Colonising society in western Africa

North of them, also in the savanna, were survivors of groups probably driven southwards by thedesiccation of the Sahara, speaking either Nilo-Saharan languages possiblyincluding the Song

Colonising society in western Africa

e q u i p p e d w i t h ag r i c u lt u r e a n d i r o n , t h e p e o p l e s o fwestern Africa sought to build up their numbers, humanise the land, fer-tilise it with their dead, consolidate their societies, and send out more colonists

to extend the struggle with nature These were tasks so compelling that theygave social organisation and culture a character that still underlies Africanbehaviour today This chapter describes the evolution of colonising societies inthe savanna and forest of West and West-Central Africa between the eleventhand mid-seventeenth centuries, before the Atlantic slave trade made its mostwidespread impact But some evidence is also taken from later centuries when

it illuminates long-standing social patterns

colonisation and agricultureFrom Senegal to Angola, most western Africans of the forest and the imme-diately adjoining savanna spoke Niger-Congo languages North of them, also

in the savanna, were survivors of groups probably driven southwards by thedesiccation of the Sahara, speaking either Nilo-Saharan languages (possiblyincluding the Songhay people of the middle Niger) or Afroasiatic tongues (theHausa of modern northern Nigeria) Desert peoples – Berbers, Moors, Tuareg –also spoke Afroasiatic languages Further desiccation in the north and labo-rious forest clearance in the south bred a continuing southward populationdrift

This drift was not the only pattern of colonisation The West African savannahad no single moving frontier like North America or Siberia Rather, clusters

of pioneer agriculturalists were scattered through the region at favoured anddefensible locations like the early settlements along the middle Niger or onmounds above the floodplain south of Lake Chad By the early second mil-lennium ad, such areas of intensive crop production and rich culture hadmultiplied, often in river valleys or defensible highland outcrops where the hoeand digging-stick were the only practicable tools During the eleventh century,for example, a people known to their successors as Tellem settled on the edge ofthe Bandiagara escarpment in modern Mali, cultivating the plateau margins,

63

storing their grain and interring their dead in inaccessible caverns in the cliffs,and making some of the earliest cloth and the oldest wooden objects – hoes,statuettes, musical instruments, neck-rests for the dead – yet found in sub-Saharan Africa From the fifteenth century, they were joined and eventuallysupplanted by diverse immigrants known as Dogon who practised an excep-tionally intensive agriculture designed to utilise every scarce drop of water,besides creating some of Africa’s finest wood-carvings and its most colourfulmasquerades The staple crops in this dry savanna region were millet and fonio(a tiny grain) Further south, where annual rainfall exceeded seven hundredmillimetres, sorghum prevailed, while rice was grown in favoured areas like theinternal delta of the Niger The grains of the period recovered by archaeologistsare often much smaller than modern varieties, suggesting that to wrest a securesubsistence during a short growing season needed the skill and energy thatcultivators later displayed so eagerly in public hoeing competitions.

The open plains of the West African savanna also had their population ters, drawn together by the need for defence, the advantages of low internaltransport costs and life in society, or the exercise of political power Each nucleuswas generally surrounded by frontier settlements and separated from the nextnucleus by a tract of wilderness Within the nucleus, each village or loosergrouping of homesteads was similarly surrounded by concentric rings of per-

clus-manent cultivation, temporary fields, and outlying woodland – karkara, saura, and daji, in the Hausa language – before entering the next village territory.

In this exceptionally uneven pattern of population distribution, each clusterhad its own frontier, expanding in good times and contracting in bad But ifnumbers increased too greatly, if drought or witches or enemies attacked thenucleus, if dissent or ambition or thirst for adventure grew beyond control,young men might carve a new nucleus from untamed land:

Bagauda made the first clearing in the Kano bush,

It was then uninhabited jungle;

A vast forest with nothing save antelope,Waterbuck, buffalo and elephant

Bagauda, he had his home back at Gaya;

He was a mighty hunter, a slayer.1Village names caught the pioneering ethos: New Village, Do’s Village, HardSoil, Water Wood, Hyena – to quote a cluster from northern C ˆote d’Ivoire.Traditions of migration oversimplify the process, suggesting concerted pop-ulation movements from one location to another, whereas colonisation wasnormally a gradual diffusion of families and small groups, often to settle along-side people of quite different origin The colonists who became known as Dogonpreserved traditions of migration from many directions and spoke languages

so diverse as to be unintelligible to villages only a few hundred metres away

6 Colonising society in western Africa.

To reconstruct this history of colonisation will be almost as laborious as theoperation itself But even more surely than the peopling of North America orSiberia, it created a mobile society responding to pressure on resources by yetfurther movement.

