Conceptual metaphors in english and vietnamese dog idioms and proverbs

ABSTRACT This thesis studies the Conceptual Metaphor of Dog idioms and proverbs between Vietnamese and English the framework theory of Lakoff and Johnson 1980/2003 Kovesces 2002.. Studyi

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS

CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS IN ENGLISH

AND VIETNAMESE DOG IDIOMS AND

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report

entitled “Conceptual Metaphors in English and Vietnamese dog idioms and proverbs” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master in English Language Except where the reference is indicated, no other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the text of the thesis

Hanoi, 2020

Phi Hong Thu

Approved by SUPERVISOR

Assoc Prof Dr Hồ Ngọc Trung Date: ………

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to express my endless thanks and hearty gratitude to

my supervisor Assoc Prof Dr Ho Ngoc Trung His kindly support and continuous

advices went through the process of completion of my thesis His encouragement and comments had significantly enriched and improved my work Without his motivation and instructions, the thesis would have been impossible to be done effectively

I am also indebted to all my lecturers at Hanoi Open University for their precious knowledge, useful lectures in linguistics, which laid the foundation for this study

Next, my thanks also go to my friends, who gave me documents and encouraged me much while the work was in process

Especially, I would like to express how thankful I am to my beloved family, who always stand by me and help me overcome all the difficulties in studying and completing this thesis

Last but not least, I personally wish to thank all my readers for their attention, and I would highly appreciate any comments to my study

ABSTRACT

This thesis studies the Conceptual Metaphor of Dog idioms and proverbs between Vietnamese and English the framework theory of Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003) Kovesces (2002) Who also claimed that Dog is an abstract concept which is often understood via conceptual metaphors to find out the meaningful, not just being meaning First of all, I want to show some main views of Cognitive Linguistics which is basic theory to understand the concept of conceptual metaphor From that I want to research classifications of conceptual metaphors, each kind of these is understood following the points of conceptual metaphor of Lakoff & Johnson and Kovesces, and then looking at their examples, throughout to get

comprehension about them And following Lakoff and Johnson in Metaphors We Live By, metaphor is being in everyday life Thus, we are not difficult to meet

somewhere in life without metaphor Studying conceptual metaphor or conceptualization and using it in life is important with English learners, especially with us who learn English as foreign language to get knowledge One problem which makes a lot of people have difficulty in communicating with one another is to use idiomatic expressions As far as you know, idiomatic expressions make English become colorful and full of vitality, so they are often used very much in the native speakers’ speech and in the writing such as news, songs, movies, etc on the television However, these idioms are sometimes are not easy to understand and study their meanings, so I decide to study them by studying Vietnamese and English idioms and proverbs containing the word ‘dog’

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv

ABSTRACT v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Aims and objectives of the Study 1

1.3 Research Questions 1

1.4 Scope of the study 2

1.5 Significance of the Study 2

1.6 Methodology 3

1.7 Structure of the Study 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Cognitive Linguistics 5

2.2 Metaphor Theory 5

2.3 Conceptual Metaphors 6

2.4 Dog 19

2.5 What are idioms and proverbs? 24

2.6 Summary 25

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 27

3.1 Theoretical framework 27

3.2 Analytical framework 27

3.3 Procedures 28

3.4 Statistical Analysis 28

3.5 Analytic Model of the research 29

CHAPTER 4: CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR OF DOG IDIOMS AND PROVERBS IN ENGLISH AND VIETNAMESE 30

4.1 The conceptual metaphors of dog idioms and proverbs in English and Vietnamese 30

4.2 The similarities and differences between the conceptual metaphors of the dog idioms and proverbs in English and Vietnamese 42

