Using mindmaps as a tool to teach english vocabulary to 11th graders

This leads to the implication that the mind mapping can improve high school students’ vocabulary retention and is promising to vocabulary teaching and learning... 1 Rationale The import

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

VINH UNIVERSITY - -

NGÔ THỊ CẢNH

USING MINDMAPS AS A TOOL TO TEACH

MASTER THESIS IN EDUCATION

NGHE AN- 2017

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

VINH UNIVERSITY - -

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STATEMENTS OF AUTHORSHIP

I certify that this thesis is the result of my own study and that it has not been submitted to any other universities and institution wholly and partially All statements of my thesis which are not my own are written in quotation and can be shown in the list of references

Nghe An, 2017 Author

Ngo Thi Canh

School Two instruments: (1) the tests on vocabulary knowledge, (2) the questionnaire on the students’ perceptions towards mind mapping were employed

to collect both quantitative and qualitative data The results indicated that the students in the experimental group outperformed those in the control condition in retaining word meanings The results also proved that the students had positive attitudes towards mind mapping This leads to the implication that the mind mapping can improve high school students’ vocabulary retention and is promising

to vocabulary teaching and learning

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis would not have been completed without the support of many people First, and foremost I would like to express my deepest thanks to my supervisor Ph.D Tran Ba Tien for his assistance, encouragement and guidance

I would like to convey my thanks to all my teachers at the Post Graduate Faculty, Department of Foreign Languages, Vinh University whose fundamental knowledge about langue teaching and learning is of great importance to the achievement of my academic study

Finally, I would like to express the warmest gratitude to my colleagues, friends, students, especially my beloved family I feel greatly indebted to them for their essential help and encouragement

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ABBREVIATIONS

CA : Communication Apprehension CLT : Communicative Language Teaching EFL : English as Foreign Language

ESL : English as Second Language L1 : First Language

L2 : Second Language

MM : Mind mapping

CG : Control Group

EG : Experimental Group

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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STATEMENTS OF AUTHORSHIP i

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

ABBREVIATIONS iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1 1 Rationale 1

1 2 Aim of the study 2

1.3 Research questions 3

1.4 Scope of the study 3

1.5 Methods of the study 3

1.6 Design of the Study 3

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 5

2.1 Vocabulary learning 5

2.1.1 What is vocabulary? 5

2.1.2 What is involved in knowing a word? 6

2.1.3 The importance of vocabulary 7

2.1.4 Kinds of vocabulary 7

2.1.5 Vocabulary retention 14

2.2 Vocabulary teaching 16

2.2.1 Multimodality 17

2.2.2 Multimodality and the English language teaching 18

2.2.3 The application of multimodal teaching to English vocabulary teaching 19

2.3 Mind maps 20

2.3.1 What is a mind map? 20

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2.3.2 Classifications of mind maps 21

2.3.3 Characteristics of mind maps 24

2.3.4 Advantages of mind maps 25

2.3.5 How to draw a mind map 25

2.3.6 Applying mind maps to teaching and learning 26

2.3.7 The applications of mind mapping to teaching a foreign language 27

2.3.8 The applications of mind mapping to teaching vocabulary 29

2.3.8.3 Activities in teaching with mind maps 33

Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY 37

3.1 Research questions 37

3.2 Research design 37

3.3 The participants 37

3.4 Materials 38

3.5 Research instruments 38

3.5.1 Tests on vocabulary knowledge (SEE APPENDIX 1) 39

3.5.2 Questionnaire on the students’ perceptions towards mind mapping (SEE APPENDIX 2) 40

3.6 Data analysis 43

Chapter 4 FINDINGS AND DISSCUSSION 44

4.1 Pretest and Posttest 44

4.1.1 Pre-test 44

4.1.2 Post-test 46

4.1.3 Improvement of the control and experiment groups in vocabulary knowledge 49

4.2 Students’ feedbacks on the application of MM in vocabulary lessons (from questionnaires) 54

Chapter 5 CONCLUSION 58

5.1 Conclusion 58

5.2 Pedagogical implications and suggestions 59

5.2.1 Limitation of the study 59

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5.2.2 Suggestions for further research 60

REFERENCES 61 APPENDIX 1 I APPENDIX 2 VI APPENDIX 3 XI APPENDIX 4 XII APPENDIX 5 XIII

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LIST OF TABLES

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Table 3 1: The Numbers of the Students in the two groups 38

Table 3 2: Examples from the first part of the tests 39

Table 3 3: Examples from the second part of the tests 40

Table 3 4: Procedures of the research 41

Table 4 1: Means and standard deviations of participants’ pre-test measured by score of two groups 44 Table 4 2: Numbers of students in score levels according to pretest results of the control and experimental group 45

Table 4 3: Means and standard deviations of participants’ post-test measured by score of two groups 46

Table 4 4: Numbers of students in score levels according to posttest results of the control and experimental group 48

Table 4 5: Pre and post score on the vocabulary knowlegde for the control group 49

Table 4 6: Pre and post score on the vocabulary knowlegde for the experimental group 50

Table 4 7: Gain on the vocabulary knowlegde tests for the control group and experimental group 51

Table 4 8: Numbers of students in pre and post gain on the vocabulary knowlegde for the control group and experimental group 52

Table 4 9: The students’ vocabulary knowledge in the vocabulary tests for two groups 53