To the south, in and around the West African forest, colonisation was cially laborious From Senegambia to C ˆote d’Ivoire cultivators enjoyed only oneannual peak of rainfall and specialised in growing rice, either extensively in theinterior uplands or intensively in artificial coastal polders whose sophistica-tion impressed fifteenth-century Europeans From C ˆote d’Ivoire eastwards,

espe-by contrast, rainfall peaked twice each year and the staple crop was yam,whose great productivity on virgin soil rewarded even the clearing of tropicalforest supporting up to 1,250 tonnes of vegetation per hectare Yam-growerswere therefore compulsive but very gradual colonists During perhaps threemillennia or more they had cleared most of the forest from the present grass-fields of Cameroun The ancestral Yoruba and Igbo of modern Nigeria hadprobably colonised southwards into the forest edge for much the same period,perfecting cultures that exploited both savanna and forest environments.Related Edo-speaking people had penetrated the forest to the west of the Niger

in pre-Christian times, but at the end of the first millennium ad, new pioneerspushed southwards into the region, building some ten thousand kilometres

of earth boundaries to enclose the villages and kinship territories they carvedfrom the bush At that period, the northern forest edge may generally havebeen some 160 kilometres north of its present position, but five hundred yearslater most forest regions supported agricultural communities, although few buthunters yet penetrated the deepest jungles of modern Ghana, C ˆote d’Ivoire, andLiberia

The laborious colonisation of the West African forest created an even strongerpattern than in the savanna of settled clearings surrounded by circles of pro-gressively wilder vegetation Later Igbo villagers, for example, focused theircommunities on central meeting- and market-places surrounded by rings

of residential compounds, then belts of oil-palms (which flourished close tohuman settlements), then village farmlands, and finally ‘bad bush’ frequented

by evil spirits, heroic hunters, and herbalists The Edo-speakers’ earth aries reveal a core of small and complex enclosures surrounded by a penum-bra of larger enclosures and wasteland, indicating a gradual outward thrust

bound-of colonisation From the later first millennium ad, village clusters in suchcore territories were coalescing into the first microstates which were to be thebuilding-blocks of political development

We know more about the colonisation of western equatorial Africa, thanks toJan Vansina’s skill in eliciting historical information from surviving languages.2Here Bantu-speakers had entered an immensely complex environment Theequatorial forest, containing little to eat or hunt, was hard to penetrate and

harder to clear Bantu cultivators left it mostly to Pygmy bands with whomthey established ties of exchange and patronage Interpenetrated with theforest, however, were more favourable microenvironments: forest-savannaedges, swamps and rivers rich in fish, riverside toe-holds that farmers couldenlarge into cultivable land Following the rivers, pioneers could expand moreswiftly than their ancestors in West Africa The first Bantu colonists used stoneaxes and digging-sticks to cultivate yams, oil-palms, and possibly plantains.Their descendants acquired iron tools and gradually expanded their num-bers, penetrating almost the entire region by ad 1000 Thereafter small groups

no longer sought new land each year for their crops Instead stable lations consolidated around semipermanent plantain gardens and sent outcolonising offshoots when densities grew too great, although they retained anutterly unsentimental, instrumental attitude to the exploitation of nature Asgroups specialised to distinctive local environments, their cultures and lan-guages differentiated and ethnic groups took shape On the northeastern edge

popu-of the equatorial forest, Bantu-speaking forest cultivators met and interactedwith grain farmers speaking Nilo-Saharan languages to produce a rich com-posite culture To the southwest, beyond the forest in the savanna of modernAngola, farming peoples acquired cereal crops and cattle from the east, mingledwith earlier forager-hunters, created population concentrations and emergentethnic groups in river valleys, and expanded to more arid lands as far south-wards as the purely pastoral regions of modern Namibia Yet widely as the Bantuspread, they left vast areas almost unoccupied Much of the eastern uplands

of Kivu Province was still uninhabited in the nineteenth century Even morethan elsewhere in western Africa, equatorial agriculture required collaborativeeffort, for it needed a group of at least twenty men to clear equatorial forest andhumanise a local environment Colonists therefore lived in nucleated villagesforming clusters separated by vast empty wastelands Most clusters were on theforest-savanna edges where clearing was easiest and men could exploit multi-ple environments Here the first substantial polities would take shape duringthe second millennium ad

In colonising the land and building up their numbers, western Africansstruggled to establish an equilibrium with their exceptionally hostile diseaseenvironment Disease was probably very common, as is suggested by the manycomplaints and deformities represented in early terracotta figures from Nokand from the Yoruba town of Ife But many conditions may have been chronicrather than fatal, precisely because parasites had had so long to adapt them-selves to human hosts in Africa Malaria was probably the biggest killer, espe-cially of infants, in all but the coolest and driest regions; its absence from thehigh grassfields of Cameroun was a reason for their intensive settlement Butwestern Africans had evolved a relatively high level of resistance, just as theypossessed much resistance to hookworm anaemia and suffered two childhood

complaints – yaws in equatorial regions and endemic syphilis in the savanna –less acute than the related venereal syphilis from which the region was spareduntil the sixteenth century.3Leprosy was common when Europeans penetratedbeyond the coast in the nineteenth century, especially in equatorial regionsand Igboland, but there it, too, generally took a milder form than in othercontinents and only the most severe cases were ostracised Tsetse flies transmit-ting trypanosomiasis infested many wooded areas, especially along waterways,causing Gambian sleeping sickness; its victims included the mid-fourteenth-century King Diata II of Mali, but West Africans generally had much resistanceand the disease took a protracted form Similarly, modern research has shownthat West and East Africa had a distinct, relatively mild strain of smallpox.4Longfamiliarity had also contributed to medical skills The ancestral Bantu language

had a root for medicine, -ti-, which also meant a tree, indicating the herbal

basis of African medical practice Many Bantu languages also had a commonword for the cupping-horn with which doctors bled patients This practice wasreported by sixteenth-century missionaries to the Kongo kingdom in modernAngola, in addition to the use of herbs, ointments, purgatives, and magicalremedies Hausa specialists included herbalists, bone-setters, midwives, andbarber-surgeons, as well as exorcists using spiritual procedures Anthropologi-cal research has generally stressed the rational, experimental character of WestAfrican medical systems and the widespread knowledge of folk-medicine Yetdisease was common and debilitating, especially when compounded by dietsdeficient in animal protein and vitamins – slaves taken to the Americas were togrow markedly taller than their African ancestors – and when supplemented

