SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF COLLOCATIONS CONTAINING THE VERB MAKE WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR VIETNAMESE TRANSLATION EQUIVALENTS IN “JANE EYRE BY CHARLOTTE BRONTE

THESIS SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF COLLOCATIONS CONTAINING THE VERB "MAKE" WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR VIETNAMESE TRANSLATION EQUIVALENTS IN “JANE EYRE" BY CHARLOTTE BRONTE Đặc đi

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS

SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF COLLOCATIONS CONTAINING THE VERB

"MAKE" WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR

VIETNAMESE TRANSLATION EQUIVALENTS IN

“JANE EYRE" BY CHARLOTTE BRONTE (Đặc điểm cú pháp và ngữ nghĩa của ngữ động từ cố định chứa động từ "Make" trong sự liên hệ với bản dịch tương đương tiếng việt trong tác phẩm “Jane Eyre”

của Charlotte Bronte)

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF COLLOCATIONS CONTAINING THE VERB

"MAKE" WITH REFERENCE TO THEIR

VIETNAMESE TRANSLATION EQUIVALENTS IN

“JANE EYRE" BY CHARLOTTE BRONTE

(Đặc điểm cú pháp và ngữ nghĩa của ngữ động từ cố định chứa động từ "Make" trong sự liên hệ với bản dịch tương đương tiếng việt trong tác phẩm “Jane Eyre”

của Charlotte Bronte)

VŨ THỊ THANH THỦY Field: English Language Code: 8.22.02.01 Supervisor: Dr NGUYỄN THỊ VÂN ĐÔNG

Hanoi, 2020

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I, The undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report

entitled S yntactic and semantic features of collocations containing the verb MAKE with reference to their Vietnamese translation equivalents in "Jane

định chứa động từ MAKE trong sự liên hệ với bản dịch tương đương tiếng Việt trong tác phẩm “Jane Eyre” của Charlotte Bronte) submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of Master in English Language Except where the reference is indicated, no other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the text of the thesis

Hanoi, 2020

Vũ Thị Thanh Thủy

Approved by SUPERVISOR

NGUYỄN THỊ VÂN ĐÔNG Date:June 18 th , 2020

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis could not have been completed without the help, encouragement and support from a number of people who all deserve my sincerest gratitude and appreciation

First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Nguyễn Thị Vân Đông, for her enthusiastic and useful guidance, insightful comments, and encouragement without which my thesis would not have been completed

Next, my special thanks go to all my lectures at Hanoi Open University for their precious assistance, knowledge, experience and enthusiasm in their lectures, from which I have acquired valuable knowledge and inspiration to fulfill this minor thesis

Furthermore, my deepest gratitude and appreciation go to my beloved family and colleagues Their love, support and constant encouragement gave me a great deal of strength and determination that help me during the stressful time of writing this paper

Last but not least, my sincere thanks are for the people who will give me the precious comments after reading the graduation thesis

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study is to investigate into syntactic and semantic features of collocations containing the verb MAKE in the novel “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte with reference to their Vietnamese translation equivalents, in order to strengthen the ability of teachers and learners in dealing with collocations of verbs

in general and collocations containing the verb MAKE in particular This study was designed as a descriptive research with the method of contrastive and componential analysis The findings pointed out that: (i) In terms of syntactic features, collocations containing the verb MAKE in the novel “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte can be divided into Phrasal verbs with MAKE (E.g make out, make off), Prepositional verbs with MAKE (E.g make in, make from), Phrasal-prepositional verb with MAKE (E.g make up for), Combination of verb MAKE + Noun/ Object (E.g make amends), Combination of verb MAKE + expression with preposition (E.g make a decision to) In terms of semantic features, collocations containing the verb MAKE in the novel “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte have both idiomatic and non-idiomatic meanings (ii) There still exists similarities and differences between collocations containing the verb MAKE in English and in Vietnamese (iii) Implications for teaching-learning English collocations in general and collocations containing the verb MAKE in particular need to be given to the teachers and learners of English

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

Objective Preposition Prepositional Phrase Second language acquisition Verb

LIST OF TABLES AND FINGURES

Table 2.1 Differences between antonyms, superordinates and their hyponyms, and near synonyms 9

Table 2.2 Distinction between free word combination, collocations and idioms 19

Table 3.1 Type of collocations of the verb MAKE in the novel “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte

Bronte 31

Table 3.2 Meanings of collocations of the verb MAKE in the novel “Jane Eyre” by

Charlotte Bronte 32

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

ABSTRACT v

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS vi

LIST OF TABLES AND FINGURES vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS viii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1.Rationale 1

1.2.Aims and objectives of the study 1

1.3.Research questions 2

1.4.Method of the study 2

1.5.Scope of the study 3

1.6.Significance of the study 3

1.7.Structure of Thesis 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1.Previous studies 5

2.1.1 Previous studies overseas 5

2.1.2 Previous studies in Vietnam 6

2.2.Theoretical background 7

2.2.1 Theory of syntax 7

2.2.2 Theory of semantic 9

2.2.3 Theory of translation 11

2.3 Theoretical framework 12

2.3.1 An overview of verbs 12

2.3.2 An overview of collocations 15

2.3.3 An overview of collocations with the verb MAKE in English 23

2.4.Summary 28

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLODY 29

3.1 Research approach 29

3.2 Methods of the study 29

3.3 Data collection and data analysis 30

3.4 Summary 33

CHAPTER 4: THE SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF COLLOCATIONS

WITH VERB “MAKE” WITH ITS REFERENCE INTO VIETNAMESE IN THE NOVEL

“JANE EYRE” BY CHARLOTTE BRONTE 34

4.1 Syntactic features of collocations with verb MAKE in “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte 34

4.1.1 Phrasal verbs with MAKE 35

4.1.2 Prepositional verbs with MAKE 36

4.1.3 Phrasal – prepositional verbs with MAKE 37

4.1.4 Combination of verb MAKE + Noun/ Object 38

4.1.5 Combination of the verb MAKE + expression + preposition 39

4.2 Semantic feature of collocations with verb MAKE in “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte 41

4.2.1 Collocations with verb MAKE as phrasal verbs 42

4.2.2 Collocations with the verb MAKE as prepositional verbs 44

4.2.3 Collocations with the verb MAKE as phrasal-prepositional verbs 45

4.2.4 Combinations of the verbs MAKE + Noun/ Object (+ adjective/verb) 46

4.2.5 Combinations of the verbs MAKE + Expression + preposition 47

4.3 Similarities and differences between the collocations containing the verb MAKE in English and in Vietnamese 48

4.3.1 Similarities 48

4.3.2 Differences 49

4.4 Some implications in teaching and learning collocations with the verb MAKE 52

4.4.1 The importance of understanding the relationships between the verb MAKE and the other components within these collocations 52

