Use of organic materials as growing media for melon cucumismelo l CV huigu production in organic cultivation

The objectives of the study: 1 To evaluate the physical and chemical properties of growing media from vermicompost VC, spent mushroom substrate SMS, sulfur S0 and their effects on the gr

Department of Tropical Agriculture and International Cooperation National Pingtung University of Science and Technology

Ph.D Dissertation

Use of organic materials as growing media for melon

(Cucumismelo L CV Huigu) production in organic cultivation

Advisor: Chong-Ho Wang, Ph.D

Student: Nguyen Van Tam

May 10, 2016

Abstract

Student ID: P10122020

Title of Dissertation: Use of organic materials as growing media for melon

(Cucumismelo L CV Huigu) production in organic

cultivation Total Pages: 212pages

Name of Institute: Department of Tropical Agriculture and International

Cooperation, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology

Graduate Date: May 10, 2016Degree Conferred: Doctoral Degree

Name of Student: Nguyen Van Tam Advisor: Chong-Ho Wang, Ph.D

The Content of Abstract in This Dissertation:

The study was conducted at National Pingtung University of Science and Technology from August, 2013 to May, 2015 The objectives of the study: (1) To evaluate the physical and chemical properties of growing media from vermicompost (VC), spent mushroom substrate (SMS), sulfur (S0) and their effects

on the growth and nutrient uptake of honeydew melon seedlings; (2) To evaluate efficiency of using cattle manure compost (CaMC) and coconut husk (CH) to replace for VC And then investigating the effects of combination of SMS, VC, S0

with CaMC or CH on physical and chemical properties of growing media and the respond of honeydew melon seedlings; (3) To evaluate the effects of seedlings, mixture of SMS with chicken manure compost (ChMC) on yield, and fruit quality

of honeydew melon; (4) To evaluate the effects of SMS, VC, CaMC and their continuous application on the soil properties, growth and yield of honeydew melon The study includes four parts: The first part, we investigated the effects of mixture

(including SMS, VC, and S0) on physical, chemical properties of growing media, their influences on growth and nutrient uptake of honeydew melon seedlings The second part, based on the results of the first part, we used CaMC and CH to replace some parts of VC And then, we evaluated the influences of combination between these organic materials on physical, chemical properties of growing media and their effects on growth and nutrient uptake of honeydew melon seedlings The third part, we used honeydew melon seedlings grown in four different substrates in nursery period and two different rates of organic material mixture (including CaMC and SMS) And then, we investigated the effects of organic material rates

on physical, chemical properties of the soil We also evaluated the effects of different seedlings and different rates of organic materials on the growth, yield, and fruit quality of honeydew melons The fourth part, in the first season, the experiment was carried out in pots under net house condition Each pot was filled with a homogenized mixture of 10 kg soil We mixed VC at the rates of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 kg/pot and SMS at the rates of 0.0, 0.2, and 0.4 kg/pot We investigated the effects of VC, SMS and their combination on the soil chemical properties, growth and yield of honeydew melon In the second season, we continuously used pots from the first season SMS was amended with the same rates as the first season However, VC applied was decreased and replaced by CaMC We continuously evaluated the effects of SMS, VC, CaMC and their combination on the chemical soil properties and honeydew melon performance The results indicated that: (1) Increasing VC proportion in the growing media induced increase bulk density and electrical conductivity, while increasing SMS content enhanced aeration porosity, total porosity, water holding capacity, and pH value Besides, S0 addition induced decrease in pH value and increase in EC value of the growing media Regarding the most suitable media for seedlings, SMS and VC at the ratio of 50% and S0

added with a rate of 1.0 g kg-1 substrate was considered as optimum condition for honeydew melon seedling production (2) All growing media mixed from SMS,

VC, CaMC or CH and S0with the EC value from 3.82 dS m-1 to 4.53 dS m-1were suitable for honeydew melon seedlingperformance.At the same rate of SMS and

VC, using CaMC produced an increase of nutrient concentration (except for Cu)

in the growing media The growing medium with 50% SMS, 30% VC, 20% CH (pH = 6.41 and EC= 3.95 dS m-1)gave the best optimum condition for honeydew melon seedlings (3) Increasing SMS and ChMC enhanced soil productivity by increasing chemical, physical properties (pH, EC, OM) and nutrient concentration

in the soil The different seedlings affected on plant height, stem diameter with the significance at 99% but they did not influence on total fruit yield and TSS of fruits The interaction effect of organic material rates and seedlings on yield and fruit quality also was not found Based on the found findings, rates which are the most suitable for yield and fruit quality of honeydew melon are SMS (40%) + ChMC (60%) for seedling production and 10 tons SMS + 10 tons ChMC ha-1(pH = 6.12 and EC = 0.54 dS m-1)for honeydew melon production in net house (4) There was significant increase in soil properties such as pH, OM, EC and macronutrient concentration as a result of SMS, VC, and CaMC amendment Application of SMS,

VC, and CaMC also showed that it is very useful in honeydew melon production However, the rates of 0.2 kg SMS + 1.5 kg VC/pot (EC = 1.68dS m-1)in the first season and 0.2 kg SMS + 1.0 kg VC + 1.0 kgCaMC/pot (EC = 1.87 dS m-1) in the second season were the most sufficient for higher productivity of honeydew melon

in organic agriculture

Key words: organic agriculture, spent mushroom substrate, vermicompost, cattle

manure compost, chicken manure compost, coconut husk, honeydew melon

SPAD Special products analysis division

SMS Spent mushroom substrate

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I would like to thank my advisor, Prof Dr Chong- Ho Wang for his guidance, help and supervision throughout this study I also would like to thank all professors in the first evaluation and graduate committees for their suggestions and comments

I would like to thank NPUST for the budget support for my Ph.D program

I would like to give my gratitude to professors, staffs, and students of NPUST, OIA, DTAIC, Department of Plant Industry, Organic Agricultural Laboratory for their help