4.3 The implication of the thesis 43

4.3.1 Implications for learners 44

4.3.2 Implications for translators 44

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 46

5.1 Recapulation of the study 46

5.2 Concluding remarks .50

5.3 Limitation of the study 51

5.4 Suggestions for further studies 51 REFERENCE

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale

Nowadays, English becomes the most popular and universal to be used in different countries Because they said that English is easy for people to learn; it is also proper flexible, having concern with numerous languages and you can say an affair by about hundred ways, although in each country English is different Furthermore, change is often going on the trend of developing global language in the world As the result, they learn and use English in everywhere of the world such as: business, film, etc

Metaphor is an infinite enjoyable phenomenon of linguistic, in particular: literature and poetry, where metaphor is to be used as indispensable tool, so it is not astonished at figurative language is regarded as literature and poetry language However, it is extensively, universally and automatically used in social life today Dog is a common animal with four legs, especially by people as a pet or to hunt or guard things Dog means an embodiment of faithfulness and guardianship With all these reasons, the author of this thesis hopes to find out the conceptual metaphors of dog idioms and proverbs to be used in Vietnamese and English to help the audiences and English learners can firstly understand then they can comprehend abstract meaning in English proverbs and idioms Thereby, we can understand more about English outlook, thinking, and sense in common Besides, to some extent we can see how flexibly metaphor is used so that we can apply these in learning and using English language in life It may not be boring if English learners would like to study English by idioms and proverbs

1.2 Aims and objectives of the Study

The thesis aims to explore how dogs are used in English and Vietnamese idioms and proverbs from the perspective of conceptual metaphor

The objectives of the thesis are three-fold:

(i) examining the conceptual metaphors of dog idioms and proverbs in English and Vietnamese;

(ii) investigating are the similarities and differences between the conceptual metaphors of the dog idioms and proverbs in English and Vietnamese;

(iii) suggesting the implication of the thesis

1.3 Research Questions

To achieve the above aim and objectives, the thesis has to answer following

questions:

(1) What are the conceptual metaphors of dog idioms and proverbs in English and Vietnamese?

(2) What are the similarities and differences between the conceptual metaphors

of the dog idioms and proverbs in English and Vietnamese?

(3) Do these similarities and differences improve or impede the communication between Vietnamese and English-speaking people?

1.4 Scope of the study

Metaphor in cognitive linguistic is regarded as new in recent But it is studied

by multiple researchers in various perspectives Because of a large studying scope

to be researched by researchers in the past that is over my time so this thesis concentrates on the conceptual metaphor of cognition which grew out of George

Lakoff & Mark Johnson’s theory in the points of Metaphors We Live By (1980/ 2003) and Kovesces (2002) in Metaphor A Practical Introduction Basically, the

view of conceptual metaphor of DOG is written by them having the same idea, so studying all of the authors helps me have more examples and knowledge of conceptual metaphor of DOG

1.5 Significance of the Study

Making this thesis, that is to get a lot of knowledge to understand more about the items of cognitive linguistics, modem school of linguistics which is considered that originally emerge in the early 1970s, it is relatively new term in Vietnam But it

is used regularly in most of university in the world for studying linguistic Studying, applying, using cognitive linguistics is of large significance with US in dealing with numerous problems of linguistics that was not explained by classic theory Especially with foreign language learners like me, cognitive linguistics opened a new view so that they can approach foreign language easier

Studying metaphor on the view of Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003), who claim that metaphor is being used in everyday life event they know whether it is being or not, and metaphor is defined as conceptual metaphor or in other words they study metaphor by cognitive science According to Lakoff and Jonson (1980/2003), Kovesces (2002), studying metaphor helps us understand our mind and thought in the matter of conceptualization Knowing of metaphorical importance, role in linguistics, the way it is being in life, how it is used to help us to evaluate right conceptual metaphor in linguistics commonly, in life especially

Using metaphor accurately is not easy with numerous people, especially with people who study English as foreign language, who usually meet difficulty in learning process and in applying metaphor in linguistics, and with people who sometimes are afraid of metaphor Studying conceptual metaphor of DOG idioms and proverbs so that we find out that it is very important for us to learn how English metaphors are used; How many ways they use it in frequency, what classifications they used usually Then we can apply this understanding to our learning As a result

of this, we will be able to use English more fluently and accurately

As a person who loves dogs, I often use proverbs and idioms as a method to learn English By studying the conceptual metaphor of dog proverbs and idioms so

it has great significance to comprehend metaphor in the view of cognitive linguistics

