Awareness and vulnerability to climate change among coastal communities in ghana

Local residents’ assessment on effectiveness and sustainability of climate change adaptation strategies in the area.... IX LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Determinants of vulnerability Over

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

NHA TRANG UNIVERSITY

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

NHA TRANG UNIVERSITY

Topic allocation Decision

Decision on establishing the Committee:

Supervisors: Professor Peter Arbo

Dr Le Kim Long

Chairman:

Prof Nguyen Thi Kim Anh

Faculty of Graduate Studies:

Hoang Ha Giang

KHANH HOA – 2018

I

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this master thesis is the result of research work carried out by myself under this Norhed master’s degree training program at Nha Trang University in collaboration with University of Tromso (The arctic University of Norway), University of Bergen in Norway and

University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka, within the confines of the Graduate School, Department of

Environment, fisheries and Biotechnology under the supervision of Professor Peter Arbo

(University of Tromso, Norway) and Dr Le Kim Long (Nha Trang University, Vietnam) Except

for references cited, which serve as sources of secondary information (for which I have duly

acknowledged), it is not a reproduction in part, or in whole of any work ever presented for the

award of a degree I am therefore responsible for any omissions, errors of reasons and presentation

of due facts

………Date 02 Month May year 2018

Sarfo Isaac

DEDICATION

Glory and thanks be to God Almighty!

This thesis is dedicated to my lovely and supportive father, Mr Isaac Akwasi Annor whose

financial support, guidance, care and motivation saw me through up to this level

III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My sincerest appreciation, with all humility, goes to all and sundry who contributed to making this

masters research a reality With a joyful heart, wish to give special thanks to my father, Mr Isaac

Akwasi Annor, who supported me whole heartedly towards the accomplishment of this academic

goal Having braved all odds, wish to ask for God’s blessings for my father and other family

members who made this a reality I wish to put on record the immense help I received from both

Universities, thus, University of Tromso, Norway and Nha Trang University, Vietnam whose

training and financial support (Norhed/Norad) broadened my scope of knowledge To my good

friends, Mr Henry Otchwemah Bortey, Mr George Squire and Mr Emmanuel Kedjanyi for their

support during the course of data collection and analysis

I am also grateful to my unflagging lecturers at NTU and the supervisory team, Professor Peter

Arbo (University of Tromso, Norway) and Dr Le Kim Long (Nha Trang University, Vietnam)

who patiently and meticulously, supervised this work and without whose comments and guidance,

this study would not have been possible I wish to express my utmost gratitude to Dr Eric Twum

(CEO of Institute of Green Growth Solutions, Ghana), Dr Edward Nunoo (Head of Department,

Environment & Development Studies, Central University, Ghana) and Mrs Memuna Mattah

(Lecturer, Department of Environment & Development Studies, Central University, Ghana) for

their guidance and motivation To Ablekuma West District Assembly, National Disaster &

Management Organization, Environmental Protection Agency, Institute of Green Growth

Solutions, Premix Fuel Dealers Association in Dansoman as well as Dansoman Traditional council

I say kudos

……… Date 02 Month May Year 2018

Sarfo Isaac

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION I DEDICATION II ACKNOWLEDGEMENT III TABLE OF CONTENTS IV LIST OF TABLES VIII LIST OF FIGURES IX LIST OF PLATES X LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS XI ABSTRACT XIII

CHAPTER ONE 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Research Problem 2

1.3 Aim of the Study 4

1.4 Objectives of the study 4

1.4.1 Research Questions 4

1.5 Justification of the study 5

CHAPTER TWO 5

LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Climate Change: A Global Point of View 6

2.2 Synthesis of IPCC’s fifth Assessment report 6

2.2.1 Global Climate Change Projections: Expectations 8

2.2.2 Climate Change responses 9

2.2.3 Climate Change Awareness at the Global Level 10

2.2.4 African States Climate Change Learning Action plans 11

2.3 Determinants of Climate Vulnerability 12

2.4 Climate change and coastal communities 14

V

2.4.1 Physical changes 14

2.4.2 Ecosystem and bio-diversity changes 15

2.4.3 Socio-economic changes 15

2.4.4 Responses to Climate Change hazards 16

2.5 Social Vulnerability & Social Capital 16

2.5.1 Social vulnerability 16

2.5.2 Concept of Social Capital 18

2.6 Strategies to reduce Climate risks and vulnerability 19

2.6.1 Concept of Adaptation 20

2.6.2 Traditional Knowledge: an adaptive capacity tool 22

2.7 Measuring Effectiveness and sustainability of Climate Change adaptive strategies 22 2.7.1 The no regret strategy approach 22