by the ‘head-aches, bloody-fluxes, fevers cholicks, pains in the stomach’noted on the seventeenth-century Gold Coast These maladies were due chiefly

to drinking bad water, as was the agonising complaint of Guinea worm, ‘themisery’ as it was known in Borno, which disabled great numbers throughoutWest Africa, especially among the poor Yet the region was protected by theSahara against Old World epidemics The Black Death appears to have sparedWest Africa Several unspecified epidemics affected savanna towns during thesixteenth century, but not until the 1740s was ‘plague’ reported simultaneouslythere and in North Africa

Famine was a second obstacle to population growth in all but the watered regions Both oral traditions and the Islamic chronicles of savannatowns stressed its devastating effects Portuguese records of Angola from thesixteenth century show that a great famine occurred on average every seventyyears; accompanied by epidemic disease, it might kill one-third or one-half

best-of the population, destroying the demographic growth best-of a generation andforcing colonists back into the river valleys Whether famines were so devas-tating before Europeans brought their acute strains of smallpox is uncertain,but they were destructive enough They might be due to locusts (which Ibn

Battuta reported in Mali in 1352), unseasonably heavy rains, abuses of power,

or warfare that prevented people from practising survival skills, but the mostcommon reason was drought From about ad 300 to 1100, West Africa enjoyed

an interval of relatively good rainfall, as the prosperity of the Niger Valley gests Lake Chad, too, was high for most of the period The next four centuriesexperienced renewed desiccation Desert conditions spread southwards intoformer savanna, making al-Idrisi in 1154 the first of many Jeremiahs to warnthat the Sahara was advancing Rulers of Kanem left their ‘land of famine andausterity’ for a more southerly location in Borno By 1400 Old Jenne was aban-doned after a thousand years of prosperity Meanwhile savanna conditions inturn ate into the northern forest edge, enabling horsemen and cattle-owners toestablish a new dominance over agriculturalists The sixteenth century saw abrief improvement in rainfall, but soon after 1600 desiccation resumed Duringthe next 250 years, the western Sahara expanded two hundred to three hundredkilometres southwards The deterioration was signalled by crop failure in theNiger Valley in 1639–43, when New Jenne’s townsmen sacked their ruler’s store-houses The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from theSenegambian coast to the Upper Nile and ‘many sold themselves for slaves,only to get a sustenance’, and especially in 1738–56, when West Africa’s great-est recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killedhalf the population of Timbuktu ‘The most distinguished people ate nothingbut seeds of grasses or of any other grain which ordinarily were eaten only

sug-by the most vile and impoverished people’, the chronicler recorded,5 addingthat the poor were reduced to cannibalism, the standard African metaphorfor the collapse of civilisation Famine deaths on this scale were possible,for three well-documented famines in Cape Verde between 1773 and 1866each killed roughly 40 percent of the population But such mortality wasrare Famine was generally only one among several obstacles to demographicgrowth

Surrounded by these obstacles, western Africans attached supreme tance to the production of children ‘Without children you are naked’, said aYoruba proverb Virility was vital to a man’s honour; a Kuba village on thesouthern edge of the equatorial forest might have a celibates’ quarter known

impor-as ‘the street of small children.’ Childlessness wimpor-as even more bitter for women

‘The fruitful Woman is highly valued, whilst the Barren is despised’, wrote anearly visitor to Benin Children were essential to parents’ social standing, totheir welfare in old age, to their survival as ancestors, and to the group’s veryexistence in competitive and often violent societies where, as later pre-colonialevidence shows, kinship groups falling below a minimum size were simplyabsorbed by more fertile rivals in a process of natural selection ‘A race is asfragile as a newborn child’, said a Congolese proverb Capture of people was amajor aim of warfare Fertility of women was a major subject of art Care of

the pregnant and newborn was a central concern of medicine and ritual ThisAfrican obsession with reproduction later surprised anthropologists familiarwith regions where nature was more benign.

There are no data sufficiently reliable to permit estimates of birth- or rates at this time, although both were probably high Average life expectancy atbirth was probably less than twenty-five years (its level in the second-centuryRoman Empire) and possibly less than twenty Educated guesses have sug-gested that population may have grown by an average of two or three perthousand per year over the long term, although even that would have beenrapid by the standards of Ancient Egypt and other traditional societies.6Judg-ing from modern parallels, up to one-third of babies may have died in the firstyear of life and an unusually large proportion during the next four years, forwestern Africa’s malarious climate, widespread lack of animal milk (owing totrypanosomiasis), and medical practices were especially pernicious to smallchildren One Muslim leader in late eighteenth-century Hausaland fatheredforty-two children of whom only fifteen reached puberty, as did only thirteen