Table 4 10: Question 1 & 2 in questionnaires and students’ answers 55

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LIST OF FIGURES

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Figure 2 1: Network tree of U.S currency 22

Figure 2 2: Event chain 22

Figure 2 3: Cycle concept map 23

Figure 2 4: Spider concept map 24

Figure 2 5: Mind map on “Transport” 32

Figure 2 6: Mind map on “Family week ahead” 33

Figure 4 1: Numbers of students in score levels according to the pretest results of the control group 46 Figure 4 2: Numbers of students in score levels according to the posttest results of the control group 48

Figure 4 3: Numbers of students in pre and post gain on the vocabulary knowlegde for the control group 52

Figure 4 4: The students’ vocabulary knowledge in the vocabulary tests for two groups 53

Figure 4 5: Students’ interest with the application of MM 55

Figure 4 6: Do you want to learn vocabulary with MM any longer? 56

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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1 1 Rationale

The importance of vocabulary in English as a second language (ESL) or English as a foreign language (EFL) learning process has been widely recognized Much of the research indicates that enlarging language vocabulary has been one of the objectives of many EFL learners When learning English, students in my teaching context, Trieu Son 3 High School, also try hard to improve their vocabulary knowledge However, students have to cope with many difficulties in learning vocabulary, especially in memorizing and recalling the word meanings Low vocabulary proficiency makes an obstacle for them in acquiring language knowledge and participating in the activities in class It is frustrating when they discover that they cannot communicate effectively because they do not know enough words they need Students usually forget the words they learnt or fail to use words communicatively They cannot get words into long-term memory and recall them when necessary Although they spend most of their time learning vocabulary, the results are disappointing

One of the reasons for students’ low vocabulary retention and retrieval can be addressed as their learning habits Their learning habits such as writing down words

on a piece of paper, learning words by heart, heavily depending on wordlists in textbook, passively waiting for teacher’s explanation for new words seem to be ineffective and make them bored with learning vocabulary In order to memorize new items, students often use rote memorization techniques As they reported, they used to write down the words for several times, to speak aloud the words and to make sentences with words They admitted that they fail to recall most of the words they had learnt before as there were no clues It can be seen that students’ bad memory is due to lack of appropriate vocabulary memorizing strategies They are not provided with different vocabulary learning techniques and are not encouraged

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to use them They also have no chance to work with words in a deeper process This

is a pity because working with words can be enjoyable and satisfying for learners The questions posed to teachers of English at Trieu Son 3 High School are how to help students memorize words effectively and how to motivate them in vocabulary lessons Teachers can encourage their students to systematically record vocabulary that they taught in class They also provide them with strategies transfer this record into their long-term memory so that each item is added to the repertoire

of words and phrases that they can understand and use when necessary

There is a wide variety of previous research into the effects of mind mapping on vocabulary memorizing: Ward and Annita (1998), Pikula (1987), DeCarrico (2001), Margosein, Pascarella and Pflaum (1982) and Vogt (1983) The above research indicated the positive effects of mind mapping on students’ vocabulary memorizing

In my teaching context at Trieu Son 3 High School, the English teachers seldom use mind mapping in teaching vocabulary Besides, there was not yet any empirical study on the use of mind mapping in vocabulary teaching and learning at Trieu Son 3 High School

For all the reasons mentioned above, I have decided to choose “Using

mindmaps as a tool to teach English vocabulary to 11 th graders” as the topic of

my MA thesis

1 2 Aim of the study

Multimodality has long been proposed by various researchers to be an approach that involves different aspects in interaction, including verbal and written language, pictures, graphics, speech… (Baldry&Thibault, 2006) In the sense of language teaching, multimodality has been proved to be beneficial to students’ learning process and help stimulate learners with a motivating environment When applied to the teaching of vocabulary as an aspect of language teaching, multimodality is often discussed from the angle of using visuals in teaching such as mind map, images, pictures, graphics, etc This study, which focuses on vocabulary teaching methods, is going to investigate the application of multimodality to the

In an attempt to achieve the above-presented aims, the study should to answer

the following research questions:

1 How does mindmapping affect students’ motivation in learning English vocabulary?

2 Does mindmapping facilitate students’ retention of new words?

1.4 Scope of the study

The research is focuses on using mind-map to teach English vocabulary to 11thgraders at Trieu Son 3 high school

1.5 Methods of the study

This study involves 40 students at Trieu Son 3 high school The study employs vocabulary test (pre-test and post-test) and survey questionnaire as the principal method of data collection Data are analyzed statistically, resulting in percentage of items The data are presented in tables and figures in Chapter Four More details about research methodology are provided in Chapter Three

1.6 Design of the Study

The study consists of the following parts:

Chapter 1 Introduction: This part introduce the issues leading to the study,

including rationale, aims, methods, scope, and organization of the study

Chapter 2: Literature review: Theoretical background relevant to the topic

and surveys of articles, books and other resources relevant to a particular the study topic be presented This part also provide description, summary, and critical evaluation of each work quoted

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Chapter 3 Methodology: This part presents the detailed procedure of the

study: the methodology, population selection, data collection and analysis

Chapter 4 Findings and Discussions: The part deals with the findings drawn

out from the analysis of data The findings and discussion are based on the study about difficulties in teaching and learning English vocabulary and the solutions for

these problems

Chapter 5 Conclusion: Main points and contents of the study are summarized

based on the results of the study The implication of the study and the

recommendation for further research will be presented

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Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

