be that “today’s adults’ literature is tomorrow’s children’s literature” (Oittinen, 1993, p 42) Therefore, Čeňková (2006, cited in Olexová, 2009, p 10) pointed out that there are two main types of children’s literature: intentional literature, which is directed at children by the

writer such The Tale of Peter Rabbit and Winnie the Pooh, and unintentional literature, which is previously literature for adults such as Robin Hood, Robinson Crusoe or Gulliver’s travels

Most researchers defined children’s literature by taking into account the recipients Puurtinen (2006) regarded children’s literature as fiction that is aimed

at readership ranging from infants to teenagers (p 314) Oittinen (2006) also offered a similar definition that children’s literature is all pieces of writing

“produced and intended for children and it is also literature read by children” (p 35) As this research bases on readers’ reception of the translation to achieve its objectives, the researcher adopts a recipient-oriented definition, which is a

combination of Puurtinen’s and Oittinen’s definitions: Children’s literature is all pieces of writing produced and intended for readership ranging from infants to teenagers

Children’s literature usually functions as a source of moral lessons, of knowledge and a tool for developing language skills (Puurtinen, 2006, p 314) In order to fulfill this function, children’s literature, according to McDowell possesses the following characteristics:

Children’s books are usually shorter, they tend to favor an active rather than a

passive treatment, with dialogue and incident rather than description and

introspection; child protagonists are the rule; conventions are much used; the

story develops within a clear-cut moral schematism [ ] Children’s books tend to

be optimistic rather than depressive; language is child-oriented; plots are of a

distinctive order; probability is often discarded; and one could go on endlessly

talking of magic, fantasy, simplicity, and adventure (1973, p 51)

2.3.2 Readership of children’s literature

Children are obviously not the only audience of children’s books As many

adults as children enjoy reading literature aimed at children, especially fantasy

novels or adventure novels such as Colfer’s Artemis Fowl, Carroll’s Alice’s

Adventure in Wonderland or Lewis’s The Chronicles of Narnia Children’s books

can also be read to children by adults Therefore, children’s literature hasve dual

readership of children and adults Nevertheless, the child-readers should be

considered the primary audience and the adult-readers the secondary audience

only Another noteworthy point is that children do not form a homogeneous group

as the term “children” refers to all children of various ages, abilities, preferences,

cultures, experiences, and so forth Hence,

[w]e can’t speak about the child as a singular entity – class, ethnic origin, gender,

geopolitical location and economic circumstances are all elements that create

differences between real children in real places – and […] children are

constructed very differently in different parts of the world (Hunt, 2004, p 19)

Therefore, child readers can be considered experts, educated laymen or the

uninformed depending on their age, culture, experience, knowledge, interest, etc

2.4 Proper names in children’s literature

2.4.1 Definition of literary proper names

According to Quirk and Greenbaum (1973), proper names are names of

“specific people, places, countries, months, days, holidays, magazines, and so

forth” and have unique reference (p 76) They are written in initial capital letter

Their main function is to identify a person, an animal, a place, etc (Nord, 2003, p

183) Though proper names are usually used interchangeably with proper nouns,

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they are not to be confused as unlike a proper noun, a proper name can be an

adjective such as Fluffy in Rowling’s Harry Potter series(Rowling, 1997) , Lumpy

in Milne’s Winnie-the-Pooh(Milne, 1926) , a noun phrase like Hungarian Horntail

in Rowling’s Harry Potter series(Rowling, 2000) , Fatty Lumpkin in Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings(Tolkien, 1954), and so forth Literary proper names are names

found in literary works such as novels, poems and short stories In fictitious works, proper names are “dense signifiers” because they contain “clues about the destiny

of a character or indicatations of the way the storyline may develop” (Fernandes,

2006, p 46) As the focus of this research is on proper names of animate beings only, from this point onward, name/ proper name refers to proper name of animate beings