death-of his eldest son’s thirty-three male children.7Among the Anyi of modern C ˆoted’Ivoire, whose society took shape in the eighteenth century, only a woman’sfourth dead child had the right to a funeral The vulnerability of children proba-bly explains why birthrates were not even higher The slender evidence suggeststhat most western African women married at least as soon as they could bearchildren Yoruba women freed from slave ships in the early nineteenth century,for example, had on average borne their first child at about twenty, probablysoon after becoming fecund Yet both the earliest colonial evidence and sub-sequent estimates by demographers suggest that women may have averagedlittle more than six births during their reproductive lifespans, many fewer thanwas theoretically possible Artificial contraception is unlikely to have been thereason, for western Africans made little use of herbs for this purpose, and thenprobably ineffectively Rather, the main constraint on fertility was probablythe spacing of pregnancies, as was still the case in the twentieth century Thechief mechanism was probably prolonged and frequent breastfeeding, whichinhibited conception and was especially necessary where only human milk wasavailable A visitor to the Gold Coast reported in 1785 that breastfeeding mightlast four years A doctor travelling in Borno in 1870 suggested an average of twoyears Breastfeeding was often supplemented by taboos against intercourse solong as a woman had a totally dependent infant A perceptive European traderreported the normative rule on the River Gambia during the 1730s, althoughadding his own scepticism:

No marry’d Women, after they are brought to Bed, lie with their Husbandstill three Years are expired, if the Child lives so long, at which Time they weantheir Children, and go to Bed to their Husbands They say that if a Woman

lies with her Husband during the Time she has a Child sucking at her Breast,

it spoils the Child’s Milk, and makes it liable to a great many Distempers.Nevertheless, I believe, not one Woman in twenty stays till they wean theirChildren before they lie with a Man; and indeed I have very often seen Womenmuch censur’d, and judged to be false to their Husbands Bed, upon Accountonly of their sucking Child being ill.8

Practice no doubt varied, but birth intervals of three or four years were widelyreported in the early colonial period The object was presumably not to limitchildren but to maximise them by ensuring that they and their mothers sur-vived, for modern evidence shows high mortality among children born eitherbefore or after a short birth interval Not only did long birth intervals limitpregnancies, but they prevented rapid recuperation of a population decimated

by a catastrophe In western Africa, the price for any population growth wasthat it could be only slow growth

political development in the savanna

In the West African savanna, underpopulation was the chief obstacle to stateformation While sparse populations could not supply the surplus to supportruling classes, denser populations had little incentive to do so when empty landenabled them to evade political authority The lack of evidence of a differenti-ated ruling elite in the Niger Valley during the first millennium ad suggests thatsocial complexity did not require state organisation In the second millennium,similarly, many of the largest population concentrations remained entirelystateless, jealously defending their freedom as colonists, regulating their affairs

by negotiation and the threat of retaliation, clustering together to resist tory neighbouring states This pattern existed especially in Voltaic-speakingregions (notably modern northern Ghana) and among skilled highland cul-tivators Whatever authority existed in these regions often belonged to thedescendants of pioneer settlers from whom late-comers ‘begged bush’ Amongthe Serer of modern Senegal, for example, such ‘masters of fire’ were the onlypolitical authorities until the fourteenth century Their counterpart among

preda-Mande-speakers, the largest group in the western savanna, was the fama, who was both a master of the land and the political chief of a kafu, a group of villages

forming a miniature state ‘In the middle of the forest’, wrote a century traveller, ‘are immense clearings several kilometres in diameter In thecentre are grouped seven, eight, ten, often fifteen villages, individually forti-fied This sort of confederation has its chosen chief who takes the title of Fama.The chief’s village gives its name to the group.’9 The kafu was the enduring

nineteenth-political community of the savanna, the building-block with which larger butmore ephemeral polities were constructed In this it had parallels throughout

the continent and in the micro-states of predynastic Egypt, the nadu of South India, or the subimperial communities of pre-Columban America The kafu

embodied the pervasive localism of African politics Kings and conquerorsseeking to transcend it might root their states in concentrations of populationand wealth, the most enticing in the savanna being in the Niger Valley Theymight also rely on slave labour, long-distance trade, and sheer military force.Invariably, however, their authority diminished with distance from the capital,fading into a stateless penumbra where, as a later traveller put it, ‘the inhab-itants hardly know whose subjects they are’ Underpopulation also set otherconstraints on political consolidation The polygynous marriage patterns ofcolonising societies gave rulers swarms of sons to demand offices, contest thesuccession, and fragment the state if they could not rule it, especially where noreligious institutions provided the safety-valves for surplus sons available inEurope and Asia The powerful kinship groups needed to clear and defend newland gave society a strength that the state could seldom tame The mingling

of mobile colonists bred populations heterogeneous in customs and loyalties

‘Power is like holding an egg in the hand’, said an Akan proverb from modernGhana ‘If you hold it too tightly it breaks, and if you hold it too loosely, itdrops.’ State-building in the savanna, then as now, was a search for devices tocounteract localism and segmentation