Lastly, I would like to thank my family members, my friends for their help and encouragement

Nguyen Van Tam

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHINESE ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT i

LIST OF ABBREVIATION iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

LIST OF TABLES xi

LIST OF FIGURES xiv

LIST OF PICTURES xx

CHAPTER 1 1

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 2 6

LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Melon (Cucumismelo L.) 6

2.1.1 Classification 6

2.1.2 Characteristic 9

2.1.3 Origin 10

2.1.4 Production 11

2.2 Honeydew melon 13

2.2.1 Origin 13

2.2.2 Variety 14

2.2.3 Planting 15

2.2.4 Fertilizing 16

2.2.5 Watering 16

2.2.6 Harvest 16

2.2.7 Common problems 17

2.3 Effects of nutrients on melon production 17

2.3.1 Effects of organic fertilizer on melon production 17

2.3.2 Effects of inorganic fertilizer on melon production 18

2.4 Organic agriculture production 22

2.4.1 The definition of organic agriculture 22

2.4.2 Effects of organic materials on the soil 22

2.4.2.1 Effects of organic materials on physical properties of the soil 22

2.4.2.2 Effects of organic materials on chemical properties of the soil 25

2.4.2.3 Effects of organic materials on biological properties of the soil 28

2.4.3 Studies on using SMS, VC, manure compost, and CH 30

2.4.3.1 Studies on using SMS 30

2.4.3.2 Studies on using VC 34

2.4.3.3 Studies on using manure compost 37

2.4.3.4 Studies on using coconut husk (CH) 39

CHAPTER 3 41

MATERIALS AND METHODS 41

3.1 The experiment setup 41

3.1.1 Experiment I: Effects of SMS and VC on the growth and nutrient uptake of honeydew melon (Cucumismelo L inodorus) seedlings 41

3.1.2 Experiment II: Use of organic materials as growing media for honeydew melon (Cucumismelo L inodorus) seedlings in organic agriculture 42

3.1.3 Experiment III: Effects of organic materials on growth, yield, and fruit quality of honeydew melon (Cucumismelo L inodorus) 44

3.1.4 Experiment IV: Effects of continuously applying organic materials on soil properties, growth and yield of honeydew melon (CucumismeloL inodorus) 46

3.1.4.1 The first season (spring 2014) 46

3.1.4.2 The second season (summer 2014) 48

3.2 Observations recorded 49

3.2.1 Stage of seedling production 49

3.2.1.1 Physical and chemical properties of substrate 49

3.2.1.2 Morphological growth and nutrient content of seedlings 50

3.2.2 Stage of plant production in net house 51

3.2.2.1 Soil properties 51

3.2.2.2 Morphological growth, yield, and quality of honeydew 52

3.3 Statistical analysis 53

CHAPTER 4 54

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 54

4.1 Effects of SMS and VC on the growth and nutrient uptake of honeydew melon (Cucumismelo L inodorus) seedlings 54

4.1.1 Physical and chemical properties of growing media 54

4.1.2 Nutrient concentration of the growing media 61

4.1.3 Morphological growth of honeydew melon seedlings 63

4.1.4 Nutritional status of honeydew melon seedlings 71

4.1.5 Conclusion for experiment 1 80

4.2 Use of organic materials as growing media for honeydew melon seedlings in organic agriculture 82

4.2.1 Physical and chemical properties of the growing media 82

4.2.2 Nutrient concentration of the growing media 85

4.2.3 Morphological growth of honeydew melon seedlings 87

4.2.4 Nutritional status of honeydew melon seedlings 94

4.2.5 Conclusion for experiment 2 99

4.3 Effects of organic materials and seedlings on growth, yield, and fruit

quality of honeydew melon 101

4.3.1 Physical and chemical properties of soils 30 days after applying 101

4.3.2 Vegetative growth of honeydew melon 103

4.3.3 Nutrient concentrations in the shoots of honeydew melon 104

4.3.4 Yield and some related parameters 107

4.3.5 Fruit quality 105

4.3.6 Conclusion for experiment 3 109

4.4 Effects of continuous application of organic materials on soil properties, growth and yield of honeydew melon (CucumismeloL inodorus) 112

4.4.1 Effects of organic materials on pH, EC, and OM of the soil 112

4.4.2 Effects of organic materials on macronutrient content in the soil 118

4.4.3 Effects of organic materials on plant growth parameters 122

4.4.4 Effects of organic materials on nutrient concentrations in the shoots of honeydew melon at flowering stage… 128

4.4.5 Effects of organic materials on some yield parameters 134

4.4.6 Conclusion for experiment 4 140

CHAPTER 5 144

GENERAL CONCLUSION 144

REFERENCES 147

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF AUTHOR 176

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Melon production in leading countries and the world

(2005-2012) 11 Table 2 Physical and chemical properties of VC and SMS used in

the experiment 44 Table 3 Composition of the growing media used in the experiment 45 Table 4 Physical and chemical properties of SMS, VC, CaMC, and CH

in the experiment 46 Table 5 Composition of the growing media used in the experiment 47 Table 6 Physical and chemical properties of the soil in the net house

before planting 47 Table 7 Properties of SMS and ChMC used in the experiment 48 Table 8 Some parameters of seedlings for transplanting 49 Table 9 Physical and chemical properties of VC and SMS used in

the experiment 50 Table 10 Composition and amount of organic materials in each

treatment 51 Table 11 Composition and amount of organic materials in each

treatment 52 Table 12 Physical and chemical properties of the growing media 58 Table 13 Macronutrient concentrations of the growing media extracted

with 0.1N HCl 61 Table 14 Micronutrient concentrations of the growing media extracted

with 0.1N HCl 63 Table 15 Effects of the growing media on the morphological growth of

honeydew melon seedlings 4 weeks after sowing 67 Table 16 Effects of the growing media on the morphological growth of