This chapter focuses on the literature review and theoretical background of the study It includes a number of important theoretical terms related to vocabulary, vocabulary teaching, mind map and previous studies related to the research will also be mentioned

2.1 Vocabulary learning

2.1.1 What is vocabulary?

So far there have been a lot of definitions of vocabulary Vocabulary is defined as words in a specific language or freestanding items of language that have meaning (McCarthy, 1990) Ur (1996) defined vocabulary roughly as “the words we teach in the foreign language” Besides, vocabulary is broadly defined as knowledge

of words and word meanings (Lehr et al., 2004) According to Lehr et al., vocabulary is more complicated than this definition suggests Words not only come

in oral forms which include the words that can be recognized and used in listening and speaking, but also in print forms of reading and writing In addition, word knowledge also comes in two forms: receptive and productive Receptive vocabulary refers to words that can be recognized in reading and listening Productive vocabulary indicates words that can be used in speaking and writing (Lehr et al., 2004) Therefore, vocabulary is understood as knowledge of word spelling, pronunciation, collocations and appropriateness (Nation, 1990) Pyles (1970), from another perspective, confirmed that vocabulary is the focus of language with its sounds and meaning, which interlock to allow us to communicate with one another

As discussed above, vocabulary can be seen in many different ways Vocabulary refers to words or a set of words in a language or knowledge of words regarding its forms, meanings and how to use it accurately in the context In other

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words, vocabulary refers to the words, compounds and idioms in a language that can be used to convey and receive information in oral and written communication

2.1.2 What is involved in knowing a word?

When it comes to vocabulary, it surely is the first step toward learning a foreign language A sentence is usually made up of numerous words Without any concepts of grammar, learners may guess the meaning of a sentence if the vocabulary is comprehensible to them Likewise, learners of a foreign language are likely to get their messages across by putting all the words together, even though not in a grammatical, correct order Therefore, vocabulary serves as the foundation for language learners in communication However, mastering numerous vocabulary lists to use in communication is not always easy for language learners For some students, vocabulary has always been one of the obstacles that hinder their English learning Learners may have different problems in learning vocabulary Some are capable of recognizing the word in reading but fail to spell it out Some are able to spell the word out in writing, yet they mispronounce the word in speaking Still, others can say the word and spell it out perfectly, but surprisingly, they may not know the meaning of the word Indeed, to learn is one thing; to know is another

In order to know a new word, students need to take great efforts Nation (2001) pointed out that in order to know a word, many aspects are involved Nation distinguished vocabulary knowledge into receptive and productive The former refers to the ability to understand a word while listening or reading The latter means the ability to use a word in speaking or writing Sun (2007) introduced an idea that vocabulary gaining develops along a linear continuum, and that the concept denies the dichotomy that vocabulary knowledge is either known or unknown On the both ends of the continuum are one’s receptive vocabulary knowledge as well as one’s productive knowledge This model assumes that for a word to be a productive one, it must be a receptive one first (Melka, 1997; Palmberg, 1987; Pigott, 1981, as cited in Sun, 2007)

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2.1.3 The importance of vocabulary

Regarding the importance of vocabulary, Krashen (1989) pointed out that “a large vocabulary is, of course, essential for mastery of a language” as “without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed” (Wilkins, 1972)

Rubin and Thompson (1994) considered the significant role of vocabulary in communication as stating that “one cannot speak, understand, read or write a foreign language without knowing a lot of words Vocabulary learning is at the heart of mastering a foreign language” Nguyen and Khuat (2003) also accepted that vocabulary knowledge plays an important role in learning a foreign language Vocabulary is one element that links the four skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing all together Vocabulary is a core component of language proficiency and provides much of the basis for how well learners listen, speak, read, and write (Richards and Renandya, 2002)

In fact, vocabulary is a means to support communication It is a necessary component of language instruction In order to communicate well in a foreign language, learners should acquire an adequate numbers of words and should know how to use them accurately When emphasizing the importance of vocabulary in communication, Della and Hocking (1992) also claimed that with a little grammar, the learners can have a little smooth communication, but without vocabulary, it is difficult for others to understand the information the learners want to express For this reason, a lack of good grammatical structures may not interrupt communication However, if we lack vocabulary, there is no successful communication With a good knowledge of vocabulary, learners may feel confident in communication, and it contributes to the success in communication However, the question to arise is which words are necessary for learners to know and how to remember these words

2.1.4 Kinds of vocabulary

Thornbury (2002: 3) states that knowing how words are described and categorized can help us understand the decisions that syllabus planners, materials writers and teacher make when it comes to the teaching of vocabulary There are some kinds of vocabulary:

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Noun

Nouns are words that used to name a person, animal, place, or thing Seaton (2007: 5) states every name is called a noun Azar (2006: 158) suggest that a noun is used as the subject of sentence, as the object of verb and a noun is also used as the object of a preposition

There are some kinds of nouns:

1 Countable nouns; are the nouns can be counted Azar (2003: 313) states that countable nouns can be counted with numbers, can be preceded by a/an in the singular, has a plural form ending in -sor –es Ex: one pen, a cat, box, table, etc

2 Uncountable noun; are the nouns can be not counted Ex: milk, sugar, oil, etc McCarty (1994: 52) states that uncountable nouns are not normally used with a(n) or the plural, e.g information, not an information, or some information

3 Singular nouns; are single nouns Sargeant (2007: 11) states when you are talking about just one thing or person, use a singular noun Ex: a car, a pen, an orange, etc