These dynamics can be seen best in the history of Mali, the dominant state

in the western savanna from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century It began as

a kafu and then a cluster of kafus on the upper Niger, as a bard reminded its

founder, Sunjata Keita, before the battle in c 1235 that made him king ‘Frombeing village chiefs the Keitas have become tribal chiefs and then kings’, thebard declared ‘Cut the trees, transform the forests into fields, for then onlywill you become a true king.’10At the kingdom’s core, villages of craftsmen andother specialists clustered densely Beyond them was the fertile agriculture ofthe Niger Valley, and beyond that territories sprawled from the Atlantic to thedesert and the forest, with governors and garrisons of conquered provincesinterspersed with semi-independent vassals In part this was a product ofMande expansion that long predated Sunjata In part it was stimulated byhis triumph The first Mande-speakers to disperse widely may well have beenhunters Behind them went a more permanent migration of traders, craftsmen,and agriculturalists who penetrated southeastwards to the Akan goldfields ofmodern Ghana or sought kola nuts in the forests to the southwest, where theVai and Dan peoples of modern Liberia, the Gouro of C ˆote d’Ivoire, and theKono and Kpelle of Guinea were all Mande-speaking groups A third phase

of expansion was more violent, for the creation of the Mali kingdom andthe decline of rainfall allowed its horsemen to penetrate southwards and west-wards, establishing Mande-controlled chiefdoms along the Gambia and amongthe Serer during the fourteenth century Such was Mali’s prestige that even the

non-Mande-speaking rulers of Gonja in modern Ghana claimed descent fromMalian cavalrymen sent to control the gold trade.

Yet Mali suffered the weaknesses of a savanna polity Its polygynous royalfamily was divided between Sunjata’s descendants and his younger brother’s.Gao, probably conquered around 1300 and the key to the fertile easternprovinces in the middle Niger Valley, was lost again about a century later

In 1433–4 Tuareg nomads from the neighbouring desert took Timbuktu Jenneappears to have regained independence from Mali at that time Meanwhile thewestern half of the empire was infiltrated by Fulbe cattlemen, Niger-Congospeakers who emerged as a specialised pastoral group on the upper Senegaland began to drift eastwards early in the second millennium At first theyacknowledged Mali’s authority, but as it weakened and Fulbe numbers grew,the pastoralists created a pagan state in Futa Toro (the old Takrur) at the end

of the fifteenth century Mali was by then disintegrating First its successor

on the middle Niger, Songhay, sacked the capital in 1545–6 Then a disastrousattempt to reconquer the middle Niger in 1599 lost Mali the Bambuk goldfield.Its few surviving provinces seceded During the 1630s, Mande-speaking andlargely pagan Bambara cultivators destroyed the capital Its bards and courtiers

retreated to Kaba, where chiefs had once sworn allegiance to Sunjata The kafu

once more dominated the upper Niger

Further to the west, early in the second millennium, Serer and Wolof peoplescolonised southwards from the Senegal Valley into Senegambia, perhaps inresponse to desiccation and the growing power of Islam The first new staterecorded here seems to have emerged by the twelfth century in Waalo onthe lower Senegal, where cultivators could utilise seasonal flooding Duringthe next two centuries, power shifted inland to the dry savanna region of Jolof,perhaps responding to Mali’s commercial prosperity By the late fourteenthcentury, Jolof had renounced any loose allegiance to Mali, but its own authorityover Wolof to the south and west was slight and fluctuating, for, as in Mali,the underlying political units were local chiefdoms headed by descendants

of pioneer colonists, military noblemen dominating commoners and slaves.European trade may have assisted those in the coastal kingdom of Kajoor todefeat Jolof during the mid-sixteenth century, but a more important reasonfor Jolof’s disintegration into four successor kingdoms was probably the newFulbe state in Futa Toro, which blocked its access to the interior

Mali’s successor to the east, Songhay, was probably created by speakers and extended nearly two thousand kilometres along the Niger Valley.From the twelfth century, its capital was at Gao Subjected to Mali’s overlord-ship during the fourteenth century, it recovered independence under a militarydynasty whose power peaked between 1464 and 1492 under Sonni Ali Ber Itssettlements of slave cultivators probably made the Niger Valley more produc-tive during the relatively favourable rainfall of the sixteenth century than at any

Nilo-Saharan-later period The state also exploited peasant farming and the trade of Jenne andTimbuktu Backed by a small standing army, probably mostly slaves, the regimeadministered the Niger Valley directly through appointed royal kinsmen, leav-ing indigenous tributary rulers to govern outlying provinces The structurewas created partly by Sonni Ali and partly by a former provincial governor,Askiya Muhammad Ture, who usurped the throne with Muslim support afterSonni Ali’s death in 1492 Like Mali’s kings, however, the Askiyas never estab-lished a stable rule of succession Repeated conflict among the proliferatingroyal family and military nobility left the state divided when competition forthe gold trade led Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur of Morocco to march twenty-fivehundred newly armed musketeers and fifteen hundred cavalrymen across thedesert in a daring assault on Songhay At Tondibi on 12 March 1591, they routed

an army alleged to include ten thousand to twenty thousand horsemen, butresistance and disease prevented them from subduing a Songhay successor state

in the southeastern marches of the old empire Instead the Moroccan troopswithdrew to Timbuktu, lost much allegiance to Marrakesh, and degeneratedinto a brutal local tyranny Between 1651 and 1750, Timbuktu had 128 mili-tary rulers Although Islam expanded and deepened during this period andsuccessor states took shape, it was in general a time of economic and politicaldecay The valley population declined as agricultural settlements dispersed.Famine and epidemic became increasingly common Fulbe pastoralists infil-trated from the west and Tuareg from the north, besieging Gao in c 1680 andpenetrating south of the Niger by 1720 Bambara cultivators looted Jenne and