honeydew melon seedlings 4 weeks after sowing 70 Table 17 Effects of the growing media on the macronutrient contents of

honeydew melon seedling after sowing 4 weeks 74 Table 18 Effects of the growing media on micronutrient contents of

honeydew melon seedling after sowing 4 weeks 79 Table 19 Physical and chemical properties of the growing media 83 Table 20 Macro and micronutrient concentrations of the growing media

extracted with 0.1N HCl 86 Table 21 Macro and micronutrient concentrations of the growing media

extracted with 0.1N HCl 88 Table 22 Effects of the growing media on the morphological growth of

honeydew melon seedlings 4 weeks after sowing… 91 Table 23 Effects of the growing media on the morphological growth of

honeydew melon seedlings 4 weeks after sowing 93 Table 24 Effects of the growing media on the macronutrient contents of

honeydew melon seedlings after sowing 4 weeks 98 Table 25 Effects of the growing media on the micronutrient contents of

honeydew melon seedling after sowing 4 weeks 100 Table 26 Effects of organic materials on the soil properties (30 days

after applying) 106 Table 27 Effects of organic materials on vegetative growth of honeydew

melon (30 days after transplanting) 108 Table 28 Effects of organic materials on the macronutrient

concentrations in the shoots of honeydew melon at the flowering stage 109 Table 29 Effects of organic materials on the micronutrient

concentrations in the shoots of honeydew melon at the flowering stage 110 Table 30 Effects of organic materials on some parameters of honeydew

melon yield 111 Table 31 Effects of organic materials on some parameters 113 Table 32 Effects of different organic materials on available N, P, and K

content in the soil at two weeks after applying and at the flowering stage 125 Table 33 Effects of different organic materials on available Ca and Mg

content in the soil at two weeks after applying 126 Table 34 Effects of different organic materials on some vegetative growth

parameters of honeydew melon (4 weeks after planting) 130 Table 35 Effects of different organic materials on macronutrient

concentrations of melon shoot at flowering stage 135 Table 36 Effects of different organic materials on micronutrient

concentrations of the shoots at flowering stage 138 Table 37 Effects of different organic materials on some parameters of

honeydew melon yield 141

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Area harvested of melons in the world (2000-2012) 12

Figure 2 Yield of melons in the world (2000-2012) 13

Figure 3 The relationship between bulk density and water holding capacity 59

Figure 4 pH value of experimental growing media 59

Figure 5 EC value of experimental growing media 60

Figure 6 The seedling germination rate in different growing media 64

Figure 7 The relationship between germination rate of honeydew melon seeds and EC of the growing media 65

Figure 8 The relationship between germination rate of honeydew melon seeds and WHC of the growing media 65

Figure 9 The relationship between physical and chemical properties of the growing media and germination rate via PLS regression model 66

Figure 10 The relationship between dry weight and macronutrient concentration of the growing media via PLS regression model 68

Figure 11 The relationship between chlorophyll content in the leaves of honeydew melon seedlings and N content of the growing media 71

Figure 12 The relationship between chlorophyll content in the leaves of seedlings and macronutrient concentration of the growing media and via PLS regression mode 72

Figure 13 The relationship between N content in the shoots of honeydew

melon seedlings and N content of the growing media 75 Figure 14 The relationship between N content in the shoots of honeydew

melon seedlings and pH value of the growing media 75 Figure 15 The relationship between P content in the shoots of honeydew

melon seedlings and P content of the growing media 76 Figure 16 The relationship between P content in the shoots of honeydew

melon seedlings P content and pH value of the growing media

76 Figure 17 The relationship between K content in the shoots of honeydew

melon seedlings and K content of the growing media 77 Figure 18 The relationship between K content in the shoots of honeydew

melon seedlings and pH value of the growing media 77 Figure 19 The relationship between Ca content in the shoots of honeydew

melon seedlings and Ca content of the growing media 78 Figure 20 The relationship between Mg content in the shoots of honeydew

melon seedlings and Mg content of the growing media 78 Figure 21 The relationship between Cu content in the shoots of honeydew

melon seedlings and Cu content of the growing media 80 Figure 22 The relationship Cu content in the shoots of honeydew melon

seedlings and EC value of the growing media 81 Figure 23 Effects of organic materials on pH value .84

Figure 24 Effects of organic materials on EC value .85 Figure 25 The seedling germination rate in different growing media 89 Figure 26 The relationship between physical, chemical properties of the

growing media and germination rate via PLS regression model 89

Figure 27 The relationship between nutrient concentration of the growing

media and seedling dry weight via PLS regression model 92 Figure 28 The relationship between root volume of honeydew melon

seedlings and aeration porosity of the growing media 95 Figure 29 The relationship between root volume of honeydew melon

seedlings and bulk density of the growing media 95 Figure 30 The relationship between root volume of honeydew melon

seedlings and EC value of the growing media 96 Figure 31 The relationship between physical, chemical properties of the

growing media and seedling root volume via PLS regression

model 96 Figure 32 The relationship between chlorophyll content in the leaves of

honeydew melon seedlings and N content of the growing media 97 Figure 33 The relationship between Ca concentration in the shoots of

honeydew melon seedlings and Ca content of the growing media 99 Figure 34 The relationship between Fe concentration in the shoots of

honeydew melon seedlings and Fe content of the growing media 101

Figure 35 The relationship between Mn concentration in the shoots of

honeydew melon seedlings and Mn content of the growing media 102 Figure 36 The relationship between Zn concentration in the shoots of

honeydew melon seedlings and Zn content of the growing media 102 Figure 37 Effects of organic materials on the soil pH values in the spring

season 2014 118 Figure 38 Effects of organic materials on the soil pH values in the

summer season 2014 118 Figure 39 Effects of organic materials on the soil EC values in the spring

season 2014 120 Figure 40 Effects of organic materials on the soil EC values in the