2.4.2 Types of literary proper names and their characteristics

Many attempts have been made to classify proper names Gardiner (1940)

categorized proper names into two types, namely composite proper names and compound proper names Composite proper names are full names, including first

name and surname Meanwhile, a compound proper name often includes an

adjective or a common noun Some examples are Nearly Headless Nick in

Rowling’s Harry Potter series(Rowling, 1997) , Jeremy Fisher (Potter, 1906), Marigold in Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings(Tolkien, 1954), etc However, this classification is not specific enough for the purpose of examining names in literary works

Whereas, Ainiala et al (2008, cited in Mäkinen, 2010, p 30) divided

literary proper names more specifically into four types: (1) Authentic names which are common names used in the real life, (2) realistic but unauthentic names which are names for imaginative things but can be used in the real world, (3) artificial names which are invented by the author to refer to fictional things and are not used

in the real world as names, and (4) borrowed names which are taken from other

fictional works and does not exist in the real world’s onomastic lexicon The drawback of this categorization is that it did not mention the semantic, phonological, orthographic or semiotic features of each type, which are the main concern of translators Hence, this classification is not suitable for a study concerning the translation of proper names

Meanwhile, Bertills (2003, p 45) mentioned three categories of literary

proper names: conventional personal names, invented names (or coined names) and classic names The first type consists of names that “belong to the general

anthroponymy” and do not suggest any characteristics of the name-bearers such as

Alice, Peter and Harry The second type includes those names that are “formed or

invented for the purpose of a certain narrative context” These names are used to describe some features of characters; thus, they have explicit semantic meaning

Little Red Riding Hood, Squealer in (Orwell’s Animal Farm, 1945) , Flesh-Eating Slug in Rowling’s Harry Potter series(Rowling, 1998), etc are some examples

Bertills (2003) also distinguished between invented names and imaginary names

(p 45); and the latter have no obvious semantic meaning Nevertheless, detecting the semantic meaning of a literary name is no easy task as “[s]emantic ambiguity

in invented names of literary characters is more a rule than an exception” (Bertills,

2003, p 162) As a result, literary proper names form one of the major sources of challenge for any translator working with literary works The third type of proper

name proposed by Bertills can also be referred to as historical, universal or literary names The character is named after a historical figure or a fictitious

character that has already established some kind of connotation in people’s minds Names of this type are neither conventional nor loaded with any semantic meaning

From the perspective of a translator, names can be classified into two

categories: conventional names, which are considered unmotivated for translation, and loaded names, which are motivated for translation (Hermans, 1988, p 88)

Conventional names, corresponding to Bertills’ concept of conventional personal names, do not usually require translation because either they have achieved an international status or they do not carry any semantic meaning and suggest any

traits of the name-bearer On the other hand, loaded names have semantic, phonological, orthographic or semiotic meaning, which can be ranged from faintly

suggestive to overtly expressive names (Hermans, 1988, p 88) This category includes Bertills’ concepts of invented names and classic names In comparison to

suggestive names (e.g Slytherine in Rowling’s Harry Potter series(Rowling,

1997), Chubb in Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings(Tolkien, 1954)), expressive

names (Old Brown in (Potter’s The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin, 1906 ), Butler in (Colfer’s Artemis Fowl, 2001)) have more transparent semantic meaning that is relevant to the content of the works Besides semantic meaning, a loaded name can carry phonological meaning A name can imitate the sound a creature makes, e.g

Eeyore in Milne’s Winnie-the-Pooh(Milne, 1926) , hah h in Lewis’s The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe(Lewis, 1950) A name can contain a sound that is associated with a meaning To take an example, in the name Slytherine in Harry Potter series, the morpheme Sly or the cluster /sl/ (the

Breehy-hinny-brinny-hoohy-cluster /sl/ can be found in words that are associated with a negative sense such as