2.7.1.1 Case of Nador and Berkane in Morocco 23

2.8 Constraints to Adaptation 24

2.8.1 Physical Constraints 25

2.8.2 Economic and Financial Constraints 26

2.8.3 Social and cultural constraints 26

2.8.4 Governance and Institutional Constraints 27

2.8.5 Biological/Ecological Constraints 28

CHAPTER THREE 31

GENERAL METHODOLOGY AND DATA 31

3.1 Research Strategy 31

3.1.1 Qualitative research 31

3.1.2 Quantitative research 32

3.2 Study Design 32

3.3 Source of Data 33

3.3.1 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) 33

3.3.2 Household and Institutions: Questionnaire Interviews 34

3.4 Sampling Size 36

3.4.1 Sampling Methodology 39

3.5 Data Analysis and Presentation 40

3.6 Challenges/Limitations of the study 40

CHAPTER FOUR 42

STUDY AREA AND RESPONDENTS 42

4.1 Social and demographic characteristics 42

4.1.1 Greater Accra Region 42

4.1.2 Physical Characteristics of Accra 43

4.1.3 Dansoman 43

4.1.3.1 The Traditional Authority 44

4.1.3.2 The Political Authority (Local Government system) 44

4.2 Social and demographical characteristics of informants 46

CHAPTER FIVE 56

LEVEL OF AWARENESS AND KNOWLEDGE ON CLIMATE CHANGE 56

5.1 Climate Awareness and Knowledge 56

5.1.1 Level of Climate Awareness 56

5.1.2 Level of knowledge 59

5.2 Scale of attention and commitment 60

5.3 Potential impacts of climate change in Dansoman 63

5.4 Local adaptation strategies in Dansoman 66

5.4.1 Sea defence systems 68

5.4.2 National Sanitation Day 69

5.4.3 Distribution of waste bins 70

5.4.4 Awareness creation and capacity building 70

5.5 Self-Protective measures initiated by individual households in the study area 71

5.6 Discussion 73

VII

CHAPTER SIX 75

EFFECTIVENESS AND SUSTAINABILITY OF LOCAL ADAPTATION STRATEGIES IN DANSOMAN 75

6.1 Identified stakeholders 75

6.1.1 Roles of identified stakeholders within the study area 76

6.2 Institutional aid offered to affected communities in the study area-climate hazards 78

6.3 Effectiveness of local climate change adaptation strategies in Dansoman 81

6.4 Reactive and anticipatory measures 85

6.4.1 Short-term (reactive) measures or strategies 85

6.4.2 Long (Anticipatory) term measures 85

6.5 Discussion 89

CHAPTER SEVEN 92

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 92

7.1 Summary and Conclusion 92

7.2 Strengths and weaknesses 94

7.2.1 Strengths 95

7.2.2 Weaknesses 96

7.3 Recommendations 96

REFERENCES 99 APPENDICES A 1.0 APPENDIX I A 1.1 APPENDIX II G PLATES II

LIST OF TABLES

Table4.1 Occupational status of respondents 57

Table5.1Have you heard about Climate change? 61

Table5.2Have you heard about Climate change? 61

Table5.3How did you get to know about Climate change? 62

Table5.4How did you get to know about Climate change? 63

Table5.5How serious is climate change at the global level? 66

Table5.6How serious is climate change at the local level? 67

Table5.7How serious is climate change at the global level? 67

Table5.8How serious is climate change at the local level? 68

Table 5.9 Do you know of any local adaptation strategy initiated by the local assembly or any private entity? 70

Table 5.9.1 Do you know of any local adaptation strategy initiated by the local assembly or any private entity? 71

Table 5.9.2 Some adaptation strategies initiated by the central government through Ablekuma West District Assembly and other private entities in Dansoman………… .72

Table 6.1 Institutional Assistance offered to affected communities in Dansoman… 84

Table 6.2 Case scenario of Nador-Berkane in Morocco and Dansoman in Accra, Ghana 86

Table 6.3 Interventions and other risk-reduction vulnerability strategy check in the study area… .88

Table 6.4 Local residents’ assessment on adequacy of socio-economic parameters in the area 91

Table 6.5Officials’ assessment on adequacy of socio-economic parameters in the area? ……… 92

Table 6.6.Local residents’ assessment on the effectiveness of institutions in carrying out their functions 92

Table 6.7.Officials’ assessment on the effectiveness of institutions in carrying out their functions 93

Table 6.8 Local residents’ assessment on effectiveness and sustainability of climate change adaptation strategies in the area 94

Table 6.9 Officials’ assessment on effectiveness and sustainability of climate change adaptation strategies in the area 94

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Determinants of vulnerability (Over lapse of vulnerability components) 15

Figure 2.2 Units of Analysis for Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation 21

Figure2.3 Key Adaptation constraints to climate change 28

Figure 2.4 Conceptual Framework of Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change impacts 32

Figure4.1Map of Dansoman illustrating the study area……… 49

Figure4.2Satellite Map of Dansoman and the study area 50

Figure4.3Proportion of Gender for local residents 51

Figure 4.4 Proportion in terms of Gender for officials 52

Figure 4.5 Age limit of local residents 53

Figure 4.6 Age Limit of Officials 54

Figure4.7Educational status of local residents 55

Figure4.8Educational Status of Institutional Personnel 56

Figure4.9Length of stay of local residents in the study area 58

Figure4.10Duration of work (in years) for institutional personnel… 59

Figure 5.1 Mode of Climate Information Dissemination & Communication 63

Figure 5.2Current and potential impacts of Climate Change in Dansoman .69

Figure5.3 Self-protective measures initiated by individuals along the coast of Dansoman .76

Figure6.1Some identified stakeholders in climate adaptation and awareness .81

Figure6.2Institutional Framework 85

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 3.1 Community leaders and key members of pressure groups in a Focus Group

Discussion .40 Plate 3.2 Member of the traditional council in Dansoman being

interviewed……… 41 Plate 3.3 Some local residents interviewed in the study

area……… .41 Plate 3.4 Some fishing folks engaged during the course of data

collection……… .42 Plate 3.5 Some fishing folks engaged during the course of data

collection……… …… .42 Plate 5.1 Sea Defense System along the coast of

Dansoman……… 72 Plate 5.2 Sea Defense under extension long the coast of

Dansoman……… 73 Plate 5.3 Stagnant water resulting from water splashed from the sea behind sea

defense… …… 73 Plate 5.4 and plate 5.5 Households close to the sea along the coast of Dansoman being affected

by coastal inundation 157 Plate 5.6 Glefe Assembly member in the picture showing how the sea broke down this

wall… 157 Plate 5.7 Image of Chemu lagoon filled with plastic waste close to the coast of

Dansoman…… .158 Plate 6.1 and 6.2 Group photograph during and after holding a focus group

discussion……… 84 Plates 6.3 Images showing some choked drainage systems in the study

area……… .98 Plates 6.4 and 6.5 Images showing some choked drainage systems in the study

area……… .99

IIED International Institute for Environment and Development

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

LULUCF Land-use and Land-use change and Forestry

MESTI Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation

UN DESD United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development

UNESCO United Nations Education, Science and Cultural Organization

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ABSTRACT

Over the years, policy-makers, development-practitioners, international organizations and

academic scholars have taken stern initiatives to tackle climate change issues Various climate

change adaptation policies and action plans have been formulated and implemented This study

sought to determine the level of awareness and knowledge among households and officials in

Dansoman, an area within the city of Accra, Ghana and also to assess the effectiveness and

sustainability of initiated adaptation strategies The study used descriptive statistics based on informants’ observation and experience along with the “no-regret strategy” concept in assessing the effectiveness and sustainability of local adaptation strategies Assessing the effectiveness of

strategies are key components of monitoring and evaluation process, often overlooked after

implementation of policy-frameworks, hence, the need for this study Findings show high level of

climate awareness among respondents but low level of knowledge on climate change issues and

need for collective efforts through environmental measures, in regulating human activities

impacting on prevailing climate Methodologies assembled based on informants’ experience and

assessment show climate change adaptation strategies in the study area are not effective and

sustainable This study serves as a baseline print for relevant stakeholders on critical areas which

needs attention The study will inform decision on development in the area through an integrated

approach, which will reduce people’s vulnerability to climate hazards

CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Background

Vulnerability and adaptation involve the management of risks posed by climate change Identifying key issues which stem a particular geographical area in the context of climate change events aid in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of adaptive strategies (Downing et.al, 2005) The concept of vulnerability assessment is significant in giving a comprehensive knowledge and guidance on future risks, taking a stead look at both past and current trend of events to inform decision making The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its fifth assessment report highlighted the changing climate in Africa and its sub-regions Temperatures across West Africa have risen over the last fifty (50) years with fewer cold days and nights and prolonged warm days and nights between 1970 and 2010 (IPCC, 2014).Such impacts have been attributed to natural and human induced factors The latter being the main cause of recent trends due to increasing rate of greenhouse gas emissions mostly by the developed countries with severe implications on developing countries (IPCC, 2007) Among these impacts are evidence of single large scale events ranging from droughts, storms, higher frequency and untimely precipitation, sea level rise causing floods and shortage in fresh water resources