summer season 2014 120 Figure 41 Effects of organic materials on the soil organic matter content

in the spring season 2014 122 Figure 42 Effects of organic materials on the soil organic matter content

in the summer season 2014 122 Figure 43 Effects of organic materials on plant height of honeydew

melon plants (4 weeks after transplanting) 128 Figure 44 Effects of organic materials on leaf number of honeydew

melon plants (4 weeks after transplanting) 129 Figure 45 The relationship between fresh plant weight at the flowering

stage and soil inorganic-N content at 2 weeks after applying

organic materials 131

Figure 46 The relationship between fresh plant weight at the flowering

stage and soil Bray- P content at 2 weeks 132 Figure 47 The relationship between fresh plant weight at the flowering

stage and exchange K content at 2 weeks 132 Figure 48 The relationship between fresh plant weight at the flowering

stage and soil EC value, inorganic-N, Bray- P, exchange K

content at 2 weeks after applying organic materials via PLS

regression model 133 Figure 49 The relationship between N concentration in the shoots at the

flowering stage and soil inorganic N content at 2 weeks after

applying organic materials 134 Figure 50 The relationship between P concentration in the shoots at the

flowering stage and soil Bray- P content at 2 weeks 136 Figure 51 The relationship between K concentration in the shoots at the

flowering stage and soil exchange K content at 2 weeks after

applying organic materials 136 Figure 52 The relationship between Ca concentration in the shoots at

the flowering stage and soil exchange Ca content at 2 weeks

after applying organic materials 137 Figure 53 The relationship between Mg concentration in the shoots at

the flowering stage and exchange Mg content at 2 weeks after

applying organic materials 137

Figure 54 The relationship between mean fruit weight and N content in

the shoots at the harvesting stage 142 Figure 55 The relationship between mean fruit weight and P content in

the shoots at the harvesting stage 143 Figure 56 The relationship between mean fruit weight and K content in

the shoots at the harvesting stage 143 Figure 57 The relationship between mean fruit weight and Ca content in

the shoots at the harvesting stage 144 Figure 58 The relationship between mean fruit weight and Mg content

in the shoots at the harvesting stage… 144 Figure 59 The relationship between mean fruit weight and Mg content

in the shoots at the harvesting stage 145 Figure 60 The relationship between mean fruit weight and nutrient

content in the shoots at the flowering stage via PLS regression

model 145

LIST OF PICTURES

Picture 1 Honeydew melon seedlings of experiment 1 at 2 weeks

after sowing 82 Picture 2 Honeydew melon seedlings of experiment 1 for transplanting 82 Picture 3 Honeydew melon seedlings of experiment 2 at 2 weeks after

sowing 104 Picture 4 Honeydew melon seedlings of experiment 2 at 4 weeks after

sowing 104 Picture 5 Honeydew melon plants of experiment 3 at 5 weeks after

transplanting 115 Picture 6 Honeydew melon fruit of M2S1 in experiment 3 at 9 weeks

after transplanting 115 Picture 7 Honeydew melon fruit of M2S3 in experiment 3 at 9 weeks

after transplanting 116 Picture 8 Honeydew melon fruit of M2S1 in experiment 3 at 11weeks

after transplanting 116 Picture 9 Honeydew melon plants of experiment 4 in the spring season

2014 at 3 weeks after transplanting 146 Picture 10 Honeydew melon plants of experiment 4 in the spring season

2014 at the stage of fruit set 147 Picture 11 Honeydew melon fruits of experiment 4 in the spring season

2014 were harvested… 147

Picture 12 Honeydew melon fruit of treatment 9 in experiment 4 (the

spring season 2014) 148 Picture 13 Honeydew melon plants of experiment 4 in the summer

season 2014 at the flowering stage 148

Picture 14 Honeydew melon fruit of treatment 6 in experiment 4 (the

summer season 2014) … 149 Picture 15 Honeydew melon fruit of treatment 9 in experiment 4 (the

summer season 2014) 149

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Honeydew melon (CucumismeloL inodorus), one of the most expensive vegetables in the world, belongs to the family of Cucurbitaceae that includes green

or white-fleshed casaba, dark green, wrinkled rind and pink flesh crenshaw, orange-fleshed Persian, Juan Canary, and Santa Claus melons (Munger and Robinson, 1991) Since ancient time, this crop and has been cultivated in Asia, West Africa and Mediterranean regions (Anonymous, 2006) Recently, it is a popular fruit because of its pleasant odor and sweet taste (Villanueva et al., 2004) Honeydew melon belonging to the winter melon group is vine tender annual crop that has fruit with smooth surface, little of the musky odor, ripening late (Harunor Rashid et al., 2014) Mature fruits are used as dessert or eaten fresh which is rich

in sugars, vitamins and minerals In100 g edible portion, a melon fruit contains 96.5 g water, 2.2 g carbohydrate, 0.5 g crude fiber, 0.4 g protein, 0.1 g fat, 9 mg phosphorus, 233 micrograms β-carotene, 0.04 mg thiamin, 0.10 mg riboflavin, 0.4

mg niacin and 18 mg vitamin C (Jompitak, 2002) Honeydew melon is a rich source of nutrition and has a high demand in the world (Harunor Rashid et al., 2014; Suriyan et al., 2011)