4.4.2 The necessity of linguistic competence for teachers and learners 52

4.4.3 Use of equivalence 52

4.4.4 Use of dictionaries 54

4.4.5 Implications 55

4.5 Summary 57

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 58

5.1 Recapitulation 58

5.2 Concluding remarks 59

5.3 Limitations of the study 59

5.4 Recommendations for further study 60

REFERENCES 61

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale

It is obviously undeniable that English is one of the most dominating language of the world which is having its impact on every field of life English is the language of science, aviation, computers, diplomacy, tourism … It’s also the language of international communication, the media and the internet, so learning English is important for socializing and entertaining as well as for working However, one of the most challenging areas in English is collocations, especially collocations containing verbs Collocations containing verbs are very important for teachers and learners because they are so prevalent in everyday language In addition, using collocations containing verbs correctly will help you understand and sound naturally in casual conversation

In English, the verb MAKE does not only indicate an activity but also imply other situations in real life communication To some extent, it is not too difficult to find such circumstances in which people use the verb MAKE Especially, modern English language, which has developed and reflected the life in its own way, has been supplemented with many new words, or new interpretations to the existing words such as “make an appointment”, “make an arrangement”, “make the best of”, etc

Therefore, collocations containing verbs in general and collocations containing the verb MAKE in particular undoubtedly make it really problematic for Vietnamese teacher and learners to master Collocations containing the verb MAKE tend to be used frequently in various ways by native speakers not only in their everyday conversation but in books, newspapers, magazines especially in English literary works as well

With the above reasons, I have the desire to conduct a study on collocations containing the verb MAKE as the theme for my M.A thesis The study is so entitled

“Syntactic and semantic features of collocations containing the verb MAKE with reference to their Vietnamese translation equivalents in “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte.”

1.2 Aims and objectives of the study

This study aims at studying the syntactic and semantic features of collocations containing the verb MAKE in the novel “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte

Bronte with reference to their Vietnamese translation equivalents in order to strengthen the ability of teachers and learners in dealing with collocations of verbs

in general and collocations containing the verb MAKE in particular

The objectives of the study are as follows:

- Describing and investigating syntactic and semantic features of collocations containing the verb MAKE in the novel “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte

- Finding out the similarities and differences of collocations containing the verb MAKE in English and in Vietnamese

- Suggesting some implications for teaching-learning English collocations in general and collocations containing the verb MAKE in particular for the teachers and learners of English

1.3 Research questions

In order to gain the above aims and objectives, this study will attempt to

answer the following questions

1 What are the syntactic and semantic features of English collocations containing the verb MAKE in the novel “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte?

2 How are collocations containing the verb MAKE similar and diferent in terms of these features?

3 What are the implications for teaching and learning English collocations containing the verb MAKE?

1.4 Method of the study

This paper uses a number of methods and techniques so as to offer a profound investigation of collocations with verb MAKE with reference to their Vietnamese translation equivalents in the novel “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte

First of all, the descriptive method is used to cast light on the syntactic and semantic features of collocation with verb MAKE through a process of data collection With this method, each category and subcategory of syntactic and semantic features of these collocation verbs will be described in a clear and detailed manner

Second, the statistical technique is also utilized to collect, summarize, analyze and interpret the variable numerical data from the survey The usage of this technique results in correct evaluation of students’ ability to respond to the given test, which is clearly expressed in the percentage

Finally, the contrastive analysis method is alo used For this method, English

is considered to be the target language and Vietnamese - the source language – a means to contrast

1.5 Scope of the study

The study focuses on analyzing syntactic and semantic features of English collocations containing the verb MAKE in the novel "Jane Eyre" by Charlotte Bronte It is better if English collocations with more verbs are analyzed and totalized, contributing considerably to English teaching and learning in Vietnam This study, therefore, suggests teachers and learners at high shools to learn about English collocations and discover the rules to make use of collocations containing the verb MAKE

It is hoped that the outcome of this research thesis, to some extent, would be able to make a certain contribution to enhance the effectiveness of teaching and learning collocations and encourage English collocations containing the verb MAKE to be applied at high schools as well as for self-learners of English

1.6 Significance of the study

Theoretically, this study seeks to contribute to the theoretical basis of the characteristics in terms of the syntax and semantics of collocations of verbs in general and collocations containing the verb MAKE in particular

Practically, the study is expected to be used as a good reference for learning and researching language The result of the study through analysis and comparison between two languages may be a great of benefit for teachers and learners of English, as well as helpful in using the language effectively in life Suggestions for teaching-learning English collocations in general and collocations containing the verb MAKE in particular for the teachers and learners of English are given more effectively Besides that, this research is conducted with the hope that in the foreseeable future, teachers of English will get to know more about the collocations containing the verb MAKE and realize their importance in teaching so that they can adapt them to their own teaching conditions

1.7 Structure of Thesis

The thesis is organized into five chapters:

Chapter 1, Introduction covers the problem statement and the reasons for

doing the research, the aims and objectives of the thesis as well as the scope and the structure of the research

Chapter 2, Literature Review provides the results of others who worked on

the problem or on a similar problem, as well as presents a review of theoretical background and theoretical framework for the case study

Chapter 3, Methodology describes the methods and materials used in doing

the research, including data collection and data analysis techniques

Chapter 4, Finding and Discussions synthesizes the syntactic and semantic

features of collocations containing the verb MAKE in “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte as well as gives the similarities and differences of collocations containing the verb MAKE and some suggested implications for teaching-learning English collocations in general and collocations containing the verb MAKE in particular for the learners and teachers of English

Chapter 5, Conclusion restates the aims and summarizes how to conduct the

research to the objectives

Reference comes at the end of the thesis

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Collocations are usually described as “sequence of lexical items which

habitually co-occur” (Cruae, 1986, p40) Until now, there has been much

theoretical and applied research on collocations initially under the influence of corpus-based studies and later by lexical approaches to language teaching