Most countries in Africa classified as least developed are considered as most vulnerable groups with limited resources and capacity to cope or adapt to any extreme weather event Out of about thirty (31) countries classified as most vulnerable, twenty-two (22) of these countries are in Africa (Khattabi and Jobbins, 2011) The world and its current state is deemed age-of-anthropocene as most changes observed are significantly attributed to human induced factors with unprecedented events occurring time over time Over the past few decades and in recent years, Ghana has experienced a number of climate change events Among these are droughts, flooding in major cities and sea level rise affecting most low-lying coastal communities in its coastal belt (Appeaning et.al, 2011) These impacts have caused significant losses in both the economic and energy sector in terms of food security and power supply, destruction of personal properties and public infrastructure, disease outbreaks, loss of lives and displacement of people from their traditional homes

Dansoman is a major town and a low-lying area along the coastal belt in the Greater Accra region of Ghana The area is extremely vulnerable to impacts of climate change due to recent

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cases of floods and disease outbreak The area is highly characterized by business and commerce, with those along the coast highly dependent on climate sensitive sectors, thus, agriculture and fish farming being predominant in its coastal zone Alteration in climate in the area over a given period could potentially affect livelihoods of people in the area Recent trend

of events in the area have led to several initiatives undertaken by Government of Ghana (GoG) and other relevant stakeholders in general The National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS) was adopted in 2010 with strategies put in place to institutionalize policies and action plans in local areas through the district assemblies across the country in reducing people’s vulnerability (Nutsukpor, 2013)

Apparently, a number of studies conducted on climate change delve into potential impacts on livelihoods of individual households in communities as well as key sectors for economic growth in most countries These studies use qualitative and quantitative tools in measuring the degree of impacts on these sectors (Appeaning et.al, 2011) Further studies on the effectiveness and sustainability of local adaptation strategies implemented tends to be limited (Anderson, 2011) Upon identifying this gap in several literature, this study sought to use vulnerable groups and institutional capacity as measurement tools to examine the effectiveness of local climate change adaptation strategies in Dansoman The outcome of this research would enhance knowledge on the effectiveness of initiated strategies, related to climate awareness and adaptation Assessing the effectiveness of local climate change adaptation strategies in this comprehensive study would assist policy-makers, international donors, development practitioners and academic scholars in knowing the way forward by informing decision making and planning processes The study would provide further information on climate change impacts, awareness and some self-protective measures, initiated in the study area to assist other researchers for future studies In addition, measuring the effectiveness and sustainability of initiated local adaptation strategies are key components of monitoring and evaluation process

of any policy framework, hence, the need to carry-out this study (Bours et.al 2013)

1.2 Research Problem

Over the years, various governments, policy-makers and international organizations have taken stern initiatives, backed by commitments in tackling the issue of climate change The increasing demand for frameworks and tools that effectively monitor and examine the outcomes of these huge investments and commitments made by development practitioners across regions have enhanced the evaluation and monitoring of various climate change adaptation strategies One

hundred billion dollars (US$100 billion dollars) was pledged at the 2009 UN conference in Copenhagen to support Climate Change response including adaptation (Erbach, 2015) These approaches intend to determine the effectiveness of adaptation strategies meant to reduce people’s vulnerability against any unforeseen event, stress or shock (Anderson, 2011)

Ghana has its own socio-economic, environmental and political cleavages Despite these bottlenecks, the country’s maturity and stability in terms of democratic governance cannot go unnoticed Climate models indicate that, residents almost certainly face a hotter future with the possibility of higher rainfall patterns The region in recent years, have experienced unprecedented increase in trends of climate change events ranging from flooding, drought, coastal inundation and gradual submersion of land in its coastal belt as well as urban areas (Appeaning, 2011) These aforementioned events have displaced thousands from their homes and destroyed several properties and infrastructure A number of coastal areas vulnerable to climate change within Greater Accra include Jamestown, Ningo-Prampram, Old Fadama, Dansoman and so on These areas along the coastal belt in the capital city, Accra, are highly vulnerable to coastal erosion, sea level rise and other large single climate change events

Ghana is signatory to a number of global interventions on climate change and other disasters For instance, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), expects national governments integrate climate change issues into national development frameworks and plans Similarly, Ghana signed for the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015 and Sendai Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters The frameworks aimed at reducing casualties as well as socio-economic and environmental losses resulting from disasters, in a sustainable manner (MEST, 2012)

Ghana’s initiative towards integrating climate change adaptation into policies and strategies commenced little over twenty-three (23) years ago under the Netherlands Climate Change Study Assistance Program (Würtenberger et al, 2011) This support and many others including UNDP Supported Climate Change-Dare Program led to the formulation of the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (2011), streamlining climate change adaptation into Ghana’s Shared Growth and Development Agenda 2010-2013 and 2014-2017 The National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy was transformed into a National Climate Change Policy

in 2014 to guide the processes leading to streamlining climate into national policies, strategies and programs Before a national policy framework is approved as a working document, it is

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ensured that issues of Climate Change (CC) and Disaster Risk Reductions (DRR) are prominently featured More importantly, CC/DRR issues have to be accepted as a national

priority and a sine qua non to sustainable development (Afornorpe, 2016)

Key challenges that continues to hinder the successful and effective implementation of these policies and programs are lack of proper implementation guidelines, financial constraints and commitments, lack of proper consultation and monitoring (Towela et al, 2014) Most studies conducted in Ghana on climate change are centered on single climate large scale events and its impacts on sensitive sectors of Ghana’s economy like; the agricultural, water, health and energy sector Effectiveness and sustainability of these initiated strategies are essential in monitoring and evaluation processes which determines the way forward Studies on this gap identified in several literature are very limited, hence, this exploratory study sought to provide more information to guide relevant stakeholders on using institutions and vulnerable groups as measurement tools in Dansoman to assess the effectiveness and sustainability of local climate change adaptation strategies

1.3 Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to assess the effectiveness and sustainability of adaptation strategies, meant to reduce locals’ vulnerability to climate change impacts in Dansoman

1.4 Objectives of the study

This study intends to:

1 Determine the level of awareness and knowledge on climate change related issues among selected coastal communities in the area

2 Find out adaptive measures initiated by the local assembly, private entities and individual households in reducing climate vulnerability in the study area

3 Assess the effectiveness and sustainability of local adaptation strategies initiated by the local assembly, private entities and individual households in tackling climate change impacts in the area

1.4.1 Research Questions

The study is expected to answer the following questions;

i What is the level of awareness and knowledge on climate change related issues among local residents and institutional personnel in the area?

ii What self-protective measures have been initiated by community as a whole (local assembly) and individual households?

iii To what extent have these local adaptation strategies been effective and sustainable?

iv How are the local communities already affected by climate change and what new hazards may be expected?

