Applying case method in teaching ESP at the university of security

This thesis, therefore, attempted to find out whether the case method was effective in enhancing students’ interest and communication skills as well as their ability to deal with actual

VIETNAMESE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY- HO CHI MINH CITY

University of Social Sciences and Humanities

  

LE THI NGUYET

APPLYING THE CASE METHOD IN TEACHING ESP AT THE

UNIVERSITY OF SECURITY, HO CHI MINH CITY

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS (TESOL)

Supervisor: NGUYEN THI KIEU THU, Ph.D

Ho Chi Minh City- 2010

I certify my authorship of the thesis submitted today entitled:

APPLYING THE CASE METHOD IN TEACHING ESP AT THE

UNIVERSITY OF SECURITY, HO CHI MINH CITY

in terms of the statement of Requirements of the theses

in Master’s Programs issued by the Higher Degree Committee

Ho Chi Minh City June, 2010

LE THI NGUYET

I hereby state that I, LE THI NGUYET, being the candidate for the degree of Master of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the

retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for the care, loan and reproduction

of the theses

Ho Chi Minh City, June 2010

LE THI NGUYET

Gratitude is also offered to the Board of Directors at the University of Security, who gave me facilities and conditions to take part in this Master’s program

I would also like to give many thanks to Mr Pham Trac Kham, the Dean of the Department of Foreign Languages at the University of Security, who always gave

me lots of support and encouragement to successfully implement this thesis

I owe many thanks to my colleagues and friends not only for their endless encouragement and support but also for their assistance in data collection I simply cannot find enough words to express my thankfulness to them

Last but not least, I would also like to thank my husband, my parents and my younger sisters for their loving support and encouragement that help me so much in finishing this thesis

ABSTRACT

The case method has been one of the most widely-used method in the area of ESP

In fact, it is rather difficult to apply in teaching languages but many researchers have realized its benefits This thesis, therefore, attempted to find out whether the case method was effective in enhancing students’ interest and communication skills

as well as their ability to deal with actual situations in professional contexts through students’ attitude towards learning ESP with cases, and finally to discover how to apply the case method effectively in teaching ESP at the University of Security The data were collected through surveys to students’ attitude with an experimental teaching, classroom observations, questionnaires and pocket interviews to teachers

It was found that most students felt interested and motivated when learning ESP with the case method They were more responsible for their own learning, thus working harder In addition, they actively participated in case activities such as group discussions, role-playing or decisison-making More importantly, students could improve their communication skills as well as the skills of solving professional situations and making decisions However, despite the benefits of the case method, many ESP teachers at the University of Security did not apply the case method in their ESP classes

Based on the findings, some suggestions for ESP teachers, ESP students, and administrators were made to enhance the quality of teaching ESP at the University

of Security

TABLES OF CONTENTS

Pages

1.8 Organization of the Study

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 An overview of English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

i

ii iii

iv

v xii xiii

2.1.3 Types of ESP

2.1.4 How is ESP different from GE?

2.1.5 Methodological approaches used in teaching ESP

2.2 The Case Method

2.2.3.1 The teacher and student roles in a regular class

2.2.3.2 The teacher roles in an ESP case class 2.2.3.3 The student roles in an ESP case class 2.2.4 Advantages in the use of case method in teaching language

2.2.5 Drawbacks in the use of case method in teaching language

2.2.6 Effective case teaching strategies

4.1.1.1 Teachers’ evaluation of ESP students’ attitude

towards their learning with the case method 4.1.1.2 Teacher’s evaluation of ESP students’

improvements in English communication skills 4.1.1.3 Teacher’s evaluation of ESP students’ ability of

dealing with real

4.1.2 Students’ responses to the questionnaires

4.1.2.1 Students’ English background 4.1.2.2 The effectiveness of the case method in improving

students’ interest and their communication competence as well as their ability to deal with real

the case method 4.1.2.4 Students’ comments case activities, disadvantages

of the case method and necessary factors of ESP teachers, which resulted in how to apply the case method effectively in ESP classes

4.1.3 Teacher interviews

4.2 FINDINGS

4.2.1 The ESP coursebook did not give advantages to ESP teachers in

teaching with the case method

4.2.1.1 The coursebook designers did not recognize the

importance of the case method and its benefits in improving the quality of teaching ESP students, therefore they neglected this method in the process of designing the coursebook’ content

4.2.1.2 The professional cases presented in the coursebook were

not satisfactorily and systematically arranged

4.2.2 From ESP students

4.2.2.1 Students had positive attitude towards their learning and

the case method

4.2.2.2 Students showed active performance in the experimental

classes 4.2.2.3 Students realized the importance and effectiveness of

the case method

4.2.2.4 Some difficulties of learning with the case method were

4.2.3.1 The importance and benefits of the case method was

widely acknowledged among ESP teachers 4.2.3.2 ESP teachers admitted that the case method was

difficult for both teaching and learning though it was very interesting and beneficial