“slimy”, “sleek” and “sleazy”) can evoke an image of a dishonest and tricky person, which is exactly the image of the notorious founder of the Slytherine house and the house itself A name can also be called a loaded name when it indicates gender, class, religion, nationality, etc or reminds of a historical figure

or event, myth, an epic, etc

All the categories of literary proper names defined by the aforementioned

researchers can be grouped into two major types, namely conventional names and loaded names (including semantically, semiotically and phonologically and/or orthographically loaded names) (Hermans, 1988) For example, compound proper

names, classic names, artificial names, realistic but unauthentic names, etc can be

classified as one of the three subtypes of loaded names Thus, this thesis adopts Hermans’ classification of proper names

2.4.3 Characteristics of proper names in children’s literature

Basically, similar to literary proper names, proper names in children’s books can be classified into two types, namely conventional names and loaded names In most books for children, the setting is fictional; hence, the characters, representing the imaginative world, often have fictive names (Ainiala et al., 2008,cited in Mäkinen, 2010, p 35) Additionally, characters in children’s literature tend to be more fantastical compared to characters in other genres For instance, many of them have special strengths or strange appearance Furthermore, according to Bertills, names in books for children “are strongly dependent on and influenced by the nature of the name-bearer in the literary context” (2003, p 10) Thus, “the more uncommon and unfamiliar the character is, the more meaningful and descriptive the name tends to be” (Bertills, 2003, p 49) Moreover, loaded names often save writers from having to describe the characters in detail A special name usually implies that the name-bearer is also unique On the contrary, a conventional name may suggest an ordinary character This is, of course, not always the case as a character can act strikingly different from the behavior that the name leads the reader to expect of that character For all the aforementioned reasons, loaded names are more frequently present in children’s literature in comparison to literature for adults The names in books for children are also more expressive so that child readers do not have much difficulty grasping the ideas behind the names

2.4.4 Translation of literary proper names

Though some researchers asserted that proper names should not be translated as they have no sense such as Vendler (1971, p 117), many others do

not consider translation of proper names a trivial matter Vermes (2003) pointed

out that:

The translation of proper names has often been considered as a simple automatic

process of transference from one language into another, due to the view that

proper names are mere labels used to identify a person or a thing […] [T]he

translation of proper names is not a trivial issue but, on the contrary, may involve

a rather delicate decision-making process, requiring on the part of the translator

careful consideration of the meanings the name has before deciding how best to

render it in the target language (pp 89-90)

Therefore, many studies have been conducted to explore this issue

According to Newmark (1988, pp 214-215), conventional people’s names should

be transferred to “[preserve] their nationality” Meanwhile, a loaded name should

first be translated into a TL name and then naturalized into the SL in order to

create a new SL name This method should only be used when the name is not

common among “an educated TL readership” (Newmark, 1988, p 215) However,

this strategy can only be applied when the TL is cognate with the SL Farahzad

(1995) stated that transcription and transliteration are the optimum strategies to

translate proper names Nida (1964) proposed three solutions, namely, (i1)

adapting the sound of the SL names to TL, (ii2) borrowing the orthographic form

of SL names and (iii3) compromising, i.e familiar names should have the written

form and pronunciation of TL and unfamiliar names should be naturalized

Generally, Nida encouraged foreignization when translating proper names,

probably because he did not distinguish between conventional names and loaded

names His theory of strategies for translating proper names, nevertheless, is

inadequate as it only concerned about the orthographic and phonological forms of

names

Some other researchers discuss strategies for translating literary proper

names in greater detail Hermans (1988) proposed four main strategies, namely

copy, transcription, substitution and translation He also mentioned omission and

addition Fernandes (2006), who based himself on Hermans’ theory, suggested ten

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strategies: (i) rendition, (ii) copy, (iii) transcription, (iv) recreation, (v)

substitution, (vi) deletion, (vii) addition, (viii) transposition, (ix) phonological replacement, (x) conventionality Coillie and Verschueren (2006) also recommended ten strategies, namely (i) reproduction, (ii) non-translation plus additional explanation, (iii) replacement of personal name by a common noun, (iv) phonetic or morphological adaptation to the TL, (v) exonym, (vi) replacement

by a more widely known name from the source culture or an internationally known name with the same function, (vii) replacement by another name from the TL,