1.5 Justification of the study

Climate variability and its associated impacts are of major concern to everyone in our society International and local stakeholders wary about climate change impacts due to its developmental and environmental repercussions Assessing the effectiveness of local adaptation strategies in this comprehensive study will assist policy-makers, international donors, development practitioners, scholars and academia in knowing the way forward by informing decision and planning processes The study will inform international organizations, governments and other stakeholders on initiated efforts or mechanisms and their degree of sustainability and effectiveness It will serve as a baseline or provide further information on climate change impacts, degree of vulnerability and mode of adaptation in the study area to assist other researchers in future studies It will serve as a base to replicate or further studies in other areas, deemed vulnerable to climate change impacts

CHAPTER TWO

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LITERATURE REVIEW

The chapter reviews existing literature and contributions made towards this study by other researchers on issues and concepts related to climate change awareness, vulnerability and adaptations Qualitative components in determining the effectiveness and sustainability of adaptation strategies using concepts, descriptive statistics and how much information is available on local adaptation strategies The literature is organized in phases, which includes a conceptual framework, evidence of impacts and trends in Ghana specifically the study area and across the world as well as theories related to the objectives of this study

2.1 Climate Change: A Global Point of View

The purpose is to enhance understanding of climate change in a global context, by defining key concepts relevant to the understanding of climate change as a phenomenon The strategy traces the origin of climate change debate starting as an international, environmental and developmental challenge beginning with a publication of the Brundtland Report in 1987 through to the formation of IPCC in 1989, the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, and the establishment of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Since then, there have been a series of Conference of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC, which have produced

‘Accords and Protocols’ (i.e Marrakesh Accords, Kyoto Protocol and the Copenhagen Accord) Key issues shaping the global climate change regime are also explained These include mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology development and transfer, governance as well as the role of land-use and land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) in climate change mitigation especially in third-world countries

Metzger et al (2005) states that the term vulnerability is used with reference to particular situations, in particular geographical locations, mainly to focus on adaptation options that can best develop a solution for the area by reducing vulnerability and determining actual areas which ought to be prioritized According to Smit and Pitifosova (2001), cited in Fussel (2007, 2009), once people’s vulnerability is reduced through well-focused adaptation strategies, communities and their residents will become resilient, adaptive and robust to hazards

2.2 Synthesis of IPCC’s fifth Assessment report

The UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change provided a refined comprehensive report on Climate Change related issues in 2014 at Copenhagen The fifth assessment report delved into findings from several working groups in previous assessment reports which highlights the physical impacts, vulnerability and adaptive strategies The fifth assessment report gives a holistic view on issues related to climate change across regions with several projections IPCC’s fifth assessment report highlights the following key thematic areas;

i Age of anthropocene, thus, current changes across regions are heavily induced by human activities with unprecedented rate of emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs) which is creating ascendancy of global temperatures and its resultant impacts

ii Intensification of climate change impacts (degree and frequency of occurrence) such as; ocean acidification, flooding, droughts, higher temperatures, sea level rise, melting of glaciers and other climate related stress or disturbances

iii Estimates stern efforts that ought to be put in place to regulate impacts by the end of 2100 This in essence would avoid further increase in global temperatures above 4 °C in this industrial era where countries are expanding their economies, growth and development as well as transition of most developing countries from raw material economies to well-structured (highly industrialized) economies

iv Options to reduce emissions by adapting to green technology, including the use of low carbon energy sources such as wind, solar and nuclear, removal and burial of carbon dioxide where fossil fuels are still used and more efficient use of energy Nevertheless, the scale of change required will pose significant technological, economic, social, and institutional challenges, hence, the longer we wait, the bigger the resultant impacts will be

v Specific adaptations, adaptive capacity and resilient strategies institutionalized in specific societies to help cope with climate change hazards

IPCC’s comprehensive report draws our attention to how our climate is changing, its potential impacts, both positive and negative across regions These changes in our environment across regions are seen per estimates outlined in their synthesis report;

 Increasing of global temperatures of about 0.8°C over the last century and sea levels have risen by about 20 cm

 In many regions, snow and rainfall patterns have changed, affecting water supply particularly freshwater in some areas in south eastern part of Asia, Africa and so on

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 Snow, ice, permafrost and glaciers are melting at the poles and around the rest of the world

 The oceans are becoming increasingly acidic as they absorb more carbon dioxide

 Fluctuations in extreme weather events For instance, heat waves are lasting for longer periods and becoming more intense as well as heavy rainfall events also ascending

 New areas have now been discovered to be good for agriculture as well as identification

of new species in some areas as a result of migration and loss of some species in some areas

 Trees and forests have been seen to be dying off, corals are declining and bleaching, with productivity and biodiversity shift of some animals on land and in the sea from their natural habitats

2.2.1 Global Climate Change Projections: Expectations

The need for global consensus, investment and commitment by international organizations, governments, policy makers, researchers and individuals on regulating actions that significantly impact on our climate has gained tremendous weight Ignoring the need for collective action in reducing emissions of greenhouse gases could make us experience irreversible impacts on societies and the environment globally The assessment report outlines these about our future, thus;

 Global temperatures could be more than 4 °C above what they were before the industrial revolution

 It is very likely that heat waves will occur more often and last longer, increasing the risk of health problems particularly in vulnerable populations

 Likelihood of heavy rainfall events and increase in its frequency in many places with resultant impacts like floods in most areas looks more likely

 The ocean will continue to warm and acidify, negatively affecting marine life and fisheries

 Global average sea level will continue to rise, disrupting communities in low-lying or flood plain areas with increasing risk of coastal flooding from storm surges

 Food security will be undermined as changes in the oceans affect fisheries as well as drought and rising temperatures reducing global crop yields

 Displacement of more people from their homes, destruction of public and personal properties

 Disease outbreaks and limitation of freshwater resources due to sea level rise which may cause intrusion of groundwater affecting several vulnerable people in prone areas

2.2.2 Climate Change responses

The summary report highlights what strategies we have to put in place to cope or adapt to climate change stress and disturbances The report identifies vulnerable groups and the degree

or frequency of impacts which has been occurring in recent years The report spells out the consequences of our actions should we neglect these cautions with estimates or projections as well as how we can reduce rate of climate hazards if we treat climate change issues with urgency with an integrated approach This in essence would not significantly affect people if

we put in place the right measures to enhance capacity in reducing vulnerability Among these responses highlighted in IPCC’s fifth assessment report are;

 Substantial reductions in emission of greenhouse gases in the coming decades will lower the risks of seeing harmful impacts later this century although we cannot reverse the situation but collective efforts can help regulate global temperatures and other climate change impacts

 Doubling efforts to use environmentally friendly technologies can enhance keeping global temperature change below 2 °C by the end of the century, global greenhouse emissions in 2050 need to be 40 to 70 % lower than in 2010, and emission levels near zero or below in 2100 This means we need total human emissions of CO2 to remain less than 2900 gigatonnes of carbon-dioxide (GtCO2) We have already emitted 1900 GtCO2, which is about two thirds of this limit

 Need to change life styles with increasing population, use of automobiles and flights in transportation, structural changes from raw manufacturing to manufacturing or industrialized economies and so on The longer we delay actions, the harder and more expensive it will be if we do not plan against any unforeseen event