4 Plural nouns; are nouns which more than one Seaton (2007: 23) states that when you are talking about two or more people, animals, places, or things, use plural nouns Ex: some books, many girls, two knives, etc

5 Common nouns; are general words which show the class or type for people, animals, places or things Sargeant (2007: 7) states that words for people, places and things are called common nouns Ex: water, teacher, city, etc

6 Proper Nouns; are names for particular people, places or things Sargeant (2007: 8) states that the names of particular people, places and things are proper nouns They always begin with a capital letter Ex: Lisa, America, Sunday, etc

7 Concrete Nouns; are names for things that can be felt, groped or seen Ex: sweet, water, noisy, etc

8 Abstract Noun; are names for things that can be not felt, groped or seen

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McCarty (1994: 22) suggest that an abstract noun is one which is used to mean

an idea, experience or quality rather than an object Ex: happiness, friendship, agreement, etc

9 Collective Nouns; are words that used to name for group of peoples, animals or things Sargeant (2007: 17) states that words for groups of people, animals or things are called collective nouns Ex: family, a brood of chickens, a school of fish, etc

Pronoun

Pronoun is the words that used to replace the noun when we want to refer to people or things without continually repeating their names Seaton (2007: 44) states pronoun is a word that takes the place of a common noun or a proper noun Azar (2006: 164) suggest that pronoun has the same meaning as a noun It is divided into some types as follow

1 Personal pronouns; are the pronouns which function as subjects and object

in the sentences As subject, such as; I, you, they, we, she, he, it And as object such as; me, you, them, us, her, him and it Seaton (2007: 44) states that the words I, you, he, she, it, we and they are called personal pronouns They take the place of nouns and are used as the subject of the verb in a sentence Seaton (2007: 45) states that the words me, you, him, her, it, us and them are also personal pronouns They also take the place of nouns These pronouns are used as the object of the verb in a sentence

2 Possessive pronoun; are the pronouns that show possession, such as: my, your, their, our, his, her and Its

3 Reflexive pronouns; are the pronouns that refers to another noun or pronoun

in the sentence They are also show reflection of the pronouns themselves, such as: myself, yourself, themselves, herself, etc Seaton (2007: 47) states that The words myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves and themselves are called reflexive pronouns They refer to the person or animal that is the subject of the verb

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4 Demonstrative pronoun; are the pronoun that used as word change indicator Seaton (2007: 49) states the words this, these, that and those are called demonstrative pronouns They are showing words, such as; this, that, these, those, some, etc

5 Interrogative pronoun; are the pronoun that used in question Ex: what, where, when, etc Seaton (2007: 48) states that the words who, whom, whose, what and which are called interrogative pronouns These pronouns are used to ask questions

Verb

Verbs are words that show an action or an event or being Whatever we are doing can be expressed by using a verb Jeremy Harmer (1998: 37) suggest that verb is a word (or group of words) which is used in describing an action, experience

or state Verb classified into three types such as:

1 Transitive verb is a verb that needs an object Redman (1997: 38) states that many phrasal verbs are transitive and need a direct object Ex: catch, drive, eat, etc

2 Intransitive verb is a verb that does not need an object Redman (1997: 38) states that some phrasal verbs are intransitive and do not need a direct object Ex: cry, laugh, sleep, etc

3.Auxiliary verb is a verb that helps another verb or the principle verb to express action or condition or state of being Sargeant (2007: 88) states that auxiliary, or helping verbs, are used before infinitives to add a different meaning Ex: is, am, are, was, were, etc

Adjective

Adjective is word that used to explain noun by describing, identifying, or quantifying Jeremy Harmer (1998: 37) suggests that adjective is a word that gives more information about a noun or pronoun Ron Cowan (2008: 238) states that adjective describe the properties of an entity that a noun represents Sargeant (2007: 32) states that adjectives describe nouns and pronouns They give you more information about people, places, and things There are some types of adjective:

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1 Qualitative adjective is used to explain the situation of things, people, place

or animal Such as; big, fat, far, brave, etc

2 Proper adjectives; they describes a person or things with a certain name such as: Indonesian, Turkish, English and etc

3 Quantitative Adjectives; they describes quantity of things (how much) such as; much, little, a lot of, some, any, enough, etc

1 Adverb of manner; are words that used to explain how something happen

In general adverbs of manner are formed by adding suffix –LY at adjectives It

is used after or before object on a sentence Such as; normal, fast, hard, etc

2 Adverb of time; are words that used to explain the time when something happens, such as; now, today, tomorrow, everyday, etc The adverbs are used on the first and the last of sentences

3 Adverb of place; are words that used to explain the location where something happens, such as: here, there, around, beside, near, etc It is placed on after verb, object, and adverb of manner

4 Adverb of degree; are the adverb that clarifies the extent of something or event, such as: only, much, quite, almost, very, rather, etc The adverbs are placed after “To Be”, before all of verb, and before adjective and adverb that explained

5 Adverb of Frequency; are the adverb that used to explain often or seldom something done The adverbs are placed after “To Be”, before or after verbs, after object, after auxiliary, before the first word of a verb phrase if we want to explain the adverbs Such as: always, seldom, often, never, etc

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6 Interrogative adverb; are the adverbs that follow to form question on a sentence The adverbs are placed on the first of questions Such as: when, why, where, how