In the past, agricultural production had purpose on maximizing the quantity

of crop produced for market demand The use of capital inputs such as fossil fuels, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, patented genetic material, and machinery has played a key role in helping farmers achieve their goals, which include higher crop yields (Beckie, 2000) However, agriculture production with using a large number

of inorganic fertilizer negatively influence on quality of agricultural products, human and environment Nowadays, one of the major concerns in the world is the

different chemical poison are now produced in the form of fertilizers and pesticides under different brand names (Anitha et al., 2014) Excessive use of inorganic fertilizers has caused negative effect on the environment as well affects human population indirectly Inorganic fertilizers mainly contain nitrate, phosphate, ammonium and potassium salts Inorganic fertilizer is considered to be source of natural radionuclides and heavy metals as a potential source It contains a large majority of the heavy metals like As, Pb, Hg, Cd, Ni, and Cu (Serpil, 2012; Sönmez

et al., 2007) According to some scientists in industrial agriculture, they see that the farm as factory that uses huge quantities of fossil fuels, fertilizers, pesticides, water, topsoil, and produces not only food stuff and livestock, but huge amounts

of waste as well (Horrigan et al., 2002) In recent years, inorganic fertilizer use increased exponentially throughout the world, results in serious environmental problems The global warming has become a big issue, the main reason is the tremendous emissions of greenhouse gas, and agriculture is a major contributor to emission the methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2) On a global scale, agricultural land use in the 1990s has been responsible for approximately 15% of all GHG emissions (Herencia et al., 2008) Surprisingly, organic agriculture can significantly reduce carbon dioxide emissions, through the promotion of aerobic microorganisms and high biological activity in soils, the oxidation of methane can be increased Decrease in using agro-chemicals, such as pesticides and inorganic fertilizers, can effectively protect the environment

The influence of inorganic fertilizer application on agriculture is seen not only

in terms of the soil quality but also on the survival of soil organisms Plants absorb the inorganic fertilizers through the soil and they can enter the food chain Thus, fertilization leads to soil, water, and air pollution Moreover, the use of inorganic fertilizers leads to imperfectly synthesized protein in leaves, which causes poor crops and in turn for pathological conditions in animals and humans fed with such deficient food (Anitha et al., 2014) Recently, health conscious consumers are interested in optimizing the nutritional composition with minimal chemical residues on foods made through environmentally friendly agricultural practices

(Fabiyi and Ogunfowora, 1992) so that implementing organic farming and using organic fertilizers to substitute for inorganic fertilizers are common principles in the agricultural production system

Organic farming is the most advanced environmentally friendly farming system and has a long tradition in the world Organic agriculture has developed rapidly worldwide during the last few years and is now practiced in approximately

120 countries with 51 million hectares currently managed organically by at least

623174 farms In 2004, it is a growth sector, covering about four percent of total agricultural land area in the European Union (Bjarke et al., 2004) In Canada, organic agriculture has grown significantly from 1174 certified producers in 1992

to 3618 in 2005 (AAFC, 2006)

In comparison to conventional farming, organic farming limits the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers In organic systems, farmers aim to achieve sustainability through their commitment to farming as natural systems (Welsh, 2007) Some of the benefits of this production form are that it can contribute to minimize negative environmental impacts of agricultural production and rural development problems Moreover organic agriculture has the potential to provide high-quality food while assuring food supply (Bjarke et al., 2004)

Organic agriculture has become the great hope for agricultural reformers, who have saddled it with a century’s worth of visions for an alternative agriculture It has fallen short of many expectations, yet it does represent the best attempt thus far at creating an agricultural system that accounts for social and environmental costs All definitions of organic agriculture seek to address the perceived shortcomings of conventional agriculture: food contamination by pesticides, bacteria, and fungi, soil depletion, non-point pollution from pesticide, herbicide, and fertilizer runoff, high fossil fuel consumption, and the loss of biodiversity within crops and in rural areas (Guthman, 2004)

Organic agriculture is nowhere near perfect as it stands; its overall

environmental benefits grow dubious in light of its potential to spatially expand agriculture, which comprises an externality due to climate change and

biodiversity impacts The ecological definition of organics would offer the

greatest potential for reducing the externalities associated with conventional agriculture and providing ecosystem services while also serving demands of consumers

Organic farming depends mainly on biological activity and soil organic matter (OM) supplied by organic materials Organic materials are used as an affordable source of fertilizer (Inbar et al., 1993) Organic materials improve physical properties of soil (Wong et al., 1999) Using organic materials not only provides the necessary nutrients for plants but also helps control diseases from foliar, roots and vascular plant pathogens (Hointik and Fahy, 1986) Moreover, organic materials contain most nutrients in forms that are easily taken by plants such as phosphorus, potassium, nitrates, and magnesium (Edwards and Burrows, 1988) Several studies have examined the effects of organic materials on crops (Subler et al., 1998) Most of these studies have reported that organic materials have significant beneficial effects on plant growth When used as soil additives or as components of growing media for seedling production, organic materials have improved seedling growth and increased plant productivity Moreover, organic materials were determined as a rich source of humus which helps maintain soil structure such as improving soil water holding capacity, soil aeration … and provides nutrients for plants (Kadiri and Mustapha 2010) Thus, organic materials were considered as a component and a source of organic matter and available nutrients for horticultural substrate and soil Nevertheless, the high value of pH in organic materials (Cegarra et al., 2000; Paredes et al., 2000) may limit its agricultural use In Appendix II of EU regulation 2092/91, elemental sulfur appears

as an allowed soil fertilizer or conditioner(FAO 2006) There are many studies about the addition of S to improve the quality of organic materials by reducing their pH value (Mahimairaja et al., 1994; Mahimairaja et al., 1995) However, using with a huge quantity of organic materials and mixing them together also had negative impacts on the soil and crop production Therefore, this study was

conducted:

(1) To evaluate the physical and chemical properties of growing media mixed from VC, SMS, and S0 in different ratios, and their effects on the growth and nutrient uptake of honeydew melon seedlings

(2) To evaluate efficiency of using CaMC and CH to replace some parts of VC and

to investigate the effects of combination of SMS, VC, S0, CaMC or CH on physical, chemical properties of growing media and respond of honeydew melon seedlings under greenhouse condition

(3) To evaluate the effects of seedlings, mixture of SMS, ChMCand their interaction on growth, yield, and fruit quality of honeydew melon and to determine the most suitable rate of SMS for nursery seedlings and honeydew melon production

in net house

(4) To evaluate the effects of SMS, VC, CaMC and their continuous application during two seasons on the soil properties, growth and yield of honeydew melon in pots under net house condition