 Recent extreme storms, flooding, heat-waves and droughts demonstrate that we are already vulnerable to climate and weather events We must adapt our communities and lifestyles to manage these local risks from climate change

 Our options for reducing emissions include using energy more efficiently and switching

to low-carbon energy sources such as renewables, nuclear energy, and fossil energy with carbon dioxide capture and storage options for reducing emissions include

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decarbonizing the way we produce electricity, using energy more efficiently and trying

to reduce the amount of energy that we all use

 The synthesis report provides a strengthened case for international leaders through diplomacy to act now to reduce domestic carbon emissions and to secure an ambitious legally binding global agreement in 2015

2.2.3 Climate Change Awareness at the Global Level

In 2015, Institute of Green Growth Solutions (IGGS) presented a report under the auspices of MESTI, EPA, UNFCCC and UNDP on climate change learning strategies in Ghana The report highlighted some key initiatives and background information on climate change awareness programs, institutional capacity, roles and responsibilities The report stated that, over the past few decades, Climate Change and Environmental Education (CCEE) as well as Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) have become major tools for protecting the environment and ensuring sustainable development Drafting these into formal and informal approach in the formulation and implementation of climate change adaptation strategies, climate change education, training and public awareness have become pivotal to most international conventions such as the UNFCCC (Article 6 of the Convention) To meet obligation of these commitments, the National Climate Change Policy in Ghana, mentions capacity building; education, information and communication (2 out of 9) in its priority activities, as systematic pillars which must be built on in order to achieve the objectives of the policy among others (MESTI 2013; Würtenberger, 2011) The policy directive does not only sensitize the general public but have key elements which tries to shape the behavior and lifestyle of people on the causes and adverse impacts of climate change Changing the attitude or behavior of people is key to enhancing climate change awareness in our quest to enhance resilience and adaptive capacity

The report then again looked at United Nations Education, Science, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) championing climate change education through education within the framework

of the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD), with the objective of making climate change education a more central and visible part of the international response

to climate change This means the overall objectives of UN can be achieved through a holistic approach, thus, by tackling it using country or locally based approach This in essence, through global consensus and assistance can help achieve the goal of reducing the increasing trend of our changing climate coupled with the negative effects associated with it The program also targeted at helping young people appreciate the impact of global warming today with the aim

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of increasing "climate literacy" In achieving this, the international body aimed at strengthening the capacity of its member states to provide quality climate change education; encouraging innovative teaching approaches to integrate climate change education in school and by raising awareness about climate change as well as enhancing non-formal education program through media, networking and partnerships (UNDP, 2010) At the Conference of Parties (CoP 20) held

in Lima Peru in December 2014, emphasis were placed on the need to train teachers on climate change education and the importance of the Global Action Program on Education for Sustainable Development for advancing climate change education by developing education strategies that incorporate the issues of climate change in curricular, while also raising awareness on climate change in the designing and implementation of national development and climate change strategies The Global Action Program required a collective approach in dealing with issues related to climate change at all levels in governance and decision-making processes

2.2.4 African States Climate Change Learning Action plans

In 2007, African heads of state adopted the African Union’s Declaration on Climate Change and Development in Africa (ClimDev-Africa) The Declaration on Climate Change and Development also called on member states to ratify the Kyoto Protocol; participate in the UNFCCC; build capacity, and invest in data collection and early warning systems; integrate adaptation strategies into country policies; raise awareness; strengthen cooperation between national meteorological offices, hydrological centers and regional economic communities (RECS); strengthen research, especially in renewables, forestry and agriculture to increase resilience; transfer technologies; put pressure on developed countries on the ‘polluter pays’ principle to seek deeper greenhouse gas emission cuts (ClimDev-Africa, 2015) The Declaration also mandated the Africa Union (AU) Commission to follow up with the African Ministerial Conference on Environment (AMCEN), the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) and the African Development Bank (AfDB) (AU, 2007; MESTI, 2013) The ClimDev-Africa’s ACPC capacity building program has been instituted to enhance the capacity development of African Institutions and individuals in relation to climate change policy analysis (AU, 2007; ClimDev-Africa, 2015) The program sought to;

 Build solid climate change knowledge based on facts and scientific evidence

 Promote climate change education, research and innovation

 Build the capacity of key stakeholders to become active participants in the response to climate change through training

 Build the capacity of young Africans with fellowship programs by engaging university

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Source: ClimDev-Africa, 2015

2.3 Determinants of Climate Vulnerability

Vulnerability has been categorized under three (3) main components These components are key determinants of climate vulnerability; Climate exposure, climate sensitivity and adaptive capacity Climate exposure is the character, magnitude, and rate of climate variation to which

an area of concern is exposed Exposure refers to the presence of people, livelihoods, environmental services and resources, infrastructure, or economic, social, or cultural assets in places that could be adversely affected by physical events and which, thereby, are subject to potential future harm, loss, or damage (UNDP, 2005)

Sensitivity is the degree to which the area of concern is susceptible to a climate impact It relates to the “degree to which a system is affected, either adversely or beneficially, by climate variability or change The effect may be direct (e.g., a change in fish growth in response to a change in the mean, range or variability of temperature) or indirect (e.g., damages caused by

an increase in the frequency of coastal flooding due to sea level rise)” (IPCC, TAR, 2001)

Adaptive capacity is the ability of the area of concern to adjust or respond to the changing conditions It is the capability of a system to adjust to climate change including climate variability and extremes, thus, moderation of potential damages, taking advantage of

opportunities, or coping with consequences (Smit and Pilifosova, 2001)

Figure 2.1 Determinants of vulnerability (Over lapse of vulnerability components)

Source: Petersen et.al 2014

Figure 2.1 depicts components of climate vulnerability Petersen et.al (2014) in his study highlighted vulnerability as a function of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity

Vulnerability (t) = F (Exposure t) + (Sensitivity t) - (Adaptive Capacity t)

The study shows how exposure and sensitivity have positive effect on vulnerability as the higher the degree or magnitude of exposure and sensitivity, the higher a system’s susceptibility

to adverse impacts of climate change The study further elaborated on how adaptive capacity

on the other hand has a negative impact on vulnerability Higher degree of a system’s capacity

to cope reduces system’s degree of vulnerability to adverse impacts of climate change These components relates to biophysical, socio-economic and environmental dimensions of climate vulnerability This shows climate vulnerability has a multidimensional facet, thus, dynamic (changes over a period of time) and is scale dependent (vulnerability can be expressed at different scales from individual through the community to country resolution; site-specific)

The encompassing nature of these components in Figure 2.1 results in aggregation of several impacts on several vulnerability dimensions, which takes into account human occupancy in a potential hazard zone, loss of lives and properties, coupled with economic assets and processes, poverty and deceasing standards of living

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2.4 Climate change and coastal communities