7 Relative adverb; are the adverb that used to be as link on sentences or clause The adverbs placed after the first sentence of clause Such as: when, where, why, etc

8 Inversion; are the adverb which have negative meaning followed by verb and subject Such as: never again, neither, nowhere, etc

Prepositions

Preposition is words that used to connect one word with the others Seaton (2007: 132) states preposition is words that connect one thing with another, showing how they are related Sargeant (2007: 101) states that prepositions are words that show a connection between other words For instance: in, by, between, through, at, for, next to, up to, in front of, as well as, etc There are some kinds of preposition:

1 Preposition of place are used to show where something happen Sargeant (2007: 102) suggest that some prepositions show where something happens They are called prepositions of place Ex: under, inside, beside, etc

2 Preposition of time are used to show when something happen Sargeant (2007: 102) states that some prepositions show when something happens They are called prepositions of time Ex: at, on, in, during, etc

3 Preposition of direction are used to show where something is going Sargeant (2007: 103) states that some prepositions show where something is going They are called prepositions of direction Ex: along, towards, out of, etc

Conjunctions

Seaton (2007:135) write that a conjunction is a linking word such as and, or, but Conjunctions are used to connect words or sentences Sargeant (2007: 109) suggest that conjunctions are words used to link words, phrases or clauses There are some types of conjunctions;

2 Interrogative determiners are used to ask about people or things

Ex: what, which, whose Sargeant (2007: 49) states that the words what, which and whose are used before nouns to ask questions Interrogative determiners appear just before nouns

3 Possessive determiners are used to say who something belongs to Ex: my, your, his, her, their Sargeant (2007: 49) suggests that the words my, your, his, her, its, our and their are used before nouns to show ownership They are called possessive determiners

4 Quantifying determiners are used to tell quantity of things, animals, or people without giving an exact number Sargeant (2007: 47) states that words such

as many, much and several tell about quantity without giving an exact number They are called quantifying determiners Ex: a few children, both brothers, several friends, etc

5 Numbers are used to tell how many people or things there are

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Sargeant (2007: 50) suggest that numbers are determiners, too Numbers are often used before nouns to tell you exactly how many people or things there are Ex: two dogs, a hundred years, etc

2.1.5 Vocabulary retention

One of the significance in vocabulary learning process is not always students’ comprehending word meaning or spelling, but vocabulary retention Retention is defined as “the ability to retain facts and figures in memory” Vocabulary retention,

in a similar way, can be referred to as the storage ofvocabulary in memory, whichbecomes available for usage when needed The efficiency of vocabulary learning can be measured by the extent to which students can remember the words that they’ve already learned to apply in the productive or receptive language learning Important as it is, it is worth spending time figuring out the factors that can affect students’ vocabulary retention

According to different researchers, retention of vocabulary is affected by three following factors: memory, language exposure and effective vocabulary learning strategies There is a close relationship among these three factors

2.1.5.1 Memory

Short-term and long-term memory

Cognitive psychologists divide memory into short-term and long-term memory according to duration of memory retention and capacity of recalling information after the original input Long-term memory retains information for use

in anything but the immediate future Short-term memory is used to store or hold information while it is being processed The object of vocabulary learning is to transfer the lexical information from the short-term memory to the more permanent long-term memory (Schmitt, 2000)

According to Gairns and Redman (1986), long-term memory is seemingly inexhaustible and can accommodate any amount of information It is generally acknowledged that we need to work much harder to commit information to long-term memory, and the type of repetition that is essential to short-term retention may

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not be adequate for long-term retention However, the distinction between term retention and long-term retention is not always clear-cut Information entering short-term memory may pass quite effortlessly into long-term memory, and some learners may find repetition a very effective way of transferring information into long-term memory

short-When learning vocabulary, learners often have problems with retention of words for a long time They usually fail to put the words into long-term memory In the present study, short-term memory is considered as the initial memory of the word meaning at the end of the lessons whereas the number of words can be recalled at the next lessons or at the end of the study is referred as ones from long -term memory because the participants in the study have only three forty-five-minute lessons per week

2.1.5.2 Language exposure

While the term memory more often refers to later storage and retrieval of

information, language exposure refers more to processes in the initial acquisition or encoding of information There are many situations that a learner can discover the meaning of a new word or phrase such as: through the written text, through hearing

it used, or through other members’ explanations However, it can hardly be certain that those vocabulary items and their meanings will be remembered as getting to know the meaning of a new vocabulary item is not the same as remembering that meaning

Joe et al (1996) gave out three important processes that may lead to

vocabulary being retained These processes can be viewed as attention, the process

in which learners need to be aware of needed useful language item (Schmitt and

Frota, 1986, Ellis, 1990, cited in Joe et.al, 1996); retrieval – the process after the

word is noticed and its meaning comprehended in the textual input to the task, and

if that word is subsequently retrieved either receptively or productively during a

task, the memory of that word will be strengthened; and generation, the process

that leads to a word being remembered

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2.1.5.3 Effective vocabulary learning strategies

Vocabulary learning strategies is the third factor contributing to vocabulary retention Language teachers have been placing great emphasis on teaching English vocabulary However, the results of mastering vocabulary are not desirable, because words sometimes can be forgotten very easily and won’t last long Therefore, it is of great necessity to adopt effective vocabulary learning strategies Like general learning strategies, English vocabulary learning strategies include those techniques that help learners remember what they have learned - their storage and retention of new information