1.6 Methodology

This thesis depends on the principle analysis Johnson (1980/2003) Metaphors,

We Live By, Kovesecs (2002), Metaphor: A Practical Introduction

This study is a qualitative analysis of conceptual metaphor of dog proverbs and idioms

1.7 Structure of the Study

The thesis begins with Declaration by Author, Acknowledgements, Abstract, List of abbreviations and symbols used in the thesis, and Table of Contents

The main body of this research paper is divided into five chapters: Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

In this chapter is rationale, research questions, aims, scope significance of study, methodology, and the structure of the study

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter is all basic theory: consisting of five parts:

2.1 Part one: cognitive linguistic This part mainly introduces about Cognitive Linguistics which is defined by some researchers in different aspects of Cognitive Linguistics

2.2 Part two: Metaphor This part has studied about classical metaphor by Aristotle and some researchers in order of time;

2.3 Part three: Conceptual Metaphor and conceptual metaphor classifications,

in this part the research want to study conceptual metaphor definition, domain, and classification

2.4 Part four: Dog This part is study: meaning of Dog in common, being as a source of inspiration, Love of conceptual metaphor

2.5 Part five: Idioms and proverbs

M CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Cognitive Linguistics

The term of Cognitive Linguistics maybe came from the term of Linguistics

and Cognitive Science (which Lakoff said in Woman, Fire and Dangerous Things,

1987) was regarded as including many academic disciplines: psychology,

linguistics, anthropology, philosophy) In Metaphors We Live By, Lakoff and

Johnson (1980/2003) said that Cognitive Linguistics was included central subdisciplines of the field of cognitive linguistics: Metaphor Theory, the semantics

of closed-class elements such as spatial relations (Talmy 2000), studies of category structure, including basic level categories, prototypes, and radial categories (Lakoff 1987), mental spaces (Fauconnier 1985; Fauconnier and Sweetser 1996), frame semantics (Fillmore 1982 1985; Sweetser 1990), blended spaces (Fauconnier and Turner 1998, 2002), cognitive grammar (Langacker 1986, 1990, 1991), cognitive construction grammar (Goldberg 1995; Lakoff 1987, Case Study 3) (p.270271) Langacker (2008) said about Cognitive Linguistics: “Cognitive Grammar belongs to the wider movement known as cognitive linguistics (p.7) He also claimed that, important strands of cognitive linguistics include construction grammar, metaphor theory, the study of blends and mental spaces, and various efforts to develop a conceptualist semantics Vyvyan Evans and Melaine Green (2006) considered cognitive linguistics as one of the most innovative and exciting approaches to the study of language and thought (p.5) Leonard Talmy (2000) referred the term “cognitive linguistics” as his own body of work as “cognitive semantics” (p.4) So we see there are many definitions of cognitive linguistics, it depends on what aspects of linguistics that researchers want to study on the cognitive perspective

Commonly, cognitive linguistics is a branch of linguistics It is the studying linguistics on the cognitive perspective, the way language interacts with cognition and how language forms our thoughts On the other word, it is the studying of relationship of human language and the mind, socio-physical experience

M similes (Similes is most famous by Homer, who sometimes calls metaphor side by

side with similes), but as Aristotle considered simile as a specific type of metaphor, simile uses the words "like" or "as" in comparing two objects While a metaphor is identical on the point of comparison, simile merely is a similarity

In this classical tradition view, Quitilian is considered metaphor as a member

of tropes, then inheriting this view Augustine (354430) is regarded metaphor as trope For a long time, the term of trope together with Metaphor until Locker (1632-