(viii) translation of names with a particular connotation, (ixviii) replacement by a name with another or additional connotation, (ix) deletion (pp 123-129) The

aforementioned strategies put forward by Hermans, Fernandes, and Coillie and Verschueren, though named differently by different researchers, have much in common with one another However, the latter two sets of strategies are much more detailed Nonetheless, two of the strategies proposed by Coillie and

Verschueren, namely replacement by another name from the TL and replacement

by a name widely known locally or internationally, have a considerable overlap

As a result, adopting this theory would make the study confusing for the researcher as well as the readers of this paper Furthermore, Coillie and Verschueren’s the strategy non-translation plus additional explanation seems to

be lacking as, for example, a name can be rendered in to a TL name and is accompanied with an additional explanation at the same time Thus, the thesis adopts Fernandes’ theory of translation procedures (2006) Fernandes’ proposed set of procedures includes all of Coillie and Verschueren’s strategies except the

strategy of translation of names with a particular connotation and replacement of personal name by a common noun Hence, the researcher decides to add these two

strategies to Fernandes’ set of procedures and employs the set of twelve strategies

as the theoretical framework of translation strategies of this thesis The twelve strategies are as follows:

- Copy is the strategy used when a name in the SL is transferred to a TT without

any adjustment

- Transcription (transliteration) is employed when a SL name is adapted to the

normal pronunciation and orthography of the TL

- Phonological replacement is the procedure in which the translator imitates the

sound and/or spelling of a ST word by using an existing name in the TL that

evokes the phonological and/or orthographic form of the original name

- Rendition happens when a word or phrase is translated literally

- Transposition refers to the strategy that involves a change in the part of speech

from SL to TL without changing the meaning of the SL name

- Recreation is used to translate an invented SL name into the TL by creating a

new TL name so as to reproduce “similar effects of this newly-created referent

in another target cultural setting” (Fernandes, 2006, p 52)

- Substitution occurs when an unrelated TL word is used to translate a SL name

In other words, the names in both original and translated versions exist in the

lexicon or onomastic lexicon of their respective languages but are not related to

each other in terms of form, semantic meaning, etc

- Conventionality happens when a TL word is “conventionally accepted as the

translation of a particular SL name”

- Translation of names with particular connotation(s) is the strategy that

reproduces one or more connotations of the SL name in the TT

- Replacement of personal name by a common noun that characterizes the

character

- Deletion means that the name in the ST is completely or partly omitted in the

TT

Addition is used to add extra information to explain a name.

The aforementioned procedures can also be combined to translate a name

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2.4.5 Translation of pProper nNames in cChildren’s lLiterature

There are arguments for and against the translation of proper names in

children’s literature Those who advocated that names should be transferred to the

TT stated that foreignized names can be educational as they advanced a person’s,

especially a child’s, knowledge about other cultures and naming practices (Ainiala

et al., 2008, Ainiala cited in Mäkinen, 2010, p 38) Coillie and Verschueren

(2006) also pointed out that:

Translators who choose to preserve foreign names (and other cultural elements)

often do so for the purpose of bringing children into contact with other cultures

via the translation In this way translations give young readers a wider view of the

world and of themselves and their own culture (pp 133-134)

Another reason for foreignizing the names is to maintain the aesthetic value

of the names as the forms of SL names are not substantially modified (Coillie &

Verschueren, 2006, p 136)

Meanwhile, those who support the view that names should be domesticated

argue that foreign names with strange phonological features and spellings such as

Hermione Granger in (Rowling’s Harry Potter series, 1997) and McGregor in

(Potter’s The Tale of Peter Rabbit, 1902) create linguistic obstacles for young

children as they reduce the level of memorability and readability, discouraging

them from reading Therefore, it is expected that one of the job of a translator is to

enable children to recognize and remember the proper names by rendering the

names according to the conventions of the TL This is also the purpose of the

translator because according to Vermeer (1987), “one of the most important

factors determining the purpose of translation is the addressee, who is the intended

receiver or audience of the target with their culture-specific world knowledge,

their expectations and their communicative needs” (cited in Nord, 1997, p 12)