Identifying effective vocabulary learning strategies is always a controversial issue that attracts a lot of research attention Politzer and McGroarty (1995, cited in Schmitt, 1997) warn that no strategy should be considered inherently good or bad but it depends on the context in which they are used The context here is comprised

of many variables, including proficiency level, task, text, language modality, background knowledge, context of learning, target language, learner characteristics and culture, etc

It is important that language teacher is well aware of the factors that affect students’ vocabulary retention and the characteristics of the teaching context so as

to have suitable teaching methods to improve it

If exercises are to teach rather than test, learners must recognize some answers and deduce others by a process of elimination, using linguistic clues, the group's shared knowledge, and a small element of plain guesswork

When working with collocations, words should be presented in descending order of information content This would make the first examples the strongest collocations

Collocations should be presented in context It is not a good idea to have learners match de-contextualized words

Here is a list of the basic exercise types (from Hasbún, 2005):

Identifying chunks: This is a fundamental skill which aids language acquisition Matching: Parts of collocations, expressions, lines of stereotypic dialogue Completing: Blank spaces correspond to partner words from fixed collocations Categorizing: Use categories learners perceive or follow some guideline suggested by the teacher

Sequencing: Learners are given expressions or verbs and are asked to put them

in the most likely order

Deleting: Learners circle the word that does not belong

In the present study, in light of the lexical approach, communicative approach will be employed with some adaptation

2.2.1 Multimodality

Multimodality is a theory of communication and social semiotics Multimodality describes communication practices in terms of the textual, aural, linguistic, spatial, and visual resources - or modes - used to compose messages Where media are concerned, multimodality is the use of several modes

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(media) to create a single artifact The collection of these modes, or elements, contributes to how multimodality affects different rhetorical situations, or opportunities for increasing an audience's reception of an idea or concept Everything from the placement of images to the organization of the content creates meaning This is the result of a shift from isolated text being relied on as the primary source of communication, to the image being utilized more frequently in the digital age While multimodality as an area of academic study did not gain traction until the twentieth century, all communication, literacy, and composing practices are and always have been multimodal

2.2.2 Multimodality and the English language teaching

Multimodality means three or more symbols are involved in the interaction, including verbal and written language, picture, graphics, space and other symbol resources which could construct meaning (Baldry&Thibault, 2006)

A new term multimodal teaching was put forward in 1996, which creates a

precedent of applying multimedia to language teaching As a new type teaching theory, multimodal teaching is inclined to use all kinds of channels and means to mobilize a variety of senses of students into the process of learning This kind of teaching approach attaches great importance to students' multiliteracies

Haijing (2015) made a comparison between traditional English teaching and the multimodal one, pointing out some benefits of multimodal one over the traditional one He claims that a distinctive feature of traditional English teaching classroom is just using chalk and blackboard, sometimes with a tape recorder Such

a kind of instructional mode is quite monotonous and tedious without diversity, which will easily lead to students' fatigue In traditional instruction, teachers are always pumping and hammering knowledge into students, which makes students receive knowledge passively In reality, such a circumstance has reversed students' subject position and teachers' dominant position in the process of teaching and learning Methods of imparting knowledge should not be limited to language modality but including non-language modality, such as gestures, postures, actions,

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facial expressions and so on Turning to these symbols is conducive to receive new knowledge for students It is the appropriate modality that can enhance teaching contents, attract students' attentions and deepen their understandings about teaching materials In the process of making up multimedia courseware, more and more modalities should be involved, such as texts, pictures, colors, animations, music, videos and so on Only in this way can better results in teaching be attained Therefore, in the process of teaching, more modalities should be adopted to supplement teaching and stimulate students' enthusiasm so as to foster their all-round abilities

In recent years, with the advent of multimedia and information technology, English class teaching is turning into Multimodal foreign language teaching from the single traditional teaching mode With the lead of science and technology, modern classroom goes beyond traditional textbook, chalk and blackboard Multimedia courseware is gradually taking the place of traditional blackboard and adopted by a majority of teachers, especially college English teachers Multimodal Teaching in English Classroom Teaching can not only mobilize more senses of students to get involved in teaching and learning, but also it can deepen their understandings of new materials and contents This will finally improve the effectiveness and efficiency of classroom teaching

2.2.3 The application of multimodal teaching to English vocabulary teaching

Multimodal teaching is the supplement and development of traditional teaching With the advent of a new approach of English vocabulary teaching, that is Multimodal English Vocabulary Teaching, traditional vocabulary teaching is plausibly outdated and cannot meet the needs of modern students Therefore, it is of great significance for students to adopt a new way to learn English vocabulary well

It is obvious that vocabulary is of great importance However, traditional way

of vocabulary teaching is very much behind the time Traditionally, vocabulary teaching always follows such steps as: first, teachers read the new word list while students listen to the teachers carefully; second, teachers begin to lead the reading

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while students read after teachers; third, teachers start to teach the new words while students take notes as they listen to the teachers; last, teachers give their students assignments while students should do all kinds of pattern drills after class to consolidate what teachers taught in class Students recite new words by rote learning instead of turning to sounds, actions, pictures, colors, etc to deepen their memory Traditional students are lacking effective vocabulary learning strategies Such class teaching is of great tedium, let alone to mobilize a variety of senses of the students taking part in teaching interactivity Multimodal English vocabulary teaching will compensate the lack of traditional English vocabulary teaching Combining Multimodal theory with English vocabulary teaching will lead to easy memorization of new words The combination of Multimodal theory with English vocabulary teaching will definitely help solve some problems existing in English vocabulary teaching The application of Multimodal theory to English vocabulary teaching is becoming more and more popular Within the limit of this study, the application of multimodal vocabulary teaching will be discussed from the angle of the use of mind map