4.2.3.3 Many ESP teachers did not apply the case method in

their ESP classes 4.2.3.4 ESP teachers realized some difficulties of applying the

case method in teaching ESP at the University of Security

4.3 SUMMARY

Chapter 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

5.2 Recommendations

5.2.1 Recommendations for ESP teachers at the University of Security

5.2.1.1 ESP teachers ought to apply the case method in their

ESP classes to improve students’ communication skills

5.2.1.2 ESP teachers ought to help students prepare for good

discussions

5.2.1.3 ESP teachers should use many kinds of case activities to

arouse students’ interest in learning ESP

5.2.1.4 ESP teachers ought to spend a lot of time preparing

lesson plans carefully and selecting effective professional cases

5.2.1.6 ESP teachers ought to use technological equipments

such as screens, projectors, laptops, etc to enhance the effectiveness of the case method in teaching ESP

5.2.1.7 ESP teachers must create a collaborative and

learner-centered learning environment

5.2.1.8 ESP teachers ought to identify the difficulties and

drawbacks of the case method in teaching ESP, admit them and find out ways to overcome them

5.2.1.9 ESP teachers ought to improve both ESP knowledge and

understanding of Vietnamese law and national security

5.2.2 Recommendations for ESP students

5.2.2.1 Students ought to improve both GE and ESP vocabulary

5.2.2.2 Students ought to improve an understanding of

Vietnamese law and national security

5.2.2.3 Students must take responsibility for their own learning

and find out their active strategies in learning ESP with cases to exploit the effectiveness of the case method

5.2.3 Recommendations for the Department of Foreign Languages at

the University of Security

5.2.3.1 Increasing the time for case activities in the course

syllabus 5.2.3.2 Writing more different kinds of case activities in the

coursebook so that ESP teachers find it easy to apply the case method in teaching ESP Moreover, professional cases should be presented in the coursebook satisfactorily and systematically

5.2.3.3 Including case questions on mid-term and final exams

5.2.3.4 Holding some seminars about how to apply the case

Security

5.2.4.1 Equipping ESP classrooms with projectors and screens

that are needed to exploit the effectiveness of the case method in teaching ESP

5.2.4.2 Creating a motivating and convenient setting for students

to carry out case activities after class

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

Appendix A ………

Appendix B ………

Appendix C ………

Appendix D ………

Appendix E ………

Appendix F ………

Appendix G ………

Appendix H ………

Appendix I ………

Appendix J ………

Appendix K ………

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153

 TABLES

Table 4.1: Students’ communication skills

Table 4.2: Effects of the case method on students’ future jobs

Table 4.3: The benefits of the case method

Table 4.4: Students’ attitude towards their ESP learning

Table 4.5: Comparison of the case method with the grammar-translation method Table 4.6: Students’ evaluation towards interesting case activities in class Table 4.7: Students’ evaluation towards class cases

Table 4.8: The disadvantages of the case method

Table 4.9: Necessary factors of teachers who teach ESP with cases

 ABBREVIATIONS

ESP: English for Specific Purposes

GE: General English

ELT: English Language Teaching

ESP-B: Business English

IT: Information Technology

HCMC: Ho Chi Minh City

TESOL: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

Figure 4.1: Students’ years of learning English at school

Figure 4.2: Students’ results of General English in the previous semester Figure 4.3: Students’ attitude towards their ESP learning with the case method

non-to help students non-to be competent second language users in specific professional fields, and helping them to deal with real professional situations is one of the key learning objectives that ESP teachers pursue In the area of ESP, one of the most widely-used techniques has been the case method Among its more salient characteristics, as far as ESP is concerned, the case method is fundamentally communicative Professional authentic material is used and the process is totally learner-centered

Like students at other universities in Vietnam, those at the University of Security take both General English and ESP courses However, there is not enough attention paid to searching for effective ESP teaching methods, so the ESP learning

is not learner-centered and interesting In addition, students cannot apply the theories that they have learnt in dealing with real professional situations To solve those problems, the author of this thesis, an English teacher at the University of Security, always looks for effective methods to arouse ESP students’ interest and communication skills

At the University of Security, ESP has been taught theoretically with only vocabulary, grammar and reading comprehension, which causes the ineffectiveness and limits for students in communication As a result, a more effective method needed applying to give students more opportunities to practice knowledge, concepts, and skills relevant to their specific professional field Therefore, the case method - a form of discussion teaching - is chosen because it can make students more interested and motivated in their learning, and helps them achieve their learning goals in improving their English communication skills as well as skills of analysis, problem-solving and decision-making

To sum up, this study discusses the application of the case method to the teaching of ESP at the University of Security Students are given some professional situations (or cases) in English to deal with while improving their English comprehension and communication skills

1.1.2 Current situation of ESP teaching at the University of Security

In fact, most students at the University of Security studied 3-7 years of General English in secondary school and high school Before enrolling in their English courses, they have to take a placement test to classify their English levels Based on their grade results, they are divided into different classes suitable to their actual English levels They study English as an obligatory subject for 6 terms (360 periods) After studying 5 terms of General English (300 periods) with the textbook

“English KnowHow Book 1” and “English KnowHow Book 2” by Therese Naber

-Angela Blackwell 2004, the students continue their ESP course for 60 periods The