The final objective is to determine the best mixture of organic materials for honeydew melon production in organic cultivation

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

As one of the most widely cultivated and consumed vegetable crops in the

world, melons (CucumismeloL.) have significant economic value (Nunez-Palenius

et al., 2008) Honeydew melons are commonly grown varieties and are popular dietary choices (Boriss et al., 2006) Honeydew melons are low in energy and are excellent sources of nutrients, in particular vitamin A and vitamin C (Lester, 2006) However, using excessive chemical fertilizers and pesticides had negative impacts

on fruit quality of honeydew melons and led environmental and health hazards apart from deteriorating the soil ecosystem To overcome these problems, organic farming is the most appropriate choice The literature pertaining to the honeydew melon production in organic agriculture was reviewed in this chapter

2.1 Melon (Cucumismelo L.)

2.1.1 Classification

Melon occur as cultivar varieties of Cucumis melo L, classified within the

Cucurbitaceae family, subfamily Cucurbiloideae, tribe Melothrieae, subtribe Cucumerinae(Robinson and Decker-Walker, 1999) Other names include sweet

melon, round melon, muskmelon, casaba, cantaloupe and winter melon (Nayar and Singh, 1998) Melon is represented by some 118 genera and 825 species (Jeffrey, 1990) The family includes pumpkins, squashes, gourds, watermelon, loofah and

several weeds Melon is divided into two subspecies, C melossp agrestisand

C.melossp melo, differentiated by the pubescence on the female hypanthium Ssp melohas spreading hairs, and ssp agrestisappressed hairs (Kirkbride, 1993) Cucumismeloincludes a wide range of cultivars Although crosses outside the

species are sterile, intraspecific crosses are generally fertile, resulting in a confusing range of variation (Purseglove, 1968) Early taxonomic work including melon was made by Naudin (1859) However, this has resulted in taxonomic

confusion, hence, 522 synonyms of C melohave been recognized by Kirkbride

(1993) The taxonomy of the cultivars is complex and has only recently been reviewed and clarified by Pitrat et al (2000) The common groups are:

1 Catalupensis (true Cantaloupe common in Europe, rough or scaly surface but not netted)

2 Reticulatus(Rockmelon, Muskmelon or Cataloupe, fruits are netted and slip from the vine)

3 Inodorus (Winter Melon or Honeydew Melon in Australia)

4 Flexuosus (Snake Melon or Serpent Melon)

5 Conomom (Oriental Pickling Melon)

6 Chito (Mango Melon or Garden Lemon)

7 Dudaim (Pomegranate melon or Queen Anne’s melon)

* Sweet melon types used as fruit:

Muskmelon (var reticulatusNaudin): fruit globular (1.0-1.8 kg); rind strongly

reticulate, sometimes furrowed, yellowish-green with orange flesh or rind finely reticulate to smooth, yellowish-green with light green flesh; high sugar content (10-15 %) and aromatic; good for shipping;

Cantaloupe melon (var cantalupensisNaudin): fruit globular to slightly ovoid

(1.2-1.8 kg); rind smooth or reticulate, ribbed, grayish-green with orange flesh; high sugar content and very rich flavor; limited storability; mainly grown in western Europe and the United State;

Winter melon (var inodorusNaudin): fruit ovoid (1.5-2.5 kg); late maturing;

rind smooth, often striped or splashed, gray, green or yellow in color; flesh firm, white or light green; high sugar content but little flavor; good storage quality; mainly grown in Iran, Central Asia and Afghanistan, but also in Spain and Japan;

* Non-sweet melon types used as vegetable:

Snake melon (var flexuosusNaudin): fruit long, slender, with smooth rind;

used immature as cucumber, mainly in Afghanistan, Iran and the Commonwealth

of Independent States

Oriental pickling melon (var conomonMakino): fruit small, elongated like

cucumber; mainly used in India, China, Japan and South-East Asia; the young green fruits are consumed in the same way as cucumber, although they have a flat taste and little flavor; the mature fruits are oval-cylindrical and have a typical rind, which is smooth, yellow with white longitudinal striping; they may become very big (weighting more than 5 kg) and are used for the preparation of candy or eaten

with ice and sugar as a delicacy; the conomonvariety is deemed as Taeng-thai or

Taeng-lai grown in Thailand (Herklots, 1972)

Garden melon (var chitoNaudin): fruit small, smooth, mottled; used for

pickles and as ornamental, mainly in southern Europe and the United States

Pomegranate melon (var dudaimNaudin): fruit small, globular, pubescent;

mainly in south-western Asia, Transkaukasia and northern Africa; also used as ornamental and odoriferous fruit

There are also 2 cultivars included in the sweet melon types used as fruit (Paje and Vossen, 1993):

Chinese Hami; fruit ovoid to oblong (1.5-2.0 kg); rind yellowish to light green, slightly reticulate; flesh crisp, light orange to pink; very sweet (14 % sugar); good shelf life; adapted to cool climates;

Oriental sweet melon: fruit small, globular to ovoid (0.4-0.6 kg); rind smooth, pale green to yellow with white, crisp flesh; very sweet but little flavor; adapted to hot and humid climates; seeds are small (1,000-seed weight 8-10 g)

2.1.2 Characteristic

Melon plants are typically trailing vines, having simple, five-lobed leaves occuring one per stem node Along the stem there are five leaves for two twists of the stem before one leaf is directly above another (phyllotaxy of 2/5) Stems are round, centrally hollow and contain bicollateral vascular bundles, meaning that phloem tissue occurs uniquely on the outside and inside of the xylem Plants consist of a main or primary stem, from which lateral stems or branches are produced In turn these branches may bear more lateral stems Coiled tendrils occur at leaf axils, and act to help the plant cling to trellises and other supports The plant has a relatively strong tap root which is thought to penetrate approximately 1 m depending on soil type and irrigation arrangement The secondary roots however make up most of the root mass and occur in the first 60 cm of soil