Extra attention should be paid to the readability of names in children’s literature

not only because the main readership is children, whose pronunciation has not

fully developed, but also because children’s books are often read aloud Therefore,

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Coillie and Verschueren (2006, p 130) stated that “[t]he more exotic the name, the more often it is modified […], particularly if the name is difficult or awkward to pronounce.” Supporters of this view also emphasize the role of readership in lexical choice The age and the level of awareness of foreign factors decide how much strangeness a person can handle in a text As children generally do not have

as broad knowledge as adults do, they probably do not know much about foreign cultures; and therefore, cannot tolerate foreign names as well as adults Hence, it is difficult for childrenthem to identify with a character with a foreign name As a result, “[t]ranslators who make identification and recognizability their priorities will tend to modify names” (Coillie & Verschueren, 2006, p 134) with a view to ensuring a more thorough understanding and more enjoyable reading experience for readers Furthermore, children’s literature contains a considerable amount of semantically, orthographically, semiotically or phonetically loaded names that describe the characters’ appearance or characteristics or foreshadow the destiny of the characters Thus, without a proper understanding of these names, readers are likely to miss out many interesting details about the characters as well as the stories Therefore, it is only fair that the translator offers readers a chance to obtain the same understanding of the stories that the SL audience have

In general, the choice between domestication and foreignization when translating proper names in children’s literature, to a large extent, depends on the translator’s priority If a translator perceives that the preservation of style of the

ST should take precedence over the target readership, he or she probably chooses

to foreignize the names and vice versa However, Ainiala et al and Coillie and Verschueren both agreed that the translator should balance these two factors (ST and readership) in the process of translating to avoid over-foreignization or over-domestication Generally, the translation, while satisfying the target readership, must maintain the function of the ST Therefore, the choice of translation strategies should be based on characteristics of names and readers’ preferences

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

This chapter provides detailed methodology of the study including research

objects, participants, research instruments (including document reading

and analysis, questionnaire and semi-structured interview), data collection

procedures, data analysis methods and procedures

3.1 Research subjects

The subjects of this thesis are all proper names identified in seven short

stories of Beatrix Potter (The Tale of Peter Rabbit (1902), The Tale of Squirrel

Nutkin (1903), The Tale of Benjamin Bunny (1904), The Tale of Jeremy Fisher

(1906), The Tale of Tom Kitten (1907), The Tale of Jemima Puddle Duck (1908),

The Tale of Samuel Whiskers (1908)) and their two translations One translator is

Ly Lan Her translations of eight of Beatrix Potter’s stories were published by

Hochiminh City Culture–Literature and Arts Publishing House (Nhà xuất bản Văn

hóa - Văn nghệ thành phố Hồ Chí Minh) in form of eight separate picture books

The translations of four stories (The Tale of Peter Rabbit (Cuộc đào thoát của

Bít-tơ), The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin (Sóc Lấc Xấc), The Tale of Benjamin Bunny (Cuộc

mạo hiểm của Ben Bân-ny) and The Tale of Jeremy Fisher (Ông Câu Dèm)) came

out in 2011 and the other four (The Tale of Tom Kitten (Mèo Tom), The Tale of

Jemima Puddle Duck (Cô vịt Mai Ma), The Tale of Samuel Whiskers (Ông Tí Râu

Sammy), The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes (Vợ chồng Sóc Típ Tô)) in 2014 The other

translator is Ngo Ha Thu Her work, titled The Tales of Mischief and Mayhem

(Một cậu thỏ nghịch ngợm kinh khủng), is a compilation of translations of Beatrix

Potter’s eleven short stories The book was published by Kim Dong Publishing

House (Nhà xuất bản Kim Đồng) in 2014 The researcher, however, only

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examined seven stories that are translated by both Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu for the purpose of comparing translated names and translation strategies