ESP coursebook used for teaching ESP students is “Start with Vocational English”,

compiled by the teachers of the Department of Foreign Languages at the University

of Security

The ESP students are third-year students There are 15 teachers in the Department of Foreign Languages, but only 10 teachers have taught ESP ESP classrooms at the University of Security are not very large There are about 34-38

students in each class Chairs in the classrooms are arranged in double straight U for students to be able to communicate with each other or discuss in groups easily In addition, some classes are equipped with a projector and a screen so that teachers can apply IT in teaching English to make their teaching more interesting and effective

Moreover, the students here are boarders, that is, they all live in the university dormitory during the terms except for the holidays Thus, this learning environment facilitates their teamwork, especially group discussions

However, there are still a lot of disadvantages in teaching ESP students with the case method at the University of Security The first difficulty that ESP teachers have faced is that the coursebook is not really case-based, so that they feel discouraged to apply the case method in their teaching The number of cases in the coursebook is limited so teachers have to spend much time looking for professional cases and preparing their lesson plans As a result, not many teachers are willing to spend time and energy looking for effective methods to improve the students’ communication skills Second, the teaching time limit is also a difficulty for using the case method in ESP classes Teaching with cases requires a lot of time for students to discuss problems with their friends and give their own decisions Consequently, the amount of current teaching time for each unit is not enough for group discussions Moreover, not all classrooms are equipped with projectors and screens, whereas ESP teachers really need this supporting technology equipment when they apply the case method in their classes so that they can make their teaching more lively, exciting and effective

1.2 Statement of the purpose

The purposes of this study, therefore, are (1) to discover whether the case method is effective in arousing students’ interest in learning ESP, in enhancing their English communication skills and ability to deal with real situations in professional

contexts; (2) to find out efficient ways to apply the case method in teaching ESP at the University of Security.

1.3 Research question

For its purposes, the study aimed to answer one main question as follows

Is the case method effective in enhancing students’ interest, their communication skills and their ability to deal with real situations in professional contexts?

1.4 Significance of the Study

This study is significant in both theory and practice for several reasons as

follows

Firstly, there have not been any researches on teaching ESP with real

professional cases at the University of Security Therefore, this study will be the

first to investigate the issue above

Secondly, the quality of teaching and learning ESP at the University of

Security is not as good as expected, that is, students’ interest and their English

communication skills are not enhanced after the ESP course finishes Moreover,

they do not know how to apply ESP knowledge in dealing with real professional

cases Thus, it is necessary to do one or more researches in this domain to improve

the situation

Finally, this study focuses on teaching ESP with real professional cases at the

University of Security Therefore, it helps provide a deeper understanding of the

advantages and practical effectiveness of this method Then it also provides useful

and deliberate recommendations about effective strategies to apply the case method

in teaching ESP In addition, the study will also serve as a meaningful reference for

teachers of ESP at the University of Security as well as at other universities

1.5 Terminology

1.5.1 The University of Security is the one in which learners are trained

with the knowledge of national security, criminal affairs and law as well as skills of investigation in order to be security officers

1.5.2 ESP

ESP stands for English for Specific Purposes Hutchinson and Waters (1987:99) stated that, “ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning.” It fulfils the needs of adult learners who need to learn a foreign or second language for use in their specific fields such as science, technology, medicine, leisure, academic learning, etc

1.5.3 Case/ Situation/ Problem

Case is “a description of an actual situation, commonly involving a decision,

a challenge, an opportunity, a problem or an issue faced by a person (or persons) in

an organization” (J.A Erskine, M.R Leenders, L.A.M Mauffette-Leenders, 1999: 2)

From the definition above, the writer of this study uses the term case and situation interchangeably The term problem is sometimes used in this research; however, it only presents an aspect of a case It cannot replace the term case

because a case involves many aspects such as a decision, a challenge, an opportunity, a problem or an issue

1.5.4 Case method/ problem-based learning/ case-based teaching/ case study/ problem-solving teaching/ case study method/ case-based approach

“Case method is seen as a technique based on analysis, discussion, and decision-making” (A Almagro Esteban and M.L Pérez Canãdo, 2003: 138) That

is, case method teaching is a form of discussion teaching in which students prepare

a case, either individually or in groups, and then seek collectively through in class discussion to discover a solution to the problem presented by the case In fact, there

is a confusion in the way many researchers use different terms to refer to this

teaching method First, the terms case method, problem-based learning, and based teaching are often used interchangeably with an occasional interspersing of the term case study The term commonly used across all disciplines to define teaching with cases or problems is case method What are the similarities and

case-differences among each of these terms as used in discussions of teaching from cases

or problems?