Melon is either monoecious, bearing separate staminate and pistillate flowers

on the same plant, or andromonoecious, bearing separate staminate and hermaphroditic flowers on the same plants Staminate flowers occur in axillary clusters on the main stem and laterals, whilst ovary bearing flowers occur at the first node of each lateral branch Pollination of ovary bearing flowers is required, and facilitated by naturally occurring pollinating agents

Fruits vary in shape and size depending on cultivar Typic ally, monoeciuos plants produce elongated fruit, whilst andromonoecious plants produce round

or ovate fruit Some cultivars possess longitudial sutures on fruit, whilst in others sutures are suppressed The fruit surface may be smooth, or possess lenticels, which form a netted suberised cork- like texture Seeds vary in number between cultivars, but are usually in the multiple hundreds per fruit Each seed has a testa of several layers, a thin collapsed perisperm and endosperm, and an embryo which connists of two large flat cotyledons and a small radicle Seeds have a high percentage of proteins (19.3%) and lipids (32.3%) (De Mello et al., 2001)

Purseglove (1968) also described Cucumismeloas follows: “A variable,

trailing, softly hairy annual Vines are monoecious or andro-monoecious Root system is large and superficial Stems are ridged or striate Leaves orbicular or ovate to reniform, angled or shallowly 5-7 lobed, 8-5 cm in diameter, dentate, base cordate; petiole 4-10 cm long; tendrils simple Flowers staminate and clustered, pistillate and solitary, or hermaphrodite, 1.2-3.0 cm in diameter, yellow, on short stout pedicles; calyx 5-lobed, 6-8 mm long; corolla deeply 5-partite, petals round,

2 cm long; stamens 3, free, connectives of anthers prolonged; pistil with 3-5 placentas and stigmas Fruit very variable in size, shape and rind, globular or oblong, smooth or yellow-brown, or green, flesh yellow, pink or green, many seeded Seeds are whitish or buff, flat, smooth, 5-15 mm long About 30 seeds per g”

to as “the African group” (Kroon et al., 1979) Of the 32 Cucumisspecies 31 have

a chromosome number of n=12 (Kirkbride, 1993) C.sativus, cucumber, a relative

to C hystrixis the only exception with n=7, and originates from Asia New reviews

of the origin of melon strongly indicate south and eastern Africa as the origin of melon (Kerje and Grum, 2000; Mallick and Masui, 1986) Melon has probably been cultivated in China since 2000 years BC (Keng, 1974) and many cultivars and high fruit diversity have evolved, as well as a worldwide spreading of the cultivated forms in the tropics and sub-tropics It is mainly used as a fruit but immature fruits are used as a vegetable, seeds are edible and the roots can be used

in medicine (Robinson and Deckers-Walters, 1997 ) Wild inedible forms are mainly from Africa (Jeffrey, 1980) Melon is easily spread into the wild as feral from cultivation Natural habitats are near cultivated areas, townships and

riverbeds Melon is also found in very dry areas The geographical distribution of wild melon is: Africa: Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Cape Verde Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Malawi, Maldives, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zimbabwe; Asia: Myanmar, China, India, Iran, Japan, Korea, Nepal, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Yemen, Malaysia, Indonesia, New Guinea, Philippines and Australia; Pacific: Fiji Islands, Guam, New Britain, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands and Tonga (Kirkbride, 1993)

Source: FAO, 2014

Melon is cultivated in the tropical and semitropical areas, being a plant loving warm seasons because it is resistant to drought The main producing countries are China, Turkey, Iran, Brazil, Egypt, and United States In the period 2005-2012, the world production of melon increased 1.16 times from 11798.5 million tons in 2000 to 13730 million tons in 2012 (Table 1) (FAO, 2014)

million tons of which 62.44% was produced by China (7640.8 million tons), 4.52% by Turkey (557.1 million tons), 3.46% by Iran (423.4 million tons), 2.20% by Brazil ( 269.3 million tons), 2.26% by Egypt (276 million tons) and 2.48% by the USA ( 276 million tons) In 2012, the world melon production reached 13730 million tons and the main producer is still China with 63.73% (8750.1 million tons)

Source: FAO, 2014

Figure 1 Area harvested of melons in the world (2000-2012)

Area harvested of melons has registered an increase from 1001.74 thousand ha in 2000 to the maximum 1339 thousand ha in the year

2012 However, in 2009, it decreased reaching 1148.77 thousand (Figure 1)

Melon yield has increased from 19.43 ions/ha in 2000 to 23.84 tons/ha in 2012, meaning 22.70% growth This was a consequence of the fact that more and more farmers have been focused on the implementation of modern technologies and the use of high productive cultivars (Figure 2)

go back to 2400 BC Historic Egyptian forefathers regarded honeydews a terrified food items Honeydew melons were in addition grown by the Romans as well as were launched into Europe throughout the Roman Empire yet didn’t turn out to be well-known up until the French royal court’s love affair together with the fruit within the 15th century Honeydew just weren’t grown in Europe up until the later Middle Ages, with the exception of possibly in Moorish Spain

Columbus transported honeydew melon seeds to America as well as Spanish explorer settling with what is currently California grown honeydew melon It’s

been an essential item in America after that The title ‘honeydew melon’ is definitely the American term for what exactly is also referred to as ‘Balian’ or even

‘Wallace’ melon There is certainly proof showing that this melon was grown within the warm climates of southern France as well as Algeria within the 15th century Due to the fact honeydew plants need to have a warm dry climate to develop and provide fruit, these types of melons didn’t allow it to be in America

up until the 1800s, right after locations just like California as well as Arizona were populated as well as farmed