However, despite many researchers and linguists having reached a co sensus about the

essential role of collocations in productive vocabulary, they differ as to what collocations are and standpoint E.g Firth (2004) defines collocations as “the company words keep together” and he suggests knowing a word by the company it keeps From another perspective, a comprehensive definition collated from definitions by scholars who have contributed to literature in the field of EFL can be useful (Lewis, 2000; Hill, 2000; Nation, 2001) Thus, with regard to the scope and purpose of the thesis aimed at identifying the syntactic and semantic features of collocations containing the verb MAKE with reference to their Vietnamese translation equivalents in “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte

In this chapter, the main theories on syntax, semantics, English verbs, and specifically the verb MAKE, as well as those on collocations are presented to provide a theoretical background to this study

2.1 Previous studies

There are some previous studies related to the analysis of collocation expressions The descriptions of the previous research findings are as follows

2.1.1 Previous studies overseas

Up to present, there have been a number of studies on different kinds of verbs in English The description and analyses are based on the starting points from Chomsky The other descriptions of syntactic and semantic view are through different ages in the history of linguistic as William Bullokar in “Brief Grammar for English” (1785) According to Vendler, Z in Linguistics in philosophy, Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press placed verbs into four classes: activities, accomplishments, achievements, and states In “Semantic Structure”, Jackendoff presents some verbs of manner of motion and configuration Moreover, according to Biber D et al, verbs are classified into seven major semantic domains, although many verbs have more than one meaning Marcella Frank in “Modern English a practice reference guide” [12, p.47] classifies verbs by complement of verb or by

form of verb The types of verbs described have difference according to the kind of complement they may have According to Levin, verbs are put into 23 different classes based on their patterns of alternation and according to George A Miller; verbs are divided into 15 files largely based on semantic criteria All but one of these files corresponds to what linguists have called semantic domains: verbs of bodily care and functions, change cognition, communication, competitions, etc Angela Downing and Philp Locke and Graham Lock supply us with some information about perception verbs About multiple-class membership of verbs in the book, entitled “A Grammar of Contemporary English” Quirk R et al (1985) defined six patterns of the verb MAKE

2.1.2 Previous studies in Vietnam

As students of other languages, Vietnamese students also meet difficulties when acquiring English collocations In a conference at the University of Western Sydney, Trinh (1995) mentioned to collocation, in particular English collocation, particularly those for whom English is their second and weaker language The results showed that there were very few syntactic errors, and that the examiners probably have treated syntactic and grammatical errors as one area of error only

The author also realized that the errors being made were a result of the candidates' lack of knowledge of English collocations, whether they are grammatical or lexical Moreover, in the frame of M.A thesis at Vietnam National University, Hanoi – University of Languages and International Studies, there are also studies of collocations Works by Chu Thị Phương Vân (2005), Lê Thanh Hà (2007) and Đào Thị Ngọc Nguyên (2007) are some of typical examples They are all interested in the collocation issue They investigated the collocations definition, classification and the students’ knowledge about collocations

Additionally, by collecting and analyzing abundant examples of MAKE in English collocations, as well as their Vietnamese equivalents, Minh (2010) had successfully compared the two verbs, one in English and one in the other language, regarding their semantic features In more details, she divided the meanings of MAKE into several sub-groups and provided translations for these different meanings of MAKE; however, she chose only one meaning for the Vietnamese word, LÀM For the second part, pure explanations of meanings were given, whilst for the former one, every single meaning was accompanied by their corresponding Vietnamese translations Then, she stated her final conclusions, both about

similarities and differences in the finding section, but in my opinion there are still some unclear points in her work and there is still a necessity to solve them more cautiously in this study

Chu Thị Phương Vân (2005) analyzed the collocations of one English textbook on Electronics and Telecommunications Phạm Thị Nga (2012) carried out common errors related to the usage of “do” and “make” collocations by English non – major students at Thai Nguyen university of economics and business administration However, a detailed investigation into the collocations of lexical verb “make” has not been taken There has neither been any works that gave the insights to the comparison between English collocations and Vietnamese ones In the frame of an M.A thesis, the author would like to contribute a very minor investigation focusing on the collocation “Verb + noun” (lexical collocation) with the verb “make” in order to facilitate students when dealing with these combinations of words Also, the Vietnamese equivalents are given to compare and contrast

Once again, the author has to repeat that it is true that little work has been conducted towards MAKE and its collocations so far Plus, when it comes to studies about their Vietnamese equivalents, it is even harder to find such topic-related work It is also clear that MAKE studies have not been analyzed systematically, as has been pointed out in the previous paragraph The author, as a result, makes an attempt to investigate both syntactic and semantic features of English collocations with the verb MAKE and their Vietnamese equivalents with regards to methods, implications and findings in comparison with other earlier studies as cited previously Therefore, the researcher decided to conduct a research to find out how many collocations containing the verb MAKE exactly found in the novel “Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Bronte, what types of collocation expressions, what the dominant types of collocation used, and what kind of problems existing in understanding collocation expression

2.2 Theoretical background

2.2.1 Theory of syntax

In a language as English, the main device for showing the relationship among words is word order The arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts is syntax The term "syntax" is from the Ancient Greek syntax is, a

verbal noun which literally means "arrangement" or "setting out together" (Matthews 1982) In the 19th century, with the development of historical-comparative linguistics, linguists began to realize the sheer diversity of human language and to question fundamental assumptions about the relationship between language and logic The Port-Royal grammar modeled the study of syntax upon that

of logic Syntactic categories were identified with logical ones, and all sentences were analyzed in terms of "subject – copula – predicate" Initially, this view was adopted even by the early comparative linguists such as Franz Bopp

However, the central role of syntax within theoretical linguistics became clear only in the 20th century, which could reasonably be called the "century of syntactic theory" as far as linguistics is concerned (Giorgio Graffi 2001)

In linguistics, syntax is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences (sentence structure) in a given language, usually including word order The term syntax is also used to refer to the study of such principles and processes

According to R.M.W Dixon (1991), syntax deals with the way in which words are combined together Syntax is understood to be the theory of the structure

of sentences in a language This view has its direct antecedents in the theory of immediate constituents, in which the function of syntax is to mediate between the observed forms of a sentence and its meaning

Bloomfield (1993), he states “we could not understand the form of a language if we merely reduced all the complex forms to their ultimate constituents”