1704), he found the term Ideal in language which is evoked by tropes and figures,

and Nietzsche (1844-1900) who viewed Metaphor and reality are so entwined as to

be synonymous The appearance of Lakoff and Johnson's "Metaphors We Live By"

in 1980 also marked an important development of metaphor In this work they found that Metaphor is in everyday life, not only in language but also in thought and action Thought and act is metaphor in natural, and it is in our ordinary conceptual system (p.3) By the proofs of fact in everyday life they have had the view of metaphor in the cognitive linguistics and conceptual metaphor

Metaphor had been defined as comparison by Aristotle firstly, then for a long time Metaphor is considered as trope and it is used in poetry, art, teaching Christ, etc., together with the developing of social life, Metaphor changed little by little, it

was not only language but also concerned with Ideal, and then the thought, act

Thus, metaphor associates with language, not only “poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish-a matter of extraordinary” (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980/2003, p.4) but also other disciplines in everyday life So which discipline has language more or less it has metaphor too, simply metaphor is perhaps: using one word to refer other word, profoundly metaphor can be: using word to refer non-word (the things that cannot be described, and having no word to describe this, it is often abstract); using limited thing to refer unlimited thing

2.3 Conceptual Metaphors

2.3.1 Conceptual Metaphor Theory

The term ‘conceptual metaphor” was arguably mentioned the first time in

1980 by Lakoff and Johnson in Metaphors We Live By, as they shared with each other about the views on “meaning” in western philosophy and linguistics and the

“meaningful” in life

In this case, Metaphor is: one concept is understood by other concepts or we are understood one domain of experience by another (1980/2003, p.117) So

M conceptual metaphor is not only the means for poetry, it can be used in everyday

language We still use conceptual metaphor every day and everywhere but we perhaps don’t realize that Conceptual metaphor is not comparison or trope because conceptual metaphor is not only the matter of language it is also matter of our thought, mind, etc (which belongs to cognition) or we can say that our thought and action is the matter of conceptualization

Zoltán Kovecses , one of the famous researcher on metaphor, he defined the

term of “conceptual metaphor” in the Metaphor: A Practical Introduction (2002):

“A convenient shorthand way of capturing this view of metaphor is the following: CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN A IS CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN B, which is what is called a conceptual metaphor”, “A conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains, in which one domain is understood in terms of another” (p.4)

Following Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003), Kovesces (2002), studying metaphor needs to be done in cognitive science because the matter of metaphor not just linguistics, but in cognition or cognitive linguistic science In other words, conceptual metaphor is the transference of meaning from one domain to other domain, or in the way that we conceptualize one mental domain in terms of another Like as when we learn conceptual metaphor, we can understand our mind and thought in the matter of conceptualization These are, Target Domain and Source Domain, the process of understanding target domain through source domain is called conceptual metaphor We can understand more following picture 1 Each target domain can be understood by many source domains it depends on the experiences of each person And following Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003) one target domain is not understood by one source domain only, at least having two or more source domains are mapped

Metaphors can make our thoughts more vivid and also structure our understanding According to Kövecses (2002:36), metaphor may be based on both knowledge and image Most 5 metaphors are based on our basic knowledge of concepts, which are rich in knowledge structure and provide a rich set of mappings between source and target There are also an image-schema metaphors, in which it

is not conceptual elements of knowledge that get mapped from a source to a target, but conceptual elements of image schemas (Kövecses 2002:36) This means that these metaphors map relatively little from source to target An image schema is a mental pattern that recurrently provides structured understanding of various

M experiences, and is available for use in metaphor as a source domain to provide an

understanding of yet other experiences (Johnson 1987:2) In order to get a sense of what this means, consider the following example from Lakoff: Imagine a herd of cows up closed-close enough to pick out the individual cows Now imagine yourself moving back until you can no longer pick out individual cows What you perceive

is a mass There is a point at which you cease making out individuals and start perceiving a mass (Lakoff 1987: 428) Metaphors of this kind have source domains that have skeletal image-schemas They can serve as the basic of other concepts For instance, the motion schema underlies the concept of a journey The motion schema has the parts, initial point, movement, and the end point, which correspond

in journeys to the point of departure, the travel, and the destination But there are other kinds of image-based metaphors that are richer in imagistic detail These conceptual metaphors do not employ image-schemas but rich images We call them image metaphor (Kövecses 2002:38) The mappings of the kind are generated by images that are brought into correspondence by the superimposition of one image onto the other