2.3 Mind maps

2.3.1 What is a mind map?

Mind mapping is a way of linking key concepts using images, lines and links

A central concept is linked via lines to other concepts which in turn are linked with other associated ideas It is similar as a technique to concept mapping and spider diagrams, the difference being that true mind mapping involves constructing a hierarchy of ideas instead of pure random association Mind mapping uses the concept of "radiant thinking" – that is, thoughts radiate out from a single idea, often expressed as an image Branches flow backwards and forwards from and to the central idea

Mind mapping is not a particularly new concept; the idea of using a visual

“web” of sorts to help organize thoughts, ideas, and actions has been risen for quite

a while The “radial tree” mind map as we know it was commonly used in

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semantics exercises long before the wide awareness of it in the 20th century It was Tony Buzan, however, that popularized the term “mind map” and introduced it to the mainstream According to him, a “Mind Map” is an associative network of images and words which “harnesses the full range of cortical skills: word, image, number, logic, rhythm, colour and spatial awareness in a single, uniquely powerful technique”.(Buzan & Buzan 1996, p.81) He claims that a “Mind Map” can unleash the mind’s potential because it mirrors the associative functioning of the brain which is radiant and holistic On his 1974 BBC show Use Your Head, he often used mind mapping examples to illustrate how the practice could be used for problem solving and self-improvement He then developed mind mapping software, iMindMap which has been considered as a great way to improve recall and increase the ability to speed read Now, many people use mind mapping to enhance their productivity, think outside of the box, and reduce procrastination

2.3.2 Classifications of mind maps

There are many different types of MM Here are four common types that we can

find They are network tree, event chain, cycle concept map and spider concept map

Network tree

A network tree is a representation, which shows the relationships among ideas

or concepts that are depicted in the form of branches The terms are normally ordered from general to specific and should incorporate examples to reinforce the word meanings

It can be used to show casual relationship In science, it is often used to show a progression of ideas such as particle to atom to iron to molecule to sub-atomic particles or any classification process such as those for animals, plants or rocks, also for hierarchical relationship such as food chains, manufacturing processes or energy transforms

With the use of network tree, in Figure 2.1, it can be shown that hierarchical relationship in U.S currency is illustrated clearly with two kinds of currency, which are coins and paper Moreover, in each kind, there are other sub-kinds

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Figure 2 2: Event chain

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As can be seen clearly, in Figure 2.2, event chain presents the steps in a process from alarm ringing to leaving for school With the use of event chain diagram, we can see the relationship between each step and how they affect each other

Cycle concept map

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Figure 2 3: Cycle concept map

A cycle concept map is a special type of event chain map In a cycle concept map, the series of events does not produce a final outcome Instead, the last event in the chain relates back to the initiating event It is suitable to show a correlation how

a combination accident is interacting to produce a group of result repeatedly

This cycle concept map describes the relationship between day and night It can be seen that the event starts with nighttime and ends with sunsets; however, it does not stop there It backs to the initiating event and starts a new event chain like the previous one

Spider concept map

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A spider concept map has a central or unifying concept in the centre with related concepts radiating out from the main one This is a map that you can use for brainstorming Once you have a central idea, you may find you have a jumble of ideas that relate to it, but are not necessarily clearly related to each other By writing these ideas outside the main concept, you may begin to separate and group unrelated terms so that they become more useful

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Figure 2 4: Spider concept map

Figure 2.4 presents spider concept map of “homework” with the central concept “homework” in the centre and supporting ideas radiating out from it

2.3.3 Characteristics of mind maps

Four main characteristics of a mind map:

- There is one key concept, often expressed graphically as an image

- From the key concept/image radiate out branches each of which contains another key concept which is a subset of the main concept

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- Attached to these main branches are other branches which represent less important concepts

- Together, the branches and central image form a nodal structure

2.3.4 Advantages of mind maps

Like other diagramming tools, mind maps can be used to generate, visualize, structure and classify ideas, and as an aid to studying and organizing information, solving problems, making decisions and writing According to Tran Dinh Chau (2012, p.21), mind map can show the ways human’s brain works Mind map focuses on images, colors, using a net of associating It has some good points

- Being logic and clear

- Being intuitive, easy to look, understand and remember

- Being able to have both an overview and detail

- Attracting students’ attentions

- Stimulate students’ creation

- Helping user systematizing and reviewing knowledge

- Helping presenters organize ideas

Mind maps can be used in many situations such as: from brainstorming, sorting out family problems, business meetings, making notes from books or lectures… Most useful to teachers and students can be:

Making notes from books and other secondary sources

Making notes from lectures

Making notes for essays or presentations

2.3.5 How to draw a mind map

Buzan (1996) suggests the following guidelines for creating mind maps:

Start in the center with an image of the topic, using at least 3 colors

Use images, symbols, codes, and dimensions throughout your mind map Select key words and print using upper or lower case letters

Each word/image is best alone and sitting on its own line

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The lines should be connected, starting from the central image The central lines are thicker, organic and thinner as they radiate out from the centre