He argued that in order to account for the meaning of a sentence, it is necessary to recognize how individual constituents such words and morphemes constitute more complex forms Syntax is now the study of the principles and rules that govern the ways in which words are combined to form phrases, clauses and sentences in a language Syntax, which is a subfield of grammar, focuses on the word order of a language and the relationships between words In other words, morphology deals with word formation out of morphemes whereas syntax deals with phrase and sentence formation of words Syntax structures are analyzable into sequences of syntactic categories or syntactic classes, these being established on the basic of the syntactic relationships and linguistic items have with other items in a construction Every language has a limited number of syntactic relations Subject and object are probably universal of syntactic relations, which apply to every language However,

just as the criteria for the major words class noun and verb differ from language to language, so do the ways in which syntactic relations are marked

2.2.2 Theory of semantic

Semantics (from Ancient Greek: σημαντικός sēmantikós,"significant") is the study of meaning - in language, programming languages, formal logics, and semiotics It focuses on the relationship between signifiers - like words, phrases, signs, and symbols - and what they stand for, their denotation

Semantics is a branch of linguistics dealing with the meaning of words, phrases and sentences, however, contrary to pragmatics it does not analyze the intended speaker meaning, or what words denote on a given occasion, but the objective, conventional meaning Additionally, it is concerned with the conceptual meaning and not the associative meaning

Richards et al define semantic features (semantic components) as “the smallest units of meaning in a world” which may be describe as “a combination of semantic features” However, Crystal points out that semantic features are minimal contrastive elements of a word’s meaning

According to Kamil Wiśniewski, Aug.12th, 2007, semantic features are considered basic elements which enable the differentiation of meaning of words This view is also shared by Cornelius Puschmann: “Semantic feature analysis allows us to decompose words into bundles of attributes” and “semantic features can be used to describe differences between antonyms, superordinates and their hyponyms, and near synonyms”

Table 2.1 Differences between antonyms, superordinates and their

hyponyms, and near synonyms

In short, the analysis of word meaning is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of word into its minimal components, which are known as semantic features or sense components

In general, semantics can be defined as the study of meaning It is central to the study of communication In addition, there is no doubt that communication is a crucial factor in our life, which is why the need to understand semantics becomes more and more pressing

Many authors hold the idea that semantics is the meaning place of various cross current thinking and various discipline of the study Philosophy, psychology and linguistics all claim a deep interest in semantics, but their interests are diverse because of their different starting points “Semantics is the study of meaning Semantics is that portion of semiotic which deals with the signification of signifying.”” – Lyons (1977) According to Hurford & Heasley (1983), Semantics is the study of meaning in language Language is a means of communications, and people use language to communicate with others by making conversations, giving information, and other things to make social relationship Human beings have been given the capacity to talk, to communicate with each other, to make meaningful utterances, so that they are understood by other human beings They communicate about the world in which they live, about themselves, about their thought and feeling, about what has happened, about what might happen or what they would like

to happen, and a lot more “Linguistic semantics is the study of literal, decontextualized, grammatical meaning” Frawley (1992) “Linguistic semantics is the study of how languages organize and express meanings” – Kreidler (1998)

“Semantics is the study of meaning communicated through language” – Lobner (2002)

Nowadays, there are two ways of approaching semantics The formal semantics approach connects with classical philosophical semantics, that is, logic It should not be forgotten that semantics was a part of philosophy for many centuries Formal semantics tries to describe the meaning of language using the descriptive apparatus of formal logic The purpose is to describe natural language in a formal, precise, unambiguous way Related denominations for this type of semantics are truth-conditional semantics, model theoretic semantics, logical semantics, etc In truth-conditional semantics, the goal is to describe the conditions that would have to

be met for a sentence to be true Formal semantics follows Frege’s principle of

compositionality: the meaning of the whole is a function of the meaning of the parts This type of semantics has proposed very precise and detailed analyses of sentences and propositions, though at the price of abandoning many of the factors affecting meaning, such as etymological, cultural or psychological considerations, and neglecting a detailed analysis of the meaning of words (lexical semantics) The other approach to semantics we could call psychologically-oriented semantics or cognitive semantics This approach does not consider the logical structure of language as important for the description of the meaning of language, and tends to disregard notions such as truth-values or strict compositionality Cognitive semantics tries to explain semantic phenomena by appealing to biological, psychological and even cultural issues They are less concerned with notions of reference and try to propose explanations that will fit with everything that we know about cognition, including perceptions and the role of the body in the structuring of meaning structures Throughout the years, only two plausible functions of language have been considered; a communicative function and a representational function; in both of them, semantics has to be placed at the very heart of the process

2.2.3 Theory of translation

There have been numerous definitions of translation introduced by different linguists so far In 1965, according to Catford, translation is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)

In general, translation should be conceptualized as a target language product which is as semantically accurate, grammatically correct, stylistically effective and textually coherent as the source language text In other words, the translator's main attention should not be focused only on the accurate semantic transference of source language message into the target language, but also on the appropriate syntax and diction in the target language, which are explicitly the translator’s (not the source author’s) domain of activity which displays his true competence Several of them,

as presented above will be used by the writer of this paper in a hope that some implications given, which are based on the translation theories above might help Vietnamese translators with efficiently translating collocations containing the verb MAKE in English source texts into Vietnamese in Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte

Theories of syntactic, semantic and translation are carried out firstly with main purpose to decide the theoretical framework of the study in the next part

2.3 Theoretical framework

2.3.1 An overview of verbs

The verb is king in English The shortest sentence contains a verb We can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for example: "Listen!" We cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word

2.3.1.1 Definition of the English verb

A verb is often defined as a word which shows action or state of being It

originated from the Latin word verbum, which means “a word.” A verb is a major

part of a predicate in which a thought cannot convey a complete idea

Fowler (1926) defines a verb as being traditionally regarded as a word that describes the action or states which the sentence seeks to convey and is normally an essential element in a clause or sentence

E.g She opened the door / She was happy

According to Randolph Quirk et al (1973), verb forms are divided into two main types: finite verbs and non-finite verbs English verbs can be classified in terms of functions of items, complementation, possibility of expressing a progressive aspect and structure He also defines the grammatical categories of verbs as tense, aspect, mood and voice

A verb always has a subject E.g in the sentence “John speaks English",

“John” is the subject and “speaks” is the verb In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe: - action (Ram plays football.) - state (Anthony seems kind.)

According to Richards et al (1992 p.398), in English, a word is a verb when

it satisfies the following criteria: Occur as part of the predicate of a sentence; Carrles markers of grammatical categories such as tense, aspect, person, number, and mood: and Refers to an action or state

“Verb is a word which occurs as a part of the predicate of a sentence: carries markers of grammatical categories such as tense, aspect, person, and mood, and refers to an action or state” (Cambridge dictionary.com) E.g “Lower fares make it advantageous to travel in winter.”; “I first made his acquaintance in 2006”; “Please stop making that annoying noise.”