established their kafu microstates amid the ruins of the empire Trans-Saharan

trade continued to shift eastwards into the central savanna

Here the dominant power from perhaps the sixth century had been Kanem,

a largely pastoral state north of Lake Chad, speaking a Nilo-Saharan language,specialising in the northward export of slaves, and ruled from about 1075 bythe Saifawa dynasty During the fourteenth century, internal dissension andperhaps declining rainfall caused the Saifawa to move their headquarters toBorno on the plains southwest of Lake Chad This region had greater agricul-tural potential and the state lost its pastoral character, but slaves were evenmore easily available among southern agricultural peoples and remained thechief export Borno, even more than Songhay, was dominated by an aris-tocracy of mounted warriors who drew tribute from allotted agriculturalcommunities, distinguished themselves from commoners by dress and pro-nunciation, and gloried in warfare Given this ethos and the fact that any king’sson was eligible for the throne, succession war remained endemic during thefifteenth century Thereafter the state was somewhat stabilised During the six-teenth century, it conquered many surrounding agricultural peoples, provok-ing the Mandara and other groups to organise states in self-defence Mai IdrisAloma (1571 –1603), Borno’s most famous warrior king, prosecuted these wars

relentlessly Borno prospered during the favourable rainfall of the early teenth century, administering its central territory through royal slaves and itsoutlying provinces through military vassals Its endurance as a state for over athousand years, like Ethiopia’s, owed much to its sense of cultural superiority

seven-as the guardian of a world religion amidst stateless peoples and indigenousfaiths

Their retreat southwestwards from Kanem brought Borno’s rulers into closercontact with the plains to the west, which are today occupied by the Hausa peo-ple of Northern Nigeria Hausa origins are a mystery They speak a relativelyhomogeneous Afroasiatic language whose closest affinities are to the east inmodern Chad, but many scholars think that the ancestral Hausa must haveretreated southwards from Saharan desiccation Dalla Hill, in modern KanoCity, was certainly an ironworking site in the seventh century ad, but it is uncer-tain whether its inhabitants were Hausa or Niger-Congo-speakers subsequently

absorbed Traditions recorded in the seventeenth-century Kano chronicle and

by modern researchers suggest that in the early second millennium ad land was divided into many microstates, often clustering around ironworkingcentres or the granite outcrops sacred to nature spirits Although Islam may

Hausa-have reached the region from Kanem at an earlier date, the Kano chronicle

emphasises the arrival of traders during the mid-fourteenth century, possiblyfrom Songhay, and certainly some impulse must then have drawn Hausalandinto savanna and desert trade, for during the fifteenth century new tradingpolities emerged not only there but in Agades to the north and Yorubaland

to the south By the late sixteenth century, European merchants from Ragusa(Dubrovnik) had lived in Kano and ranked it with Fes and Cairo as one ofAfrica’s three major cities ‘Many white gentlemen live there, who have betakenthemselves there from Cairo many years ago’, they reported ‘They have a way

of life such that many of them possess horses in their own stables and are servedlike lords by numerous slaves.’11

This stress on slaves and horses suggests that Hausaland’s transformation

in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was not merely commercial but

politi-cal The sarauta (official title) system celebrated in the Kano chronicle involved

the unification of microstates into kingdoms, the building of walled capitaltowns like Kano and Katsina, the appointment of titled administrators (often

on Bornoan models), the import of more powerful war-horses, systematicslave-raiding among Niger-Congo-speakers to the south, recurrent warfareamong the new kingdoms, the adoption of Islam by the ruling class along-side indigenous religious practices, and urban domination of the countryside.Muhammad Korau (c 1444–94), founder and builder of Katsina, personifiedthe new order, but behind it lay profound demographic and social changes:

an influx of people from many directions, cultural mingling, a growth of ritoriality as against kinship, economic specialisation and differentiation seen

ter-in urbanisation and the proliferation of occupations, and probably ter-intensifiedagriculture in manured ‘close-settled zones’ surrounding walled cities Moreclearly than the long-distance trade of Songhay or Borno, Hausaland’s com-merce was rooted in the agriculture, craft production, and local exchange

of a population dense enough to escape some of the centrifugal tendencies

of colonising societies This, however, lay largely in the future century Hausaland was still racked by warfare as its new kingdoms jostled forsupremacy

Sixteenth-Behind these political changes in the savanna lay military innovations Untilperhaps the thirteenth century, infantry dominated West African battlefields.Free bowmen were the core of Mali’s army, while warfare among statelesspeoples often resembled a tournament with few casualties Horses reached thesavanna from the north during or even before the first millennium ad, butthey apparently either lost size in a less favourable environment or were smallponies that gave their owners an advantage in mobility rather than combat,especially because they were ridden without saddles, stirrups, or bits These arethe horses depicted in the magnificent terracotta statuettes excavated from theNiger Valley Larger breeds of war-horses with the necessary harness probablyreached West Africa during the thirteenth century The model may have beenthe Mamluk cavalry of Egypt, for their first use in the savanna is attributed

to Mai Dunama Dibalemi (c 1210–48) of Kanem, the state most in touch

with Egypt Mali adopted the new techniques by the 1330s The Kano chronicle

attributed them to Sarki Yaji (c 1349–85) Wolof states possessed a few horses

by the 1450s and Songhay had an important cavalry force by the time of SonniAli (1464–92), whose power may have rested on it The innovation then spreadsouthwards The Yoruba state of Oyo, for example, probably adopted cavalryduring the sixteenth century Although gradual desiccation made this feasible,horses in regions further south were vulnerable to tropical disease and becamemainly status symbols, often buried with their owners Yet war-horses conferredstatus everywhere, for their cost – between nine and fourteen slaves on theSenegambian coast in the 1450s – made their owners a relatively exclusiveclass new to West Africa Their horsemanship was often dashing and ruthless.Their swords and thrusting-spears bred the cavalryman’s contempt for missileweapons and their users:

Our army pursued, killing and wounding, with swords and spears and whips,till they were tired of it The enemy’s cavalry spurred their horses, and leftthe infantry behind like a worn-out sandal abandoned and thrown away, andthere was no means of safety for those on foot save the providence of God, orrecovery from a wound after crouching in the darkness.12

Horsemen cultivated codes of jealous and selfish honour, expressed in glorification – ‘Superior men are ignorant of humility’, the legend of Sunjata

self-explained – in extravagant display, and especially in arms, whether on the tlefield or in single combat, as in a famous sixteenth-century incident whentwo Mossi princes fought for the throne before their men Commoners, too,had their codes of honour centring on courage, endurance of pain – inculcatedespecially in initiation ceremonies – and capacity to fulfil the roles of adultsand parents But the horsemen’s code widened social divisions and fostered theviolent and harshly exploitative states that were replacing the more agricul-tural and egalitarian savanna societies of the first millennium The equestrianethos probably also explained these states’ failure to adopt firearms Songhay’swarriors threw captured Moroccan muskets into the Niger Only Borno usedfirearms, under Idris Aloma and perhaps his predecessors, but it entrustedthem to slaves or Ottoman mercenaries and abandoned them again in the sev-enteenth century Perhaps, like their counterparts in France, the chivalry ofBorno came to see firearms as the grave of honour.

bat-Cavalry warfare probably increased dependence on slavery, both becauseslaves were needed to pay for imported horses and because cavalrymen couldmore easily capture slaves One guess is that the Saharan routes (including thatfrom Darfur in the eastern savanna) carried between four thousand and seventhousand slaves northwards each year at this time North African traders saidthat many died from want and thirst on the two-thousand-kilometre desertcrossing and that survivors were worth between five and eight times as much

in Tripoli as in Borno Slaves also became more numerous within savannasocieties and their duties changed Hitherto, as in other Islamic lands, mostslaves had probably been women employed as domestic servants, concubines,and plural wives All rulers of Songhay save one were sons of concubines,while fourteenth-century Mali imported not only black slaves from the southbut white slave women from the eastern Mediterranean Male slaves worked

as servants, porters, labourers, craftsmen, miners (especially in the Saharansalt mines), and soldiers Some cavalrymen were slave retainers riding theirmasters’ horses Borno matched slaves in wrestling contests like gladiators.Savanna states also used slaves as administrators, for their status was thought

to check their ambition and guarantee their loyalty, although a freed slave may

have usurped the throne of Mali in 1357 One feature of Hausaland’s sarauta

system was wider reliance on slave officials The Kano chronicle records that

Sarki Muhammad Rumfa (c 1463–99) ‘began the custom of giving to eunuchsthe offices of state’; by the 1770s slaves held nine of Kano’s forty-two top offices.But the main innovation was the growing employment of slaves as agriculturallabourers, which was rare in the Islamic world but became characteristic ofthe West African savanna and was a sympton of its underpopulation, whichmade free labour scarce and difficult to exploit Kanem may have used slaves

to colonise new land as early as the eleventh century Mali required servileagriculturalists to set aside a plot and deliver its produce to the authorities

The first evidence of royal domains worked by slaves comes from Wolof try in the 1450s Hausa rulers and officials may have begun to employ slavecultivators at the same period, but the institution was most developed inSonghay, where Askiya Dawud (1549–83) is said to have had plantations, eachwith twenty to a hundred slaves and overseers, at some twenty points alongthe middle Niger Valley, chiefly producing rice Most slaves came from non-Islamic, often stateless peoples to the south whom cavalrymen raided each dryseason A song said to honour an eleventh-century ruler of Kanem celebrated hisbrutality:

coun-The best you took (and sent home) as the first fruits of battle:

The children crying on their mothers you snatched away fromtheir mothers:

You took the slave wife from a slave, and set them in lands farremoved from one another.13

One of his sixteenth-century successors was described as setting out each year

to acquire the slaves to pay the foreign creditors awaiting his return and living athis expense A chronicle lauded Idris Aloma for slaughtering ‘all the fully-grownmale captives from among the pagans’, adding: ‘As for the women and children,they merely became booty.’14That seventeenth-century Kano appointed a newofficial to supervise its slaves indicates how the expanded institution bothdemanded and supported greater state power

political development in the western forest

In the West African forest and its neighbouring grasslands, state formation wasslower than in the savanna, states were smaller, and many societies remainedstateless when Europeans first described them Stateless societies themselveswere diverse Segmentary lineage societies, where order rested only on thethreat of retaliation, existed mainly among herding peoples and were there-fore rare in this region, the chief example being the Tiv of the Benue Valley,whose history is little known More common was the autonomous pioneeringvillage, headed either by a Big Man whose personal qualities attracted kins-men and clients, as was often the case in Cameroun forest regions, or by thesenior descendant of the pioneering colonist, as in many forest areas furtherwest Such coastal peoples as the Jola of modern Senegal remained stateless

by relying on hereditary ritual experts as mediators, just as others secured

an indispensable minimum of arbitration from the rulers of neighbouringstates whose authority they otherwise rejected, as among the stateless peoplesbordering Benin Perhaps the most common religious institutions maintain-ing cohesion within stateless communities were secret societies, notably thePoro and Sande initiation societies for men and women whose importance

in the forests of Guinea and Sierra Leone was attested by early Portuguesevisitors These institutions were not mutually exclusive The most numerousstateless people in Africa belonged to the language group later known as Igbo,

in the southeast of modern Nigeria Despite relatively dense population andconsiderable trade, Igbo remained resolutely stateless, utilising almost all themechanisms mentioned One of their ritual leaders was probably the notableburied at Igbo-Ukwu during the ninth century Western Igbo lived under theshadow of Benin, while those of the north relied on age sets and systems oftitles through which men advanced with years, wealth, and influence Yet Igboobserved also the law of retaliation and the concern for personal honour itentailed