Coastlines around the world are home to critical ecological and environmental resources Most coastal areas are faced with gradual submersion and inundation as well as coastal and beach erosion which maybe further exacerbated by sea level rise, a single large scale event, a major impact of climate change The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) (IPCC 2007) identified low-lying deltas in Africa and Asia (Nicholls et.al.2007), semi-arid regions of Africa, south and central Asia (Boko et al.2007; Cruz et al 2007; Kundzewicz et al.2007) as particularly vulnerable to impacts of climate change These climate change hotspots and the inhabitants in such regions have complex and overlapping vulnerabilities with their spatial locations, sensitivity and exposure to climate change The study highlighted thirty-one (31) countries classified as least developed and most vulnerable to climate change Out of these thirty-one (31) countries, twenty two (22) out of this total are from Africa with floodplains and coastlines

or low-lying areas tangent to the coast thereby making them more susceptible to the impacts of climate change

In Ghana, about 25% of the country’s entire population live in the coastal zone Out of this number, about 10% depend on coastal fisheries for their livelihood, hence, since the most predominant activity in the area is sensitive to climate change, any adverse impacts could affect production of fish in the area as well as socio-economic livelihoods of the people (Appeaning and Adeyemi, 2013) Most countries in Africa’s vulnerability to climate change is not only because of the nature of their economies which are highly dependent on agriculture and climate sensitive sectors like; ecotourism but high level of ignorance and cost of adaptation

2.4.1 Physical changes

A range of biophysical impacts from climate change identified in most regions around the world experiencing climate change events The nature and extent of these impacts varies from one geographical area to another In addressing knowledge and information gaps on biophysical impacts of climate change in the area, the study will determine how vulnerable groups and institutions in the area cope or adapt to such physical changes and the extent to which local adaptation strategies have been effective and sustainable Kilroy (2015) in his study entitled; “A review of the biophysical impacts of climate change in three hotspot regions in Africa and Asia” outlined range of biophysical impacts emanating from climate change Among these biophysical impacts outlined are;

 Warmer oceans induced as a result of increasing global temperatures

 Sea level rise emanating from melting of glaciers, higher temperatures causing expansion, higher and varying rainfall patterns

 Ocean acidification resulting from decreasing pH levels in the ocean with more carbon being dissolved in the ocean

 Loss of oxygen due to increasing temperatures

 More extreme weather conditions

 Flooding and inundation

 Coastal erosion

 Saltwater intrusion due to sea level rise causing change in fresh groundwater after percolation (seepage)

 Increased run-off

2.4.2 Ecosystem and bio-diversity changes

Climate change is altering life on earth, causing widespread of species extinction, migration and behavioral changes These fluctuations associated with climate causes plants and animals including humans to cope or adapt by either migrating or changing certain features or lifestyle

to adapt in order to survive Climate change also causes changes in timing of some biological events such as; rate of metabolism, reproduction and spawning periods, which could fundamentally transform current ecosystems and food webs Brown et al (2017) in a study entitled; “Impacts of climate change on biodiversity and ecosystem services” highlighted range

of impacts of climate change on the ecosystem Among such impacts are;

 Changes in habitats, diversity and productivity (Shift in diversification and productivity)

 Changes in the structure and functioning of ecosystems

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prone to disasters which may be further exacerbated by impacts of climate change Most inhabitants living in coastal zones livelihood are highly dependent on climate dependent occupations like agriculture and fisheries, hence, any adverse impacts from climate change will significantly affect livelihoods of people in the area Range of climate change impacts which may affect key socio-economic parameters in coastal areas are;

 Damage to infrastructure and human settlements

 Power outages in the energy sector particularly hydrothermal dependent economies

 Resource conflicts due to scarcity and competition in the use of available resources

 Irrelevance of past knowledge

2.4.4 Responses to Climate Change hazards

With a very risk adverse and rigid approach, actions taken to prepare for or respond to global warming can increase the social costs of climate change Climate change strategies must be flexible and dynamic, and allow for adjustments to be made in response to events Planning should encourage robust approaches that are as insensitive as possible to the uncertainties associated with coastal climate hazards While inaction has costs, all actions also have opportunity costs, transaction costs, and equity implications Planning should be devolved to lower levels in governance, thereby determining actual preferences, needs and circumstances

life and livelihood are put at risk by a discrete and identifiable event in nature or in society” (Blaikie et al 1994)

The social vulnerability approach alone is not sufficient to plan for disasters and must be understood as part of a broader and complex approach that includes understanding geophysical hazards and innovative solutions Vulnerability assessment thus incorporates insights from the physical world but emphasizes the roles of social, economic, and political relations in the creation of hazardous situations in a specific place (Sapam et.al, 2014) Vulnerability analysis examines the social distribution of risk and why some populations bear disproportionate levels

of risk to disasters Some groups in society are more prone than others to damage, loss, and suffering in the context of differing hazards Key characteristics of these variations of impact include class, ethnicity, gender, disability, age, or seniority (Blaikie et al., 1994:9)

The factors which contribute to social vulnerability highlighted by Dwyer et al (2004:5) in a comprehensive study entitled: “Quantifying social vulnerability” delves into how social vulnerability concept can help in understanding risk to natural hazards The study highlighted how individuals within households, communities, geographical locations and organizations are susceptible to natural hazards Their study focused on the first level of social vulnerability, which relates to the vulnerability of an individual within a household They highlighted social vulnerability as a component which could serve as an element which is integral to understanding the risk to natural hazards, divided into four levels, thus, individual within household (relating to personal attributes), community (relating to how we interact with those around us-social capital), regional/geographical (relating to how far we are from services) as well as administrative/institutional factors (relating to disaster funding and mitigation studies) Cannon et al (2003) argues that social vulnerability goes beyond destruction of public infrastructure, hence, described the concept as a set of characteristics that includes a person’s initial well-being (nutritional status, physical and mental health), livelihood and resilience (assets and capitals, income and qualifications), self-protection (capability and willingness to build a safe home, use a safe site), social protection (preparedness and mitigation measures) social and political networks and institutions (social capital, institutional and environment and the likes)

Sapam et.al (2014) in their paper review on “The concept of social vulnerability: Review from Disaster Perspectives” outlined social vulnerability to emanate or significantly influenced by natural disasters which results in “poverty, exclusion, marginalization and inequities in material consumption It is also determined by physical, social, economic, and environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact of hazards and is

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conceptually located at the interaction of nature and culture” that also links “social and economic structures, cultural norms and values and environmental hazards” Lack of access to resources such as information, knowledge, technology and limited access to political power and representation are also the factors that affect social vulnerability

2.5.2 Concept of Social Capital

The concept of social capital enlist features of social organizations such as social networks, social interactions, norms, social trust, and reciprocity, cooperation that facilitate coordination and cooperation, that enable people to act collectively for mutual benefits (Amarasinghe and