First, the term case study refers to the final product of qualitative data collection and analysis; the case study is a written account of both the case and its analysis Conversely, a case as used in teaching typically includes only the “story”

without the accompanying analysis; that analysis is left to students Therefore, the

term case study is often used inaccurately to describe a case for teaching The term case study, because it most correctly describes the product of qualitative inquiry and

not an instructional method, is excluded from further discussion

Second, the terms problem-based learning and case-based learning are

frameworks for an instructional process and a curriculum structure respectively

Third, the term case method is a general descriptor for teaching with cases or

situations Most often, this term refers to traditional methods of teaching in law or business It is a generic term that can include teaching from cases or situations with either contained or open-ended analysis Besides, some researchers such as Peter

Daly (2003) and Jenny Miller (1996) used the term case method interchangeably with the term case study method or case-based approach to refer to a teaching

method with cases And another one contributing to the confusion is the term

problem-solving teaching However, problem-solving is just a specific aspect of

teaching with the case method like decision-making or role-playing

To sum up, with the preference for the definitions of some researchers such

as A Almagro Esteban and M.L Pérez Canãdo (2003), J.A Erskine, M.R Leenders, and L.A.M Mauffette-Leenders (2003), the writer of this study decided

to use the term case method to refer to teaching with actual cases or professional

situations in ESP classes

1.6 Assumptions

The study was based on the following assumptions:

1 The sample population of students was representative of the majority of

students at the University of Security

2 The methods and procedures of data collection and analysis were reliable

and appropriate to obtain the information to answer the research questions

3 The respondents and informants were honest in their responses, and had

no difficulty understanding the items of the research questions

4 All sample students who take part in the survey have been chosen

randomly

1.7 Limitations

The investigation for experimental teaching and questionnaires of this study mainly covered a period of the year 2008 for four classes of non-majored students at the University of Security This study confines itself to experimental teaching, class observation, questionnaires and interviews Additionally, the study has been done

on a small scale because of work constraints, time constraints and the requirements

of the thesis itself Therefore, further researches are needed in order to make the matter clearer and more persuasive

In addition, althought ESP is required in many universities in Vietnam, each major in the universities has its own textbook, thus textbooks for Security are not widespread on the market Therefore this study is restricted to the scope of the University of Security, and its recommendations will be applied the most effectively

in this university Additionally, the purposive sampling procedure decreases the generalizability of findings Thus, this study will not be generalizable to all universities However, recommendations from this study may also be beneficial to ESP teachers at other universities

1.8 Organization of the Study

In order to answer the two research questions, the thesis is organized into five chapters as follows

Chapter 1 provides the background of the thesis It figures the rationale of

the study and current situation of ESP teaching at the University of Security It also emphasizes the importance of the case method on students’ communicative competence and ability to deal with professional cases Besides, chapter 1 also introduces the purpose, research questions, significance, terminology, assumptions

and limitations of the study

Chapter 2 presents a review of the literature of the study It consists of

discussions on various viewpoints on ESP, the case method with its definition, types, history and application, advantages, drawbacks, case teaching strategies as well as the roles of the teacher and student in ESP case class

Chapter 3 describes the research methodology It shows the ways in which

necessary information to write the thesis has been obtained Each instrument contributes a certain type of information and all of them together provide the sound knowledge on the matter to help the writer of the study finish her work

Chapter 4 presents the data analysis The source of data comes from the

experimental teaching, class observation, questionnaires and interviews In this chapter, the writer of the study tries to discover whether the case method is effective

in enhancing students’ interest in learning ESP, their English communication skills and their ability to deal with real situations in professional contexts, the result of which will eventually yield efficient ways to apply the case method in teaching ESP

at the University of Security

Chapter 5 offers a number of recommendations on how the case method can

be effectively applied in teaching ESP and suggests some changes for current ESP teaching at the University of Security Moreover, this chapter also provides a conclusion to sum up the main points of the study

Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the literature review of the study is presented with the purpose of providing the theoretical framework for the research about ESP and case method in ESP teaching This chapter consists of two main parts:

(1) an overview of ESP including its definition, characteristics, types and methodological approaches in teaching ESP

(2) the case method including

(a) an overview of teaching cases

(b) the case method with its definition, types, history and

application, advantages, drawbacks, case teaching strategies as well as the roles of the teacher and student in ESP case class

2.1 An overview of English for Specific Purposes (ESP)

2.1.1 What is ESP?

Up to now, ESP has been defined differently by various authors Some people described ESP as simply being the teaching of English for any purpose that could be specified However, others were more precise describing it as the teaching

of English used in academic studies or the teaching of English for vocational or professional purposes

Strevens (1988: 12) suggests a definition which covers more detailed characteristics of an ESP course He states “English for specific purposes is a particular case of the general category of special-purpose language teaching The same principles apply no matter which language is being learnt and taught”

A broader definition of ESP is the one provided by Hutchinson and Waters (1987) who theorize ESP as an approach to language teaching which takes into account the learners’ reasons for learning in making decisions related to content and method They stated, “ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 98)

In fact, there is no specific definition of ESP, that is, no distinction has been made between ESP (English for specific purposes), EOP (English for occupational purposes) and EAP (English for academic purposes) Yet, there is a tendency for foreign language teachers and applied linguists to consider EOP and EAP as the two broad categories of ESP For this reason, authors such as Sinha and Sadorra (1991: 10) referred to ESP as “a generic term used to indicate an approach practiced in teaching and learning of content-oriented English for any very specific purpose”