The political distance between a ritual leader or village Big Man and a torial chief was narrow and it is easy to imagine how forest peoples and theirneighbours created the microstates that probably emerged during the late firstmillennium ad, initially in the country of the modern Yoruba, Edo, Nupe, andJukun peoples who straddle the forest-savanna edge south of Hausaland Theearliest microstate yet identified by archaeologists was Ife, just within the forestedge Much uncertainty surrounds its origins, but there were small settlements

terri-in the area by the nterri-inth or tenth century and terri-indications of urbanisation, houseswith potsherd pavements, and sculpture in terracotta during the eleventh ortwelfth century The town stood on a small goldfield and was well situated fortrade and interaction with both the savanna and the coast, but its remains showlittle evidence of such contact and suggest instead an agricultural economy thatcontributed to a regional trading system by manufacturing glass beads In thiscapacity, Ife was the capital of an important kingdom from perhaps the twelfth

to the fifteenth century Its fame rests on its magnificent sculpture in terracottaand brass, mainly depicting people rather than the natural objects represented

at Igbo-Ukwu The terracottas were made first Many were probably offerings atshrines and realistically depicted a spectrum of human conditions from kingsand courtiers to the diseased and the executed In the fourteenth and fifteenthcenturies, the terracotta tradition was transferred to brass Fewer than thirtybrasses are known Made by a lost-wax casting process in a style of idealisednaturalism, most represent kings at the height of their powers and possess aserene majesty unsurpassed in human art For reasons we do not know, Ife’sbrassworkers achieved an appreciation of human worth that was to survive in

a more popular form in the life-affirming humanism of Yoruba woodcarving,long after the rise of other polities had isolated Ife from its sources of brass andpower, reducing it to merely ritual primacy

Ife’s earliest known successor was the Edo kingdom of Benin, the only otherimportant forest state of the period Here the evidence that the kingdom grewfrom earlier villages and microstates is especially clear from the ten thousandkilometres of earth boundaries built by their founders in the early second

millennium Benin City, on their western edge, may have originated as a gious centre, but it was transformed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries bywarrior kings who claimed Ife origin and introduced Yoruba innovations Thefirst and greatest was Ewuare, who is said to have conquered 201 towns andvillages, subjecting the surrounding microstates, resettling their populations,and converting the city into the capital of a kingdom about 120 kilometresacross He supposedly constructed the palace and the city defences He con-verted the government into a patrimonial bureaucracy by appointing freemen

reli-as military and administrative chiefs supplanting the heads of lineage groups

He or his successors probably established the high degree of state involvement inforeign trade that the Portuguese found when they arrived in 1486 The regimepatronised the brassworkers who cast Benin’s famous royal heads and othermagnificent sculptures, combining European metal with lost-wax techniquessaid to have come from Ife, although modern experts disagree on this point.Benin’s art was a court art, practised by hereditary craftsmen within the palacewalls, divided by a vast technical gulf from popular culture When the firstEuropeans arrived, Benin was the major state of the West African forest anddeeply impressed them by its wealth and sophistication During the seventeenthcentury, however, the military and administrative chiefs came to overshadowthe king, reducing him to a secluded ritual figure, fighting among themselves,and temporarily depopulating the city

By the fifteenth century, several other Yoruba kingdoms coexisted with Ife,each with its walled capital, secluded king claiming Ife origins, city chiefs head-ing powerful coresident descent groups, and outlying villages Trade was proba-bly important in several of these political aggregations, especially perhaps tradewith itinerant merchants from Songhay, for the Yoruba language still retainsmany Songhay loan-words for Islamic, commercial, and equestrian matters Ofthe new kingdoms, Ijebu Ode probably took shape by 1400 and was described

as a ‘very large city’ a century later, while fifteenth-century Owo was an tic centre to rival Ife and Benin The arrival of the war-horse from the northwas another political stimulus Hitherto, forest peoples had held the initia-tive in this region Brass sculptures from fourteenth-century Ife had passednorthwards to the savanna kingdom of Nupe, while Tsoede, traditional creator

artis-of a new Nupe dynasty early in the sixteenth century, had an Edo-speakingmother Shortly thereafter, however, both Nupe and Bariba armies from thenorth invaded Yorubaland, probably with cavalry, attacking especially Oyo,the most northerly Yoruba kingdom, located in the savanna Oyo responded

by adopting cavalry warfare and emerged during the seventeenth century asthe most powerful Yoruba state Similar processes may have bred Allada andWhydah, the first kingdoms among the Aja-speaking peoples (Ewe and Fon)who occupied a savanna corridor to the coast known as the Dahomey Gap.Both kingdoms probably existed in the fifteenth century