Make the lines the same length as the word/image they support

Use multiple colors throughout the mind map, for visual stimulation and also

to encode or group

Develop your own personal style of mind mapping

2.3.6 Applying mind maps to teaching and learning

To use mind map in teaching and learning, students, first of all, need to get to know mind map, its roles, and necessary in their learning and then students themselves know how to design a mind map and use it effectively

Tran Dinh Chau (2012, p.23) suggests the following steps to make a mind map Step1: get to know mind map

Step2: practice drawing a mind map by completing a given one with missing branches, contents

Step 3: Create a mind map (on a sheet of paper, board, poster…)

Mind mapping is an effective way to remember ideas, concepts, details, and their relation to each other in a quick, easy way This method can be used as a regular note taking system as a kind of big picture “bird’s eye” view of the main concepts of a lesson, an article, chapter, or segment of reading material

Mind maps can be used to sort out information visually They are essentially thought bubbles linked together in relation to each other which create self-organized, relational, nested sub-topic trees They are regular in almost all business and science books Think of mind maps as detailed relational flow charts

Mind maps can be applied in many fields, situations such as: in personal, family, educational, and business situations, including note taking, brainstorming, summarizing, revising, and general clarifying of thoughts One could listen to a lecture, for example, and take down notes using mind maps for the most important points or keywords One can also use mind maps as to sort out a complicated idea Mind maps are also promoted as a way to collaborate in color pen creativity

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sessions A mind map is a visual representation of hierarchical information that includes a central idea surrounded by connected branches of associated topics Mind Maps also help students brainstorm and explore any idea, concept, or problem They can be used f to facilitate better understanding of relationships and connections between ideas and concepts Mind maps allow students to easily recall information

2.3.7 The applications of mind mapping to teaching a foreign language

It is reasonable that memory has an important role in learning and acquiring a foreign language Especially in the communicative approach, learners have to become familiar with and internalize words and sentences to use them effectively MMs are memory tools which use personal associations to make it easier to remember new information and to visualize the thinking process Therefore, MMs have proven to be a very helpful technique to master a foreign language Although it may cost time to use the technique, it will eventually speed up the learning process when learners know and understand how to use it

According to Casco (2009), MMs have some applications in teaching a foreign language They are as follows:

Engage the learners:

The map helps the learners knows what comes next and draws the learners’ attention to the topic Furthermore, the map provides a structure to reduce the learners’ anxiety when receiving input through listening and reading and when speaking

Activate prior knowledge:

The use of images and keywords foster memory of what the learners know about the topic Encourage the learners to ask questions:

The map displays clearly what the learners know and what they do not know about the topic Images and interrogation marks broaden the information gap and stimulate the need in the learners to find out what they do not know

Scaffold reading and listening comprehension:

The map is a powerful tool to facilitate comprehension because it offers the learners a global view of what they are going to listen or read Furthermore, the

Assess oral production:

The same map implemented at other stages of the language course can be used

to get a new sample of the learners’ production By explaining the connections on the map, the learners will show if they have acquired new structures and lexical items The production obtained with the aid of the map will reveal errors providing

an information source for the teacher to reflect upon in her future practice

Scaffold written production:

The map originally designed by the teacher and expanded upon by the learners may become the starting point to write a paragraph or an essay on the topic explored From all his above explanations, Casco (2009) proved that MMs can bring a lot of benefits in teaching a foreign language in many aspects consisting of reading, writing, reading skills as well as in motivating the learners and activating the prior knowledge

Having the same opinions with Casco (2009), Hofland (2007) agreed that MMs are great tools for foreign language teaching and learning Therefore, they can

be used for all skills including reading, speaking, writing and vocabulary

Mind maps and reading skills

Hofland (2007) confirms that “reading is a very linear process, a typical left brain skill” Furthermore, the human brain is not good at linear process but

extremely good at parallel processing tasks That is why MM might be a good tool

to improve the learners’ reading skill It is obvious that when a learner thinks of a word, all the images, associations, ideas and pictures will come into his mind In

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his research, Hofland also considered that MMs can help the learners understand a text like an article or a story better

Mind maps and writing skills

Writing can be considered as the most difficult skill for the language learners They often have many difficulties in expressing their ideas into words

A mind map can activate the learners’ thinking ability and creativity By using

a mind map as a brainstorming activity, the learners can express what they are going to write into images, graphs, ideas, etc That would be easier for the m to follow when they start to write

Mind maps and speaking skills

MMs can be served as reminders Learners can draw a mind map to prepare a topic that they are going to speak In those MMs, they should only use key words and symbols to help them easier to remember their ideas

Mind maps and vocabulary

Lastly, Hofland asserted that mind map is a technique that is very suitable to elicit vocabulary Learners can create a mind map based on their own thinking with their own images, pictures, ideas or key words That is why a mind map is an excellent way for them to remember new vocabulary

In summary, building MMs is the way to go in learning or teaching a foreign language When creating MMs, learners often develop images that associate with words Word association and images are powerful ways of learning quickly and remember for a longer time Moreover, MMs can be used with colors; numbers, etc that bring the best result for learners in learning a foreign language

2.3.8 The applications of mind mapping to teaching vocabulary

2.3.8.1 Strategies of teaching and learning vocabulary

Vocabulary learning strategies are one part of language learning strategies which in turn are part of general learning strategies (Nation, 2001) Language learning strategies encourage greater overall self-direction for learners Self-directed learners are independent learners who are capable of assuming responsibility for