The verb is the heart of a sentence - every sentence must have a verb Recognizing the verb is often the most important step in understanding the meaning

of a sentence In the sentence ‘The dog bit the man’, ‘bit’ is the verb and the word which shows the action of the sentence In the sentence ‘The man is sitting on a

chair’, even though the action doesn't show much activity, ‘sitting’ is the verb of the sentence In the sentence ‘She is a smart girl’, there is no action but a state of being expressed by the verb ‘is’ The word ‘be’ is different from other verbs in many ways but can still be thought of as a verb

A verb always has a subject E.g.: in the sentence ‘John speaks English’ John

is the subject and speaks is the verb In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:

- Action (Ram plays football.)

- State (Anthony seems kind.)

According to Jack C Richards et al (1992:398), in English, a word is a verb when it satisfied these following criteria:

- Occur as part of the predicate of a sentence;

- Carries markers of grammatical categories such as tense, aspect, person, number, and mood; and

- Refers to an action or state

Almost verbs in English change in form in accordance with tense, mood, person, etc for example: ‘Lower fares make it advantageous to travel in winter.’; ‘I first made his acquaintance in 2006’; ‘Please stop making that noise annoying’, etc

In Vietnamese, verbs are one of the two fundamental parts of speech like nouns Verbs in Vietnamese also play an important role in vocabulary as well as in forming sentences Contrary to verbs in English, verbs in Vietnamese do not have the concord with other parts of speech In other words, they are not affected by number, person, gender, mood, voice, and tense And in Vietnamese, verbs can combine with other auxiliary components to indicate tense, aspect like ‘sắp’, ‘sẽ’,

‘đã’ , continuation like ‘còn’, ‘vẫn’, etc

Generally in English there are many definitions of verbs but there is no useful or adequate definition of the term “verb” Consequently, in this paper the author only mentions linguistic definitions of verbs for the purposes of research

2.3.1.2 Typical features of English verbs

English verbs fall into several broad categories The theories surrounding English verbs and their features can be found in the literature of Crystal (1995), Randolph Quirk (1973) and Lê Huy Trường (2009) Typical features of English verbs can be divided into the following aspects:

2.3.1.2.1 Verb forms

According to Mr Randolph Quirk et al (1973, p.38), verb forms are divided into two main types:

- Finite verbs: normally have a subject (present or hidden) and a tense

(tensed verb) E.g She sent him a letter I always call him on Saturday

- Non-finite verbs: no subject - verb concord, no tense and no mood E.g I

want to go out now

Non-finite verbs also have smaller types: Infinitive with to (E.g To make); Infinitive without to (E.g make); Present infinitive (E.g to have made); Perfect infinitive (E.g have made); Present participle (E.g making); Past participle (E.g made); Gerund (E.g making)

2.3.1.2.2 Classifications of English verbs

In general, there are many methods of classifying English verbs According

to Quirk (1973) and Le Huy Truong (2009), English verbs can be classified in terms of:

Functions of items: verbs are classified as lexical or auxiliary verbs Lexical

verbs include regular verbs (book, booked, booked) and irregular verbs (make, made, made) Auxiliary verbs include primary (do, have, be), modal (can, shall, will) and marginal modal auxiliary (used to, dare, need) semi-auxiliary (happen, appear, seem, have to) verbs

Complementation: verbs can be intensive verbs or extensive Intensive verbs

consist of current copular (feel, be, look) and resulting copular (become, get, go) verbs Extensive verbs include transitive (Mono-transitive, Di-transitive and complex-transitive) and intransitive (requiring no object) verbs

Possibility of expressing a progressive aspect: verbs are further divided into

stative and dynamic verbs Stative verbs are those of inert perception and recognition (adore, astonish) and relational verbs (equal, lack, matter) Dynamic verbs are verbs of body sensation (ache, hurt, itch, fall ), activity verbs (ask, eat, help, learn), transitional verbs (arrive, land, leave, lose), momentary verbs (hit, jump, kick., knock, nod) and process verbs (change, prow, mature)

Structure (number of items in the verb): there are two types of verbs:

one-word verbs and multi-one-word verbs One-one-word verbs are finite and non-finite (infinitive, present participle, past participle) verbs Multi-word verbs include

phrasal verbs (make out, call up, put on), prepositional verbs (look up, clear up, get at), and phrasal-prepositional verbs (put up with, come up with, make up for)

2.3.1.2.3 Grammatical categories of verbs

Quirk (1973, p.40) defines the grammatical categories of verbs as: tense, aspect, mood, and voice

The tense of verbs is the correspondence between the form of the verb and our concept of time E.g She is crying now (verb form: ing-participle + present time: now => present time)

The aspect of verbs concerns the manner in which the verbal action is experienced or regarded with respect to time whether verbal action is experienced

as being in progress (progressive aspect) or completed (perfective aspect) E.g I am writing with a special pen (Progressive aspect) I have written with a special pen (Perfective aspect)

The mood of verbs is the grammatical category that relates the verb action to such conditions as certainty, obligatory, necessity, or possibility There are three kinds of mood: indicative (statement of a fact), imperative (command, request) and subjunctive (non -factual, unreal) E.g She is nice to me (Fact-indicative) Be nice

to me! (Command-imperative) I suggest she be nice to me (Non-fact -subjunctive)

The voice of verbs is the grammatical category that shows if the subject of the sentence is the doer (agent/ actor/ performer) of the verbal action or is affected

by or benefits from the verbal action This includes Passive and Active voice E.g

He ate all the apples (Active voice) The dog was bitten by our neighbor (Passive voice)

In short, the verb is king in English The shortest sentence contains a verb

We can make a one-word sentence with a verb, E.g "Stop!”" We cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word In other words, the verb is the heart

of a sentence - every sentence must have a verb

2.3.2 An overview of collocations

2.3.2.1 Definition of collocations

All languages have a large number of collocations, and linguists have defined them in different ways The concept of collocations was first identified by Palmer (1984) as a string of words that must or is best or most conveniently learned as an integral whole or independent entity rather than by a process of piecing together

their component parts

Most of the researchers who define collocations agree that they are lexical units consisting of a cluster of two or three words from different parts of speech (Baker, 1992; Benson and Ilson, 1997) Most of the definitions paraphrase each other Eirth (1957, p 183) defines collocations as “words in habitual company” The majority of the definitions have at their core some sense of the “co-occurrence” of words For instance, Colin M., et al (2009) gives a general definition of collocations

as the way words combine in a language to produce natural-sounding speech and writing E.g., in English we say strong wind but heavy rain

More specifically, Robins (2000, p.64), defines collocation as the habitual association of a word in a language with other particular words in sentences but less closely with extra-linguistic reference E.g., “white race', “white coffee', etc All contain word “white” with different meanings from the denotative meaning of the color However, one of the most detailed definitions posits that (Howard J & Et Leanne Z (2000, p.256) “collocation is a lexical relationship of mutual expectancy, the presence of a particular lexical item gives rise to the greater likelihood that other lexical items belonging to the same area of meaning will also occur.”