Bavinck, 2011) Social capital has three main elements namely; bonding, bridging and linking

social capital Bonding social capital is defined as the social cohesion within groups or communities Bridging social capital refers to the structural relationships and networks cross social groupings, involving coordination or collaboration with other groups Linking social capital crosses describes the ability of groups to engage with external agencies (Putnam, 2000) The concept of social capital based on several literature, is one of the most significant and effective ways of enhancing climate resilience and adaptive capacity as well as conflict management in the use of resources Strengths embedded in social capital mechanisms as suggested by Putnam (2000, pp 22-24) encourages participation among community members and respect of local values and customs Social capital mechanisms provides familiarity of past experience which is shared among members of a community This concept can be more accessible due to low cost, use of local language, flexibility in scheduling Decision-making is often based on collaboration, with consensus emerging from wide-range of discussions, often fostering local reconciliation Social capital contributes to a process of community self-reliance and empowerment

Per these two concepts, thus, social vulnerability and social capital highlighted above, the welfare of human as well as other resources within the environment are the main focus of measures, meant to enhance capacity and ability to cope or adapt to climate change impacts Social vulnerability and social capital are key to understanding how people, assets or resources are at risk to climate change These concepts help relate how key components of vulnerability can be integrated in reducing vulnerability by enhancing resilience and capacity to cope The scope of this study will use vulnerable groups and social institutions to determine level of awareness on climate change issues as well as the degree of effectiveness and sustainability of local adaptation strategies This in essence will help bridge the gap on the effectiveness of local adaptation strategies in the area of study pertaining to climate vulnerability

Figure 2.2 Units of Analysis for Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation

Source: Downing et.al, 2003

Figure 2.2 depicts units of analysis for vulnerability assessment The pivot or key focus of

vulnerability assessment is the people within the context of institutions that design, formulate, implement and evaluate these strategies in specified regions along with bio-geophysical resources allocated in places These resources encounter threats posed by climate change due

to human induced factors hence, the interrelationships that exist between these units in Figure 2.3 highlighted by (Downing et.al, 2003) The components of vulnerability assessments and adaptations are key in developing and determining effective and sustainable strategies both in the short and long run

2.6 Strategies to reduce Climate risks and vulnerability

MacDonald (2013) in a study entitled: “Climate Change Strategies” delved into strategies that reduces risks and vulnerability These strategies can be classified under; mitigation and adaptation strategies Mitigation activities in reducing climate risks and vulnerability entails; reducing emissions of greenhouse gases by designing and developing new alternative sources

of energy, behaviors, green technologies and lifestyles that do not significantly impact on the environment Mitigation also entails being committed in reducing rate of emissions or tackling emissions at source Carbon sequestration (capture) through afforestation, soil processes and ocean systems and management plays a fundamental role in the absorption of carbon and use

of carbon for photosynthesis (IPCC, 2001) Mitigation activities are often termed as protective strategies” which are costly, faster and requires a given level of technology or innovation in reducing likelihood and degree of climate change impacts

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Adaptation activities on the other hand, in reducing climate risks and vulnerability includes;

managing the change that occurs as mitigation strategies are implemented It also includes physical adaptation such as; construction of dykes, build up sedimentation, elevated sand bags, furniture and other materials as defense systems, sea wall and so on against climate events like; floods These measures can be initiated at individual households or community levels which may be enhancing socio-economic systems which includes; enhancing infrastructure, drainage systems, health and educational facilities, port construction, physical defense systems, sea defense walls or systems, resettlement or relocation schemes from flood prone areas, mangroves and so on Adaptation is often termed as a “self-insurance strategy” which is less expensive, requires time, process and is widely used (IPCC, 2007)

2.6.1 Concept of Adaptation

Adaptation is often linked to adverse impacts of climate change Individuals cope by temporally relocating to live with relatives and friends when displaced by floods (ILGS and IIED, 2012) In terms of adaptation, some people develop defense walls, dykes, and sand bags around the water pathways or courses to prevent water from entering their homes Adaptation

is a process that involves policy driven institutions and individuals’ involvement in making It was very necessary to explore individual knowledge and perception in the field to compliment concepts and findings from other researches and existing policy documents (Afornorpe, 2016) Adaptation entails anticipatory, autonomous and planned measures Distinguished from mitigation as managing the unavoidable whilst mitigation is managing the avoidable which emanates from anthropogenic activities

decision-Adaptation strategies targeted towards reducing vulnerability is more sustainable (Gallopin, 2006) IPCC (2000) defines adaptation as adjustments in ecological, social or economic systems, in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects In line with this definition, Gallopin (2006) states that adaptation to the effects of climate change should incorporate response to climate change hazards such as flooding and reducing extent of exposure to and building resilience against further incidence through strengthening the necessary infrastructural capacities

Jha et al (2012), discussed adaptation options extensively, by delving into these areas as summarized by Afornorpe in a study conducted on vulnerability and adaptation to flooding in Accra:

 Use of probability models to determine vulnerability and potential damages of climate change hazards

 Using maps to show communities more affected by disasters in order to determine what strategies are best in adapting to the disasters in those areas

 Development of early warning systems

 Awareness creation and education

 Land use planning and settlement development

 Drainage system development

Jha et al asserts that, mapping clearly the areas that are affected and prone to disaster, is an approach deemed more economical, realistic and action focused The capacity to adapt varies considerably among regions, countries, and socioeconomic groups over time The most vulnerable regions and communities are those that are highly exposed to hazardous climate change effects, and have limited adaptive capacity Countries with limited economic resources, low levels of technology, poor information and skills, poor infrastructure, unstable or weak institutions, and inequitable empowerment and access to resources have little capacity to adapt and are highly vulnerable (Smit and Pilifosova, 2001)

Moreover, adaptive capacity is the ability of a system to adjust to climate change, to moderate potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences (Owaygen, 2010) Adaptive measures also differ based on demographic, ecological and socioeconomic characteristics of the people The ILGS and IIED (2012) noted that at the individual level, residents make prior arrangements for any natural disaster, which routinely occur every year People resort to using blocks, stones and furniture to create higher platforms, stay with family and friends during disturbances or disaster periods among others as coping mechanisms For instance; during floods or heavy rainstorms, neighbors adopt a number of coping strategies Many try to draw each other’s attention to the upsurge of flood, especially during heavy downpours of rain In the process, they help each other to carry property in and out of houses before, during and after floods (Action Aid International, 2006) Some residents undertake collective work to open up drainage channels while others temporarily move to lodgings and public places such as mosques sport stadiums and churches until floodwaters recede Some also make temporary outlets to ease floodwater movement/flow near their homes (Action Aid International, 2006)

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Most of these efforts are coping strategies and not sustainable adaptation options responding

to the unpredictable nature of rainstorms and the potential increase in floods in recent times Limitations to these household and communities adaptation strategies can enhance social capital in coping with disasters but is short-lived