There are thirty (30) proper names in the English versions of the aforementioned stories, which, according to Hermans’ classification, include six (6) conventional names, nineteen (19) semantically loaded names, two (2) phonologically and/or orthographically loaded names, one (1) semiotically loaded names, one (1) semantically and semiotically loaded names and one (1)

semantically and phonologically and/or orthographically loaded names

3.2 Participants

To answer Research Questions 2 and 3, eight groups of participants were formed on the basis of age and level of foreign language proficiency The eight groups are as follows:

Figure 1 Groups of participants

 Group (A1): Participants were 11 kindergarten students who have not learned

English at all

 Group (A2): Participants were 11 kindergarten students who have learned

English for two or three years

(B1) Low level

of foreign language proficiency (B2) High level

of foreign language proficiency

(C) Young Adults (12-23)

(C1) Low level

of foreign language proficiency (C2) High level

of foreign language proficiency

(D) Adults (>23)

(D1) Low level

of foreign language proficiency (D2) High level

of foreign language proficiency

 Group (B1): Participants were 31 elementary students who got mark 7.5/10 or

below for their end-of-term English exam that took place in the most recent semester

 Group (B2): Participants were 39 elementary students who got mark 8/10 or

above for their end-of-term English exam that took place in the most recent semester

 Group (C1): 42 participants were picked from three sources:

- Source 1: Members of English classes at English language teaching centers

whose IELTS overall band scores (in official tests or placement tests) were 5

or below

- Source 2: Secondary students whose overall scores in English language were

below 8/10 in the most recent semester

- Source 3: University students whose overall scores in English language were

below 3.2/4 in the most recent semester

 Group (C2): 48 participants were picked from three sources:

- Source 1: Members of English classes at English language teaching centers

whose IELTS overall band scores (in official tests or placement tests) were 5.5

or above

- Source 2: Secondary students whose overall scores in English language were

8/10 or above in the most recent semester

- Source 3: University students whose overall scores in English language were

3.2/4 or above in the most recent semester

 Group (D1): 31 participants were people over 23 years old who did not know

much English or members of English classes at English language teaching centers whose IELTS overall band scores (in official tests or placement tests) were 5 or below

 Group (D2): 26 participants were members of English classes at English

language teaching centers whose IELTS overall band scores (in official tests or placement tests) were 5.5 or above

3.3 Research instruments

3.3.1 Research Question 1

Document reading and analysis were used to answer the first research

question as well as to design questionnaires and interview questions The researcher read the original English versions of Beatrix Potter’s seven short stories and their two translations to collect proper names that appear in the seven stories and their translations Subsequently, the names in the seven stories were characterized and categorized according to the translation strategies employed

3.3.2 Research Questions 2 and 3

Questionnaires were used to answer the second and third research

questions Questionnaire was employed as a research instrument because it enabled the researcher to collect information from a large number of people in a short period of time and ensure objectivity Questionnaires were adopted to gather information about the sampled readers’ preferences, the reasons for their preferences and their assessment of the names translated by different strategies Questionnaires, which were in Vietnamese, were administered to a total of 239 participants as described in 3.2

The questionnaire has three main parts The first part was used to collect personal information, i.e name, age, English proficiency level and phone number

In the second part, two translated versions of each original name were provided The names were divided into seven groups according to the translation strategies the two translators adopted The names of the two translators were not mentioned

in the questionnaires in order to avoid any possible bias of the samples Participants were asked to choose the translated name they prefer out of the two The third part investigated into participants’ reasons for favoring a particular name

or a group of name

Semi-structured interview was employed to figure out kindergarten’s

reasons for liking a particular name or a group of name as the questionnaire was

too complicated for them to complete To clarify inconsistent or incomplete

answers in the questionnaires (if any) and achieve more detailed and precise

responses from the samples, semi-structured interviews were also carried out on

the remaining groups For example, for the group of name consisting of copied

names and transcribed names, whenif the participantss did not choose all copied

names or all transcribed names, interviews would be conducted The interviews

occupied an integral role in validating, consolidating and supplementing the

findings from questionnaires

IAll interviews were conducted in both Vietnamese and English, depending

on the interest of the participants Detailed notes were taken during the interviews