Richard (1985, p.183) summarizes what is meant by mastering a word: l) knowing the frequency of the word in oral and written language; 2) knowing the grammatical patterns of the word; 3) knowing its associated network with other words Among these three criteria, the latter two relate to our discussion In most cases, it is difficult or impossible to have such a thorough knowledge of a word, but these criteria are important in that they point out the importance of cultivating a deeper understanding of a word

In short, collocations are not easily defined and as a teacher, the researcher feels that students need a more clear and practical definition In the researcher’s opinion, collocations have three features They are:

- Collocations are arbitrary, which means that these are combinations that students are expected to produce in the free production of language

- Individual words in a collocation can contribute to the overall semantics of the compound

- Collocations is neither free word combination nor idiom, it lies somewhere

in the middle of the spectrum

2.3.2.2 Characteristics of collocations

In discussion of the nature of collocation, linguists have been trying to generalize what characteristics collocations have in common Generally, collocations have two major features as follow

2.3.2.2.1 Collocations are arbitrary

According to Kathleen R McKeown and Dragomir R Radev (1995), the

notion of arbitrariness illustrates the fact that substituting a synonym for one of the

words in a collocational word pair may result in an unnatural lexical combination

Thus, e.g., a phrase such as make an effort is acceptable, but make an exertion is not; similarly, a running commentary, commit treason, warm greetings are all true collocations, but a running discussion, commit treachery, and hot greetings are not

acceptable lexical combinations

In short, there is no absolute rule that can be applied to all collocations Thus, they are best dealt with individually as they arise or by depending on a notion of typicality to decide what acceptable and unacceptable collocations might be

2.3.2.2.2 Collocations are language-specific

As Larson (1984, p.l4l) points out, every language interprets the physical words in its own way and has its own conventions which govern the collocability of words In other words, the exact combinations of words will differ from language to language E.g in Vietnamese we say “earn money” but in English the equivalent

phrase is “make money” Similarly, in American English one says set the table and make a decision; whereas in British English, the corresponding phrases are lay the table and take a decision Therefore, what is a perfectly acceptable collocation in one language may be unacceptable in another Take the case of make in English and làm in Vietnamese as a typical example Although these two words are

equivalent to each other, they cannot go with the same range of nouns While such

collocations as làm trai, làm duyên, làm dáng, làm lẽ are acceptable in Vietnamese, the verb make in English actually cannot co-occur with these corresponding nouns Instead, the equivalent phrases are be a man, posture, be a concubine in which

different verbs are employed

2.3.2.3 The distinction between free word combinations, idiomatic expressions and collocations

Collocations are not easily defined In linguistic and lexicographic literature, they are often discussed in contrast with free word combinations at one extreme and

idiomatic expressions at the other, with collocations falling somewhere in the middle of this spectrum

2.3.2.3.1 Free word combinations

From the point of view of Kathleen R MeKeown and Dragomir R Radev (1995), a free word combination can be explained using general rules; that is, in terms of semantic constraints on which words appear in a specific syntactic relationship with a given headword Thus, examples of free word combinations

include put+[object] or run (meaning “manage”)+[object] where the words that can occur as object are virtually open-ended In the case of put, the semantic constraint

on the object is relatively open-ended (any physical object can be used) and thus

the range of words that can appear is relatively unrestricted In the case of run (in

the sense of “manage” or “direct”) the semantic restrictions on the object are tighter but still follow a semantic generality: any institution or organization can be managed (E.g business, ice cream parlor, etc.) In a nutshell, free word combinations have the properties that each of the words can be replaced by another without seriously modifying the overall meaning of the composite unit and that if one of the words is omitted, a reader cannot easily infer it from the remaining ones

2.3.2.3.2 Idioms

An idiom, on the other hand, is a rigid word combination to which no generalities apply Neither can its meaning be determined from the meaning of its parts nor can it participate in the usual word-order variations (Fernado, 1996)

An expression is an idiom, described by Wright (2000, p.7) when it has the following features:

1 It is fixed and recognized by native speakers You cannot make up your own!

2 It uses language in a non-literal-metaphorical way

- He put the cat among the pigeons

- Don’t count your chickens

According to Richard et al (1992, p.172), an idiom is an expression which functions as a single unit and whose meaning cannot be worked out from its separate parts Cruse (1986) treats idioms as a special kind of collocation, however, the meaning of an idiom cannot be deduced from the meanings of is constituents E.g “make it” - the collocation of “make” and “it” is an idiom meaning “succeed”, which is not systematically determinable from the meanings of “make” and “it”

To sum up, an idiom is a special kind of collocation in which the semantics

of the whole cannot be deduced from the meanings of the individual constituents and without knowing the idiom it is often almost impossible to understand it

2.3.2.3.3 Collocations versus free word combinations and idiomatic expressions

Unlike free word combinations, a collocation is a group of words that occur together more often than can be accounted for simply by chance On the other hand, unlike idioms, the meaning of individual words in a collocation can contribute to the overall semantics of the compound Collocations fall between the two extremes and it can be difficult to draw a line between collocations and these categories A word combination fails to be classified as free and is termed a collocation when the number of words which can occur in a syntactic relation with a given headword decreases to the point where it is not possible to describe the set using semantic generalities

Some examples of the distinction between free word combination, collocations and idioms are shown on the table below

combinations

To make or break sb/st To make a mistake To be made from sugar

Table 2.2 Distinction between free word combination, collocations and idioms

2.3.2.4 Categorization of collocations

As for the categorization of collocation, many researchers and linguists hold the view that collocations belong to a continuum and divide them into two main categories: grammatical and lexical (Sinclair, 1991; Gitsaki, 1996; Benson, Benson and Ilson, 1997; Consett, 2000; Hill, 2000; Lewis, 2000), or alternatively syntactic and semantic collocations (Kjellmer, 1984; Decarrico, 2001)