2.6.2 Traditional Knowledge: an adaptive capacity tool

Traditional knowledge about a location and how to produce and take care of natural resources can contribute to adaptive capacity Families have often been exposed to climate hazards in the past and have ideas on what to do to decrease their sensitivity to these hazards, and to adapt to their potential impacts (Mouat et al, 2006; UNCCD, 2006) These traditional ideas can lower the costs and be more culturally appropriate for villagers In ensuring some sense of ownership, sustainability and acceptability of solutions or measures to enhance resilience, there is the need

to ensure synergy between local and scientific knowledge to develop the best mechanisms with proper and consistent evaluation after implementation of adaptive measures

2.7 Measuring Effectiveness and sustainability of Climate Change adaptive strategies 2.7.1 The no regret strategy approach

Rizvi et.al (2014) per IUCN Ecosystem based approach (EbA) concept in their key note address technical paper presentation, highlighted some key principles and core values of the “no regret strategy” The “no regret strategy” concept can be termed as a strategy, developed in response

to threats posed by climate change hazards in a particular geographical area, within a given period of time, thereby selecting appropriate measures (both long and short capacity) that makes an area more prepared and with the capacity to cope with any event These measures developed per this principle or concept are not meant to hinder growth and development of an area The approach forms an integral part of EbA which adapts environmentally based strategies and options through a holistic climate risk reduction approach in reducing negative impacts arising from natural phenomena The paper notes key principles embedded in this approach which takes into account; stakeholder participation and consultation at various levels, promotes synergy of indigenous or traditional and scientific knowledge at different stages of formulation and implementation of policies, plans, programs and projects as well as decreasing the likelihood of maladaptation, ineffectiveness of initiated strategies or plans by taking a holistic view into the complexities of climate change phenomena or natural phenomena to develop appropriate solutions that will enhance sustainability by reducing vulnerability and enhancing resilience and adaptive capacity

This approach is appropriate and effective in developing local adaptation strategies due to its scope of looking at issues in the short and long run The approach tackles key issues which stems a particular community and the encompassing nature of the problem and its associated impacts The concept is known to have no harm or serve as a bottleneck to development and hence, its extensiveness and participatory nature factoring and mainstreaming a number of inputs in its formulation and implementation makes it effective With case studies and evidence

in Nepal, Morocco, Uganda, Senegal, Peru and so on (Rizvi et.al, 2014) The approach is effective when fully realized but requires time, cost-effective mechanisms, slows down decision making due to differing motives, views and knowledge on the part of relevant stakeholders and actors One major challenge of this approach is the complexity of natural phenomena which requires taking into account a range of several sectors which maybe directly

or indirectly affected by climate change impacts

2.7.1.1 Case of Nador and Berkane in Morocco

Khattabi and Jobbins (2011) in their study entitled; “Vulnerability and adaption of traditional fisheries to climate change” in Morocco, a study conducted at Nador & Berkane between 2007 and 2010 using the no regret strategy approach to determine the social, economic, environmental and technical viability of local adaptation strategies in the aforementioned area The study delved into adaptation of Climate change in North-eastern part of Morocco looking

at coastal adaptation to climate change impacts not just fisheries Per the survey, fishers raised concerns in like; increased frequency of floods, change in seasonal patterns which entails wind patterns, fish spawning and crop harvest Adaptation strategy was participatory or action based through which relevant stakeholders capacity were built on impacts, need for strategy, options and resource availability The Moroccan locally developed strategy in Nador and Berkane had feasible elements that tackled economic, environmental, socially acceptable issues, and technically viable options with resource availability to reduce vulnerability to Climate Change Nine (9) thematic areas tackling the “No regret” strategic classification concept which looks at both short term and long term measures were developed The locally designed strategy was accompanied by key measures like; implementation of coastal zone management, greater consultation and synergy of both traditional or local and scientific knowledge for coastal planning-development with more research to inform better decision making Strategy highlighting the nine (9) thematic areas reflects local conditions which are vulnerable or maybe

placed under Climate change stress The strategy meant to tackle resilience by creating

livelihood alternatives for fishers, improving safety both offshore and coastal zone and

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improvement of fishery management & enforcement Also, the adaptive capacity of the

strategy delved into research, creating more awareness and strengthening fisheries

organizations whereas specific adaptations delved into flood defense mechanisms and port

redevelopments In essence, the strategy is more anticipatory and has short term remedial measures to tackle the impacts of climate change that may occur The strategy observed caution and effective planning to mitigate impacts or reduce vulnerability in order to avoid mal-adaptation when proper and in-depth planning and studies is done to formulate and implement the strategy (Khattabi and Jobbins, 2011) The study called for further research in determining effectiveness and progress of the local adaptation plan as outlined In the case of the two coastal areas in Morocco

This study would liaise some of the local adaptation strategies in the area to the “no regret strategy” approach Vulnerable groups and institutions in the area will aid in using descriptive statistics to determine the effectiveness and sustainability of individual households and

community initiated strategies meant to enhancing resilience, adaptive capacity and specific adaptations In addition, the concept of social capital and Participatory Rural Appraisal

(PRA) tools particularly pair-wise ranking will be used to determine the level of proximity of institutions which assist the area prior or after the occurrence of a climate change event or natural disaster

2.8 Constraints to Adaptation

There are constraints to adaptation arising from uncertainties of future climate and socioeconomic conditions, as well as financial, technological, institutional, social capital, and individual cognitive limits The opportunities for planning and implementing public climate change adaptation strategies are reliant on effective strategies as well as proper mechanisms in enhancing these areas to overcome these bottlenecks The main policy action to reduce sensitivity through livelihood diversification has often failed in developing countries, where people are trapped by poverty, lack of skills, access to capital and other critical resources As illustrated in the figure below, effective

Integration of the key constraints when planning holistically, can make adaptation strategies effective, thereby reducing the level of vulnerability of ecosystems in totality

Figure 2.3 Key Adaptation constraints to climate change

Source: Adapted and modified from Klein et al 2014; IPCC AR5, 2014

Figure 2.3 depicts key adaptation constraints to climate change examined by Klein et al (2014)

In their study entitled; “Adaptation opportunities, constraints and limits” to climate vulnerability and adaptation in chapter 16 of IPCC fifth assessment report, they highlight key adaptation constraints that derails the effective implementation of specific adaptation strategies Hence, once adaptive capacity is not fully realized, being a function or component

of vulnerability, can affect the degree at which a particular group of people or sector in a particular geographical area at a given time are prone to any climate change impact

2.8.1 Physical Constraints

The capacity of human population and natural systems and processes to adapt to climate change can be linked to physical environment which entails all atmospheric components Physical constraints may be attributed to physical characteristics of some places like; coastlines and characteristics of specific geographical locations with aesthetic features Physical capital which constitutes infrastructure and machinery to manage risks and its associated impacts in the environment (Adger et al, 2007) Built-environment and need for continual maintenance can constrain future adaptation options and their cost of implementation

Climate change and its associated impacts may affect groundwater systems and supply of freshwater systems Enterprises or sectors that are heavily reliant on water for their day to day activities and productivity may have to cope with such changes that may affect adaptation in