Some interviews were also recorded at the participants’ permission

Questionnaires and semi-structured interviews enabled the researcher to

figure out which translated names were preferred and for what reasons and answer

the second research question Since the names were categorized according to the

translation strategies employed, implications could be made about the strengths

(and weaknesses) of each strategy Thence, the third research question about the

most effective strategies for translating proper names in children’s literature could

be answered

3.4 Data collection procedures

The procedure of data collection consists of three main stages:

- Stage 1: Proper names in the original versions of Beatrix Potter’s seven short

stories and their translations by two translators were compiled and presented in

a table for strategy identification, analysis and comparison

- Stage 2: 239 questionnaires were administered to eight groups of participants

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- Stage 3: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with kindergarten students and participants who gave inconsistent or incomplete answers 3.5 Data analysis methods

3.5.1 Quantitative data analysis

Quantitative data analysis was used to process information gathered from Part 2 of the questionnaire The percentage of readers in each group favoring each translated name was calculated and illustrated in charts

3.5.2 Qualitative data analysis

With a view to processing data collected by reading and analyzing documents, administering questionnaires and interviewing, qualitative data analysis was carried out The researcher analyzed names collected from documents in order to find out the strategies used to translate each proper name

By adopting qualitative data analysis, implications couldan be made from answered questionnaires and interview transcript when the researcher attempted to explain and interpret the collected data

3.6 Data analysis procedures

The procedure of data analysis consists of three main stages:

- Stage 1: Strategies used by the two translators to translate each proper name in

Beatrix Potter’s seven short stories were figured out All the names were then categorized based on the translation strategies Based on this categorization, questionnaires and interviews questions could be designed

- Stage 2: Answers of participants to questions in the questionnaires were

synthesized, calculated and presented in tables and, charts, etc so that comparison among different groups couldan be made more easily

- Stage 3: Information achieved through interviews was summarized and

decoded in accordance with the research questions

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents major findings of the study based on the data

collected from document reading and analysis, questionnaire and interview

and discusses in detail to answer the three research questions

4.1 Research Question 1: What are the strategies used by the two

translators (Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu) to translate proper names in Beatrix

Potter’s seven short stories into Vietnamese?

There are thirty (30) proper names in the English version of Beatrix Potter’s

seven short stories, which can be categorized into six groups: (1) conventional

names, (2) semantically loaded names, (3) phonologically and/or

orthographically loaded names, (4) semiotically loaded names, (5)

semantically and semiotically loaded names and (6) semantically and

phonologically and/or orthographically loaded names The categorization was

based on Hermans (1988)’s classification of proper names The 30 original

English names, their translations by two translators (Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu) and

the strategies (based on Coillie and Verschueren’s and Fernandes’s set of

procedures) used to translate them are listed in Table 2 in Appendix 1

Below is the chart depicting the strategies used by Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu

to translate conventional names, semantically loaded names and phonologically

and/or orthographically loaded names

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Figure 2 Translation strategies used to translate three types of names by

Ly Lan and Ngo Ha Thu

All conventional names were transferred from the SL to the TL by Ngo Ha Thu Meanwhile, Ly Lan used four procedures to translate them, namely copy,

transcription (Peter→Bít-tơ, Ribby→Rịp), substitution (Mcgregor→Mặt-rỉ) and

partial deletion, with transcription being the most frequently used strategy

6.45 17.65

33.33

14.29

6.45 2.94 9.68 5.88

100

33.33 9.68 11.77

3.23 2.94 14.29

Ly Lan Ngo Ha Thu

Ly Lan Ngo Ha Thu Conventional names Semantically loaded

names

Phonologically and/or orthographically loaded names

Substitution

Replacement with a common noun Translation of connotation(s) Phonological replacement Deletion

Addition

Rendition

Transcription

Copy