2.1.2 General characteristics of ESP

Streven (1980), Robinson (1980) and Widdowson (1983) have agreed that an ESP course would have the following features:

• It is purposeful and aimed at the successful performance of occupational

or educational roles by an individual or a group

• It is based on an analysis of the students’ needs and is tailor-made to meet these needs

• It may differ from another general language course in its selection of skills, themes, topics, situations, functions, language and methodology

Additionally, from his own definition, Strevens goes on to maintain that a definition of ESP needs to distinguish between absolute characteristics and variable characteristics as follows

*Absolute characteristics:

ESP consists of English language teaching which is:

 designed to meet specified needs of the learner;

 related in content (i.e in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupations and activities;

 centred on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics, etc., and analysis of this discourse;

 in contrast with General English

*Variable characteristics:

ESP may be, but is not necessarily:

 restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g reading only);

 not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology

(Strevens, 1988: 1-2) With specific purposes in mind, the learners know clearly what they need to learn, and they will learn with high motivation what they find useful for their work later or at present For this reason, an ESP teacher should be aware of the learners’ needs so as not to introduce irrelevant materials to the course

In addition, theorists Dudley-Evans and St John (1998: 4-5) modified Strevens’ original definition of ESP to form their own A comparison of this latter definition with that of Strevens reveals that Dudley-Evans and St John have

removed the absolute characteristic that “ESP is in contrast with General English”

and added more variable characteristics as follows:

 ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;

 ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English;

 ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level;

 ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students;

 Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners

2.1.3 Types of ESP

David Carter (1983: 134) identifies three types of ESP:

- English as a restricted language

- English for Academic and Occupational Purposes

- English with specific topics

A discussion of each will be presented in the following

2.1.3.1 English as a Restricted Language

Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the difference between restricted language and language as follows

the language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as ‘special’, in the sense that the repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and can be accurately determined situationally, as might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or airhostess However, such restricted repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar Knowing a restricted ‘language’ would not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel situation, or in contexts outside the vocational environment

(1978: 4-5) Language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of English as a restricted language

2.1.3.2 English for Academic and Occupational Purposes

The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983:134) is English for

Academic and Occupational Purposes In the “Tree of ELT” (Hutchinson & Waters,

1987: 97), ESP is broken down into three branches:

a) English for Science and Technology (EST),

b) English for Business and Economics (EBE),

c) English for Social Studies (ESS)

Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) An example of EOP for the EST branch is “English for Technicians” whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is “English for Medical Studies”

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) do note that there is not a clear-cut distinction between EAP and EOP:

People can work and study simultaneously; it is also likely that in many cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to, a job

(1987:96) Perhaps this explains Carter’s rationale for categorizing EAP and EOP under the same type of ESP It appears that Carter is implying that the end purpose of both EAP and EOP are one in the same: employment However, despite the end purpose being identical, the means taken to achieve the end is very different indeed

2.1.3.3 English with Specific Topics

This is the third as well as the final type of ESP It differs from other types of ESP in the sense that focus shifts from purpose to topic That is, the focus is on topics that are in agreement with the anticipated future English needs of learners

such as scientists requiring English for postgraduate reading studies, attending conferences or working in foreign institutions It has been argued, however, that this

type should not be viewed as a separate type of ESP but rather an integral component of ESP courses or programs with focus on situational language This situational language has been determined based on the interpretation of results from needs analysis of authentic language used in target workplace settings In brief, there are three features common to ESP: (a) authentic materials, (b) purpose-related orientation, and (c) self-direction These features are indeed useful in attempting to formulate one’s own understanding of ESP Revisiting Dudley-Evans (1998) claim that ESP should be offered at an intermediate or advanced level, one would conclude that the use of authentic learning materials is entirely feasible The use of authentic content materials, modified or unmodified in form, is indeed a feature of ESP, particularly in self- directed study and research tasks Purpose-related orientation, on the other hand, refers to the simulation of communicative tasks required of the target setting, for example, student simulation of a conference, involving the preparation of papers, reading, note taking, and writing Finally, self-direction is characteristic of ESP courses in that the point of including self-direction

is that ESP is concerned with turning learners into users In order for self-direction

to occur, the learners must have a certain degree of freedom to decide when, what, and how they will study There must also be a systematic attempt by teachers to teach the learners how to learn by teaching them about learning strategies (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987; Dudley-Evans, 1998; Douglas, 2000)

2.1.4 How is ESP different from GE?

The teaching of ESP has since the 1960s been a lively and stimulating part of English Language Teaching (ELT) It has generally been acknowledged that, while remaining a part of ELT, ESP has developed its own procedures, such as needs analysis, its own materials and its own teaching methodology

The most important difference lies in the learners and their purposes for learning English (Fiorito, 2005) ESP students are usually adults who already have some acquaintance with English and are learning the language in order to

communicate a set of professional skills and to perform particular job-related functions