2.2.2 Variety

Honeydew melons grow readily to harvest in 80 to 100 days These small to medium-sized melons are known for their green rinds and pale green flesh Some cultivars have yellow rinds, and others feature orange flesh Many hybrids have been bred

Green Flesh: Lovers of standard green-fleshed honeydews will appreciate the

“Honey King”, “Earlibrew”, and “Moonshine” varieties that mature in about 90 days Early variety “Vanessa” has the added bonus of a beautiful white rind that contrasts with the green flesh Green-fleshed main season choices include F1 hybrids “Brilliance”, “Honey Chow”, “Royal Dew”, “Haley”, “Samantha”, “San Isidro,” “Saturno” and “Super Dew”

Yellow Rind: An uncommon mutation in honeydews produces a bright yellow rind, enhancing plate presentation and making the fruits more fun “Marygold” ripens with a yellow wrinkled skin in about 88 days Slower ripening varieties include F1 hybrids “Destacado,” whose rind changes from cream to light yellow

at maturity; “Dewlicious,” producing a range of green to white flesh; and

“Unforgettable” with its crisp white flesh

Orange Flesh: Orange-fleshed honeydews feature bright colored, extra-sweet flesh Varieties include “Orange Blossom,” “Orange County,” “Orange Delight” and “Orange Sherbet,” which also boasts a white rind “Coup d' Orange” has been

bred with resistance to fusarium wilt “Honey Gold,” “Orange Bowl” and

“Temptation” are main season honeydews with resistance to both fusarium wilt and powdery mildew Although lacking specific breeding for disease resistance,

“Orange Dew” produces a unique salmon-orange flesh in about 112 days

2.2.3 Planting

Honeydew melons are warm-season crops that grow best at air temperatures between 65 and 75 °F It is best to plant when the soil temperature is at least 60 to 65

°F These melons are very tender and should be planted after the last chance of frost

Honeydew melon seeds can be planted directly in the garden or transplants can be grown to get an early start Under normal conditions melons grown from transplants can be harvested as much as two weeks earlier than melons grown directly from seed

Another way to get an early start on your melon crop is to use black plastic mulch The black plastic absorbs the sun's warmth, allowing the soil to warm quickly To plant, punch a small hole in the plastic and plant the seed or transplant The black plastic will warm the soil faster in the spring and will also conserve moisture throughout the season Other advantages of this type of mulch are weed control and a reduction of fruit rot

If a second crop or fall crop is going to be planted on the black plastic mulch, spray-paint the black mulch white The hotter soils created by a black mulch become too hot during the summer and early fall Spraying the mulch white reduces the amount of heat absorbed Row covers will need to be vented by cutting slits in the side Temperatures under these materials can get hot enough to inhibit plant growth Remove covers when temperatures warm Covers will also need to

be removed when flowering starts so pollination can occur

Cantaloupes and honeydews need a lot of space Plant the melons in rows 6 to 8 feet apart Transplants or seed should be planted in the rows 18 to 24 inches apart If

2.2.4 Fertilizing

It is best to base fertilizer applications on the results of a soil test If a soil test has not been taken, apply 5-10-10 at 30 pounds per 1000 square feet before planting Melons should be side-dressed before the vines start to "run" with 1 pound of 33-0-0 per 100 feet of row or 2 pounds of calcium nitrate per 100 feet of row Side-dress the second time after bloom when fruits are developing on the vine

Be careful: Too much nitrogen fertilizer can encourage excessive vine growth and reduce fruit growth

2.2.5 Watering

Melons need a lot of water If using overhead irrigation, water in the morning

so the foliage has time to dry before dark Wet leaves encourage foliar diseases Drip irrigation works well as water is applied in the plant root zone but does not wet the foliage When watering, make sure the soil is moistened to a depth of at least 6 inches Melons need extra water during fruit set and development, but too much water during the last week of fruit development will reduce sweetness of the fruit

It is best to use drip irrigation in combination with the plastic mulch Using drip irrigation instead of overhead irrigation keeps the foliage dry and reduces disease problems It is also possible with the appropriate equipment to inject the needed nutrients through the drip line and spoon-feed your plants

For earlier melons, use a row cover alone or in combination with black plastic mulch The row cover can be either clear polyethylene sheeting supported by wire hoops placed every 5 feet across the row or a lightweight "floating" type material The clear plastic

2.2.6 Harvest

About 30 to 35 days are required from fruit pollination to harvest for most honeydew varieties When the stem separates completely, called "full slip," the

honeydew fruit has achieved its maximum sugar development and if not consumed

or cooled soon thereafter, its quality will deteriorate Some honeydew varieties will not slip but will become paler in color

2.2.7 Common problems

Environment: Poor fruit set could be due to improper pollination, water stress

or hot weather Pollination may be hindered by cold rain and cloudy weather Tasteless melons could be due to cloudy, dark weather, or disease The firs blossoms often drop off honeydew melons plants but this is not a problem The first flowers to appear on the vines are male The female flowers, which open later, have a swelling at the base that forms the fruit After bees pollinate these female flowers, the fruit develops

Pest and disease control: The most serious problem of honeydew melon is downy mildew To solve this problem we need use resistant variety, use systemic fungicide, apply the contact type regularly or every 4-5 days The systemic type should be used two times during the season Gummy stem blight may be a problem

in some areas, in which case, spray copper-based fungicides If infection is severe, paint slurry of fungicides on affected area Avoid splashing water on the stem during irrigation Viruses could be minimized by sanitation The common pests of honeydew melons are thrips, aphids, squash beetle, mites Mulching and spraying with insecticidal soap, hot pepper spray or appropriate pesticides can control mites and thrips

2.3 Effects of nutrients on melon production

2.3.1 Effects of organic fertilizer on melon production

Curuk et al (2004) demonstrated that there was no significant difference in melon yield when composted-cattle manure applied at levels of 12 and 18kg/m2 However, there was significant difference in width and mean fruit weight between the control treatment and treatments using 12 and 18 kg/m2