2.3.2.4.1 Grammatical Collocations

The first group, grammatical collocations consist of a noun, adjective or verb, plus a particle (a preposition, adverb or grammatical structure such as an infinitive, gerund or clause) (Bahns, 1993, p.57)

According to Benson and Ilson (1986), English grammatical collocations fall into the following two main groups:

*Collocational combinations without a verb

- Noun + preposition combinations

Not all noun + preposition combinations can be considered collocations due the largely fixed meaning of some prepositions, such as of and by So, noun + of /

by combinations are considered free combinations The following phrases are examples of noun + preposition collocations: blockade against, apathy towards

E.g We made an agreement that she would represent us in court

- Preposition + noun combinations

Any combination of preposition and noun can fall into this category, however, the choice of preposition that can be used with a specific noun is not random

E.g by accident, in advance

- Adjective + preposition combinations

Some adjectives are followed by a prepositional phrase The adjective + preposition combination that is considered collocational is the one that occurs in the predicate (verbless clause) However, a past participial adjective followed by the preposition by is not considered collocational because this construction is regular and predictable

- Predicate adjective + to + infinitive

These adjectives occur in two basic constructions with infinitives:

Adjectives with the false subject “It”

Adjective with a real and animate subject

Adjective + that clause

Some adjectives can be followed by a that-clause

E.g She was afraid that she would fail her examination

*Collocational verb patterns

English verb patterns include:

- Phrasal verbs:

Phrasal verbs can be intransitive or transitive It is a term for all combinations of

“verb + adverb particle”

- Prepositional verb:

The common pattern is: Verb + Preposition This can take the form:

+ Verb followed by to + infinitive

+ Transitive verb with the preposition for which allows the deletion of for

and the shifting of the indirect object before the direct object

+ A verb forming a collocation with a specific preposition and an object

- Phrasal-prepositional verbs:

Phrasal-prepositional verbs have three constituents: an ordinary verb followed by a directional adverb and a particle

- Verb + expression + preposition:

+ Transitive verbs are followed by an object and to + Infinitive

+ It also can include the dummy “it” followed by a transitive verb (often expressing emotions) and byte+ infinitive or a that + clause

+ The shifting of an indirect object to a position before the direct object of transitive verbs is allowed

+ The shifting of an indirect object to a position before the direct object by deleting to is not allowed

- Verb + Noun/ Object (+ adjective/verb)

+ A transitive verb followed by a direct object

+ Transitive verbs followed by a direct object and adjective/ past participle or noun/ pronoun

+ Verbs followed by a noun clause beginning with the conjunction that + Transitive verbs followed by a direct object and an infinitive without off

Most I-pattern verbs cannot be passivized

+ Verbs followed by an object and a verb ending in – ing

+ Verbs followed by a noun or pronoun and gerund

+ Verbs followed by an infinitive without to

+ Verb followed by a second verb ending in – ing

+ Intransitive/ reflexive/ transitive verbs followed by an adverbial (an adverb/ prepositional phrase/ noun phrase/ clause)

+ Verb followed by an interrogative word, such as how, what, when

+ A small number of intransitive verbs that are followed by a predicative noun/ adjective The verb make, used intransitively, belongs to this group

- Transitive verbs followed by two objects: Verb + Object + Object

2.3.2.4.2 Lexical collocations

In contrast to grammatical collocations, the second group, lexical or semantic collocations, does not contain grammatical elements Benson, and Ilson (1997) list various combinations of lexical collocations: verb + noun (start a family; keep a secret); adjective + noun (good work, strong tea); adverb + adjective (heavily influenced, breathtakingly gorgeous); verb + adverb (walk slowly, laugh nervously)

In lexical collocations, too, there are fixed and loose combinations Especially in verb + noun combinations, the combinations are fixed as the choice of

words that collate with each other is unchangeable, such as: commit a murder, or break the law and these combinations: do a murder, or break the law are

impossible These fixed structures are idiomatic, however their meanings are still predictable from the elements of the combination In comparison, in loose collocations the collocates are freely combined, such as: analyze/ witness a murder and practice/study law The meanings of these loose collocations can likewise still

be derived from their individual words In contrast, there are fixed combinations consisting of several lexical items which are relatively frozen expressions and whose meanings are sometimes hardly derivable from their component words, such

as to scream blue murder (“to complain very loudly”) or get away with murder (“someone who can do whatever they like) (Nattinger, 1987, p.949)

These fixed structure and meaning collocations are called idioms The occurrence of two or more words in a lexical collocation has two important features Firstly, there may be a constant collocational relationship between the two words that collocate although several words might be placed in between them Secondly, lexical collocation does not seem to depend on grammatical structure So, the collocation “Strong argument” can be expressed as He argued strongly; or The strength of his argument: or His argument was strengthened

co-According to Benson (1986: xxiv – xxviii), the following are types of lexical collocations:

- Verb (usually transitive) + noun/ pronoun (or prepositional phrase)

This type is called CA (creation and activation) because it consists of a verb denoting creation or activation and a noun/pronoun However, not all verbs

denoting creation and activation can be considered collocable with any noun Combinations of verbs, such as build, cause, cook, make, prepare, etc + noun are limitless, and their meanings are predictable Therefore these combinations are not considered collocations

- Verb (meaning eradication and/ or nullification) + a noun

This lexical combination is called EN (eradication and nullification) collocations E.g reject an appeal

Some verbs denoting similar meaning and that can be used with large number nouns are considered as free combinations E.g the verb destroy can combine with almost any noun denoting physical objects: village, school, document, etc

The meaning of most adverbs in this combination is “very”

E.g very fast, so much

- Verb + adverb

E.g drive carefully

2.3.3 An overview of collocations with the verb MAKE in English

2.3.3.1 Syntactic features of collocations with the verb MAKE in English

According to Levis (1997), “Collocations are those combinations of words which occur naturally with greater than random frequency” (p.25) A collocation with the verb MAKE is a verb or a phrase which is frequency used with another word or phrase, in a way that sounds correct to speakers of the language

The following MAKE collocations are examples: make up, make in, make up for, make about, make light of, make some attempts to, make the effort of, make me tired, make me cry…

The verb MAKE in collocations is a multi-word verb, and a multi-word verb may be a phrasal verb (E.g make out, make up), a prepositional verb (E.g make about, make of) or a phrasal – prepositional verb (E.g make up for) Therefore, verb MAKE collocations can be divided into:

- Phrasal verbs with verb MAKE in collocation (E.g make out, make up)

- Prepositional verbs with collocation verb MAKE (E.g make about, make of)

- Phrasal – prepositional with collocation verb MAKE (E.g make up for) According to structure off collocation, collocations using the verb MAKE may be a combination of:

- Verb MAKE + noun/ object (+ adjective/ verb) (E.g make me cry)

- Verb MAKE + adverb (E.g make it slowly)

- Verb MAKE + expression with preposition (E.g make light of, make some attempts to)

2.3.3.2 Semantic features of collocations with the verb MAKE in English

On talking about the semantic features, the author attempts to discuss different senses of the verb MAKE collocations Like any other lexical verbs, MAKE indicates an action or state:

E.g: I’ve got to make some phone calls before dinner

She made a useful contribution to the discussion

According to Oxford Collocations Dictionary for students of English (2009 Oxford University Press); Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary of Current English (1995 Oxford University Press); Collins Pocket Thesaurus (2008 HarperCollins Publishers), Oxford Wordpower Dictionary (2008 Oxford University Press ); English-Vietnamese Dictionary (1993 Nhà Xuất Bản TP Hồ Chí Minh) when collocating with other words, the verb MAKE has the following basic meanings

*MAKE conveys the meaning of “produce or create something”

MAKE can be understood as to construct, create or prepare something by combining materials or putting parts together Its Vietnamese equivalent expressions are: “làm”, “tạo ra”, “chế tạo”, “sản xuất”, “cắt may”, etc

E.g: Shall I make a sandwich for you?

This model is made of steel

Her speech made a tremendous impact on everyone

I first made his acquaintance in 2006

Also referring to this meaning, MAKE can be understood as to arrange a bed

so that it is ready for use In Vietnamese, it means “dọn giường” See the following example:

Please make your beds before you go out

*MAKE also means to create or establish something Its Vietnamese equivalent is “đặt ra”

These regulations were made to protect children Who made this ridiculous rule?

Besides, MAKE expresses the act of writing, composing or preparing something In Vietnamese, it means “viết”, “soạn thảo”, “chuẩn bị”, etc

E.g: Have you made your will?

I’ll ask my lawyer to make a deed of transfer

*Make Conveys the Meaning of “cause a state/ situation”

The next meaning is to cause a state a situation or In Vietnamese, it means

“gây ra”, “tạo ra”, etc For example:

Who’s making those strange noises?

The children have made an awful mess in the lounge

There are 5 sub-groups relating to this sense of meaning of MAKE

First, MAKE denotes the act of causing st to exist, happen or be done In this case,

it can be understood as “gây ra”, “tạo ra” in Vietnamese For example:

E.g: Sh! Don’t make a sound

It makes a change to have the house to ourselves

She tried to make a good impression on the interviewer

Second, MAKE can be used to describe the act of causing somebody/something to be or become In Vietnamese, it means “làm cho”, “nói”

E.g: She made clear her objections

The news made her happy

Can you make yourself understood in English?

I’ll make it clear to him that we won’t pay

Third, when combining with infinitive verbs, MAKE means to cause somebody/

something to do something Its equivalents in Vietnamese are “khiến cho”, “làm cho”, etc

E.g: Onions make your eyes water

Her jokes made us all laugh

I couldn‟t make my car start this morning

Nothing will make me change my mind

Fourth, MAKE can be understood as to represent somebody or something as being

or doing something In Vietnamese, it means “tả”, “để cho”, etc

E.g.: You‟ve made my nose too big

The novelist makes his heroine commit suicide at the end of the book

He makes Lear a truly tragic figure

Last, MAKE also means to elect or appoint somebody as something In Vietnamese,

it means “bầu”, “bổ nhiệm”, “lập”, “cử làm”, etc

E.g.: He was made spokesman by the committee

She made him her assistant

*Make conveys the Meaning of “be or become something”

We can use the verb MAKE when we want to express the meaning

of being or becoming something And its Vietnamese equivalents are “thành”,

“trở thành”, etc

E.g.: Karen is very good at making friends

That will make a good ending to the book

*Make Conveys the Meaning of “to gain or to win something” Its

Vietnamese equivalents are “kiếm được”, “giành được”, etc

E.g.: He made a fortune on the stock market

They make a profit of ten pence on every copy they sell

The company made a loss on the deal

He makes a living by repairing secondhand cars

*Make Conveys the Meaning of “to calculate or estimate something to be something”

MAKE also means to calculate or estimate something to be something Its Vietnamese equivalents are “tính toán”, “ước tính”, etc

E.g.: What do you make the time?

I make the total exactly $50

I make it that we’ve got about 70 miles to go

*Make Conveys the Meaning of “to put something forward for consideration; to propose something”

When we want to mean that something is proposed or offered, then use MAKE Its Vietnamese equivalents are “đề nghị”, “đề xuất”, “đặt giá”, etc

E.g.: Has she made an offer for you car?

Various proposals were made for increasing sales

I made him a bid for the antique table

*Make Conveys the Meaning of “to ensure the success of something”

When we want to indicate that something can cause or ensure the success of something, we can use MAKE In this case, MAKE means “làm cho”

E.g A good wine can make a meal

It was the beautiful weather that really made the holiday

This news has really made my day

*Make Conveys the Meaning of “to do something”

In this case, MAKE usually collocates with some nouns to mean that someone performs the action of the noun MAKEbis often used in a pattern with adjective or noun, in which MAKE and the noun have the same meaning as a verb similar in spelling to the noun, for example “make a decision” = “decide”; “make a guess (at something)” = “guess (at something)” MAKE can be used like this with a number of different nouns One advantage of using this pattern is that

if we use “MAKE” + noun, we can use an adjective with it

For example: He made the right decision

They made a generous offer

When MAKE has this meaning, it is very difficult to find a right equivalent

in Vietnamese As a result, we have to rely on the meaning of the noun to know the meaning of MAKE See the following examples:

I made a mistake about Julie – she’s quite nice really

In this example, “make a mistake‟ means “get a wrong idea about somebody

or something” We cannot separate the meaning of MAKE from the meaning

of the rest The meaning is dominantly understood by the meaning of the noun in the phrase Similarly, we have:

I realize that I made the wrong decision (“to make a decision” = “decide to

do something”)

Have you got any comments to make on the recent developments? (“to make