ESP differs from GE in the sense that the words and sentences learned and the subject matter discussed are all relevant to a particular field or discipline The design of syllabuses for ESP is directed towards serving the needs of learners seeking for or developing themselves in a particular occupation or specializing in a specific academic field ESP courses make use of vocabulary tasks related to the field such as negotiation skills and effective techniques for oral presentations A balance is created between educational theory and practical considerations ESP also increases learners’ skills in using English

The term “specific” in ESP refers to the specific purpose for learning English Students approach the study of English through a field that is already known and relevant to them This means that they are able to use what they learn in the ESP classroom right away in their work and studies The ESP approach enhances the relevance of what the students are learning and enables them to use the English they know to learn even more English, since their interest in their field will motivate them to interact with speakers and texts ESP concentrates more on language in context than on teaching grammar and language structures It covers subjects varying from accounting or computer science to tourism and business management The ESP focal point is that English is not taught as a subject separated from the students’ real world; instead, it is integrated into a subject matter area important to the learners

As a matter of fact, ESP combines subject matter and English language teaching (Fiorito, 2005) Such a combination is highly motivating because students are able to apply what they learn in their English classes to their main field of study, whether it be accounting, business management, economics, computer science or tourism Being able to use the vocabulary and structures that they learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation

Meanwhile, GE is essentially the English language education in junior and senior high schools Learners are introduced to the sounds and symbols of English,

as well as to the lexical/grammatical/rhetorical elements that compose spoken and written discourse There is no particular situation targeted in this kind of language learning Rather, it focuses on applications in general situations: appropriate dialogue with restaurant staff, bank tellers, postal clerks, telephone operators, English teachers, and party guests as well as lessons on how to read and write the English typically found in textbooks, newspapers, magazines, etc GE curriculums also include cultural aspects of the second language GE conducted in English-speaking countries is typically called GE, and GE conducted in non-English-speaking countries is normally called EFL GE is typically viewed as a level that precedes higher-level instruction in ESP if ESP programs are to yield satisfactory results ESP, however, is that kind of English teaching that builds upon what has been acquired earlier in GE with a more restricted focus It aims at acquainting learners with the kind of language needed in a particular domain, vocation, or occupation In other words, its main objective is to meet specific needs of the learners

However, GE and ESP diverge not only in the nature of the learner, but also

in the aim of instruction (Fiorito, 2005) In fact, as a general rule, while in GE all four language skills; listening, reading, speaking, and writing, are stressed equally,

in ESP it is a needs analysis that determines which language skills are most needed

by the students, and the syllabus is designed accordingly For example, an ESP program might emphasize the development of reading skills in students who are preparing for graduate work in business administration; or it might promote the development of spoken skills in students who are studying English in order to become tourist guides

2.1.5 Methodological approaches used in teaching ESP

Hutchinson (1987: 92) states, “There is nothing specific about ESP methodology” The principles which underline good ESP methodology are the same

as those that underline ELT methodology in general Similarity, at the level of

techniques the ESP teacher can learn a lot from General English practice The teacher who has come to ESP from GE need not to think that a completely new methodology must be learnt The classroom skills and techniques acquired in GE teaching can be useful employed in the ESP classroom

However, ESP teaching and learning are seen as an important steps towards the development of learners’ autonomy which should help students ‘to transfer school knowledge into action knowledge’ (Little 1995, 1997, Krijgsman 1997) As

a result, ESP teaching and learning should be based on an understanding of the process of language learning

Our concern in ESP is not with language use - although it will help to define the course objectives But our concern is with language learning We cannot simply assume that describing and exemplifying what people do with language will enable someone to learn it If that were so, we would need to do no more than read a grammar book and a dictionary in order to learn a language A truly valid approach

to ESP must be based on an understanding of the process of language learning

(Hutchinson & Alan, 1987: 94)

Teaching ESP is more than just presenting language items or skills and strategies It is not just the content of what is learnt that is important but also the activity through which it is learnt The learning process should be seen as an enjoyable and satisfying experience where the learners need success to develop their language competence

Communicative teaching methodology, with regard to the learner-centred and learning-centred approach, is often applied in teaching ESP to non-English major students for the sake of the improvement of students’ language proficiency and ability to use language for their study whilst at the university and at work after graduation

2.2 The Case Method

2.2.1 A case

2.2.1.1 What is a case?

A case has been understood in many different ways As Lynn (1996) and Rangan (1995) state that a case is a story based on real world or actual events told with a definite educational purpose in mind A case is a way of bringing the real world into a classroom so that students can ‘practice’ on actual or realistic issues and incidences under the guidance of the teacher The case replaces the lecture as the vehicle for learning, and the basis for discussion, exchange of ideas, knowledge, and experience among participants In fact, cases are a way of bringing a controlled reality into the teaching-learning situation In other words, a case is a narrative account of actual, or realistic, situations in which policy makers are confronted with the need to make a decision Cases supply students with information, but not analysis

According to J.A Erskine, M.R Leenders, L.A.M Mauffette-Leenders (2003:9), “a case is a description of an actual situation, commonly involving a decision, a challenge, an opportunity, a problem or an issue faced by a person, or persons, in an organization A case is based on actual field data, authenticated by a release It is not of the armchair or fictional variety.”

Additionally, “it is the record of complex situations that must be literally pulled apart and put together again before the situations can be understood A good case keeps the class discussion grounded upon some of the stubborn facts that must

be faced in real life situations.” (Erskine et al., 1981:11)

In addition, Schmenner stated, “A case to me is the description of a real situation with a protagonist who has to decide something The data in the case are likely to be incomplete, as data often are in the real world, and available in sometimes staggering quantity In that way it mirrors the real world.” (Schmenner 2003: 6)

In short, a good case can be described as the vehicle by which a chunk of reality is brought into the classroom to be worked over by the class and the instructor The nature of that reality varies, of course, with the educational setting The field of study could be law, medicine, management, pastoral counseling, or considered judgments

2.2.1.2 Important Features of a Case

According to Karl A (1996: 72), the most important features of a case are (1) a context-based, relevant and relatively realistic scenario;

(2) a challenging but not too frustrating problem, task, or situation; (3) a somewhat open-ended problem or situation that requires careful formulation and listing of assumptions;

(4) a problem or situation that motivates students to explore, investigate, and study;

(5) a problem or situation that encourages or requires interaction among students, between students and faculty, between students and outside resources;

(6) a problem that requires addressing the integration of broader aspects, including technical, economic, social, ethical, and environmental

Likewise, according to Duch & Allen (1996: 47), characteristics of good cases include:

• An effective problem must first engage students’ interest, and motivate them to probe for deeper understanding of the concepts being introduced It should relate the subject to the real world, so that students have a stake in solving the problem

• Good problems require students to make decisions or judgments based on facts, information, logic and/or rationalization Problems should require students to

define what assumptions are needed (and why), what information is relevant, and/or what steps or procedures are required in order to solve them

• Cooperation from all members of the student group should be necessary in order to effectively work through a good problem The length and complexity of the case must be controlled so that students realize that a “divide and conquer” effort will not be an effective problem-solving strategy

• The initial questions in the problem should have one or more of the following characteristics so that all students in the groups are initially drawn into a discussion of the topic: open-ended, not limited to one correct answer connected to previously learned knowledge controversial issues that will elicit diverse opinions

In addition, Herreid (1997: 164) suggests that a central defining characteristic of all cases if that they try to “illuminate a decision or set of decisions; why they were taken, how they were implemented, and with what result” (cited in Yin, 1994:12)

2.2.1.3 Types of cases

According to O’Rourke (2001: 136) there were three different types of cases: field cases, library cases and armchair cases

- Field cases: real cases written by instructors in collaboration with

managers (lawyers, etc.) who work in companies and who experience the problem

or situation described first hand A case researcher visits an organization and collects the data that comprise the case The case has the advantage of being very comprehensive and complete and full of real information, which is not normally disclosed to the public The major disadvantage of such a case method is that it can become outdated quickly

- Library cases (also called public record cases): semi-fictional cases

produced with information available from libraries and other publicly accessible media One might question the validity of the information available for public

consumption, but the case writer has a wide range of sources and can therefore cross reference to ensure that the situation depicted is based on real events

- Armchair cases: fictional documents about companies, which describe

situations and events which do not exist and which have never occurred While they may resemble real events, they often lack the richness of detail but are very useful,

as they introduce basic concepts to business/ law/ language students and provoke discussion

However, Daly (2002: 37) divides the different cases into three categories:

A Simulations with prescribed roles

The first category is very directive and rather limited in its application as the learner has only the information provided in the role to work on However, for very specific language or communication skill practice such as telephoning skills, such cases can be very useful

B Mini cases

The second case type seems to be linked to a specific topic, such as criminal law, finance or globalization and is the culmination of a plethora of exercises on business vocabulary and usage

C Interactive cases

The third category can be divided into those different distinct types of cases, those that are communication skill specific and work on a particular skill and those that are more open to interpretation by the instructor The latter are not always armchair cases and some are based on real companies, or law cases, or real life situations and events

According to P Tony Graham and Paul C Cline (2001: 113-114), the major categories are actual documents, created writings, actual and created audio-visuals, and simulations

- Actual documents: A most useful actual document is the court case

Newspaper accounts of cases may be adequate if sufficient detail is presented in the

account Maximum benefits in working with court cases may be obtained from briefing the cases The parts of a brief include:

(1) the title of a case;

(2) the facts;

(3) the issue or central question;

(4) the decision of the court;

(5) the reasons the court gave for its decision

- The report is another type of document which provides a realistic tool for

analysis Some reports are in written, paragraph format, while others include graphs and charts

- Created writings: Dilemmas may be created for the students by describing

a situation which leads to a problem to be solved The dilemma is usually raised at the end of the description Choices may be given to students as guides to their thinking and problem-solving, or it may be left entirely open in an effort to cause the students to create their own range of options and solve the dilemma to their satisfaction

- Audio-visual: Actual pictures, tapes, ad films may be shown to establish

the problem Audio-visual materials may be created for this special use by the teacher

- Simulation: Endless opportunities exist for using simulation in establishing the problems to be solved and in the actual solving of the problem Games and role- playing are active methods of problem development and solution in the classroom

2.2.1.4 Nature of a Teaching Case

As J.H Shulman (1991: 253) states, “cases are not simply stories that a

teacher might tell They are crafted into compelling narratives, with a beginning

middle, and end, and situated in an event or series of events that unfold over time”

Therefore, cases that are used to improve students’ analytical and decision-making

abilities are not like research reports that provide interpretation and evaluation of

key data; nor are they complete case histories containing details of what happened

afterward Instead, a good teaching case tries to mirror the uncertainty of a

real-world environment at the point when a manager, administrator, counselor, or other

professional (depending on the context) must make some important decisions

Second, cases tend to be selective in their reporting in order “to fit a

relatively short class period and to focus attention on a predefined type of problem”

(C.H Lovelock, 1986: 28) Accordingly, information may have to be omitted on

issues, data, or personnel that are peripheral to the central issue (or issues) in the

case However, case writers will nearly always include some contextual information

to provide a sense of reality and- occasionally- an appropriate red herring or two

Moreover, the connection between the key issues in the cases and the course

syllabus is explicit (objectives, approach and content) so that the teacher educators

and students clearly understand how and why the cases fit into the course

Third, cases do not have simple solutions because they are centred on the

complexities of real life situations in ESP practice Instead of a single “right”

answer, there are usually several acceptable courses of action, each with advantages

and disadvantages (Asbaugh & Kasten 1995; Cossom 1991; Stivers 1991;

Wassermann 1994; Weaver, Kowalski & Pfaller 1994)

2.2.2 Case method

2.2.2.1 Definitions

According to J.A Erskine, M.R Leenders, L.A.M Mauffette-Leenders (2003), the term “case method” often means different things to different people However, in a case class, the case method does not restrict a teacher to one teaching style only It means that someone who teaches with the case method can use lectures, exercises, experiential learning, project-oriented and collaborative learning, simulations, games, films, field trips, reports or any other teaching/

learning techniques It is highly beneficial to provide diversity of learning experiences In addition, if there is such a thing as “the case method”, it involves a higher than lower percentage of cases taught

In addition, the case method of teaching is also considered “a real world experience because a case is a record of an issue actually faced by an organization executive, together with the surrounding facts, opinions, and prejudices which influence executive decisions” (J.W Camerius, 1998: 3) The strength of the case method as an educational technique is its ability to arouse the interest of the student

by placing him or her in an active role rather than that of a passive participant The case method calls for participant decisions Students analyze the case situation, share views with their peers, and propose problem solutions Participants are expected to develop a plan of action for case resolution

Moreover, according to A Almagro Esteban and M.L Pérez Canãdo (2003:

138), “case method is seen as a technique based on analysis, discussion, and

decision-making” For example, students are presented with the record of a

problematic business situation that an organization has actually faced They then

have to reflect, interact, take responsibility, solve problems, and determine possible

courses of action and their consequences, skills which are essential for successful

ESP practice In the process, they must use language meaningfully and

spontaneously- an aspect that explains why the case method are generally aimed at

students with at least an upper-intermediate proficiency in the language-participate

in role playing, and take risks, albeit in a relatively risk-free environment Hence,

the case method clearly allows the learners to observe how theoretical work within

the confines of the classroom can be applied in real life situations

Case method teaching is a form of discussion teaching in which students

prepare a case, either individually or in groups, and then seek collectively through

in class discussion to discover a solution to the problem presented by the case In

other words, case method refers to an interactive approach to the teaching and

learning of a practice or profession The teaching act is at the very heart of this

method This educational approach gives students insight into the real world of

organization and to help them acquire skills of analysis, synthesis, and

decision-making based on actual situations that require their reaction, interaction and

reflection

According to Mostert and Sudzina (1996: 27), case method teaching can

“describe real-world problems that are too complex to approach experimentally”

(Patton, 1980; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Lincoln & Guba, 1985) Thus, it is an

excellent active learning strategy that is particularly effective in helping students

develop the ability to apply concepts and ideas to practical experience and vice

versa

In addition to the definitions of the case method presented above, Grosse

(1988), Boyd (1991) and Jackson (1998) contribute further attributes which they

regard as characterizing ideal reality-based cases Such attributes include the

exploration of cultural issues; a non-specialized language level; exercises with a

focus on useful vocabulary, grammar, and discourse patterns; culmination in a

problem-solving case discussion that stimulates debate; varied interaction where the

teacher acts merely as a language consultant; clear-cut connections between case

and syllabus; realistic dilemmas, credible protagonists, and contextualized

scenarios; and generalizability and transferability to present or future situations in

ESP practice

2.2.2.2 Types of Case Method

Three main types of Case Method have been distinguished by a number of

authors, including Westerfield (1989) One type requires the student to suggest a

solution to a situation or problem which is faced by management and which has as

yet not been solved This, in Westerfield’s opinion, is the most effective in

stimulating discussion Another type can be identified in which the student must