Cognitive linguistics which stems from cognitive science and is regarded to start in 1980s indicated a whole new approach towards metaphor, its understanding and meaning in daily language On the contrary to traditional metaphor theory, metaphor in the light of cognitive linguistics is not only used in literature but also shows in everyday life language

George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, two American linguists, are the most outstanding researchers within this field The innovative work Metaphor We Live

By contributed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980) open a new horizon for researchers

on metaphor from the cognitive perspective They both present that metaphor is popular in our everyday language, not merely as a view of rhetorical device but as a matter of human thought processes and it have existence in our conceptual system

In daily speech, there can be found abundant metaphors whose existence we are even unaware of

To be more specific, we talk about things metaphorically because we conceive them that way and we act by the way we conceive of things (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:7) Having the same idea, Barcelona (2000:3) affirms that “metaphor is the cognitive mechanism whereby one experiential domain is partially “mapped, i.e projected onto a different experiential domain so that the second domain is partially

M understood in terms of another experiential domain”

In general, metaphor in the light of cognitive linguistics is not simply a means

of communication

For Radden and Divren (2007:16), conceptual metaphor is viewed as "a means

of understanding abstract domains by relating them to better-known domains and experiences in the physical world"

This viewpoint is shared by Trần Văn Cơ (2009: 86-87) who confirmed that metaphor is meaning transference It is viewed as when we think one object in terms of another one Metaphors are often related to the complicated and abstract objects, but not the discrete ones Therefore, in the process of perception, these complex and abstract things, through metaphor, set up the correlation with more concrete or perceptible ones

To sum up, it should be noted that in the conceptual metaphor theory, the metaphor on the contrary to traditional and contemporary theories of metaphor, is perceived as a means of cognition As a result, concepts that operate in human’s mind collaborate with one another In addition, the conceptual metaphor theory treats metaphor as a mapping between two concepts

Main tenets of cognitive semantics According to Evans and Green (2006: 157), there are four following main principles of cognitive semantics

a Conceptual structure is embodied

In the view of Evans and Green (2006), we are aware of the world from our independent perspectives Every human being has his or her own ways of looking at the world, which is elementally based on his or her own bodily experience In this respect, conceptual is a result of the nature of our embodiment and any theory of conceptual structure should be accordant with the ways which we experience the external world

b Semantic structure is conceptual structure The second principle affirms that language refers to concepts in the mind of the speaker about the real world rather than entities which inhere in an external

world In the other words, semantic structure (the meaning conventionally

associated with words and other linguistic units) can be equated with conceptual

structure (Rosch, 1973) However, the claim that semantic structure is conceptual

structure does not mean that the two above are identical Instead, cognitive

M semanticists claim that the semantic structure (meanings associated with linguistic

units) such as words, for example, form only a subset of possible concepts in the mind of speakers and hearers

c Meaning representation is encyclopedic

The third major principle shows that semantic structure is comprehensive in nature Lexical concepts do not embody a bundle of meaning, but access to repositories of knowledge relating to a particular concept (Ibid.: 160)

d Meaning construction is conceptualization Last but not least, the fourth principle confirms that “Meaning construction is equated with conceptualization, a process whereby linguistic units serve as prompts for an array of conceptual operations and the recruitment of background knowledge” (Evan and Green, 2006:162)

Picture 1: Process of conceptual metaphor

2.3.2 Conceptual Metaphor Domain

As mentioned above, to define conceptual metaphor depending on the transfer

of conceptual domain, so how is conceptual domain defined by Lakoff and

Johnson? According to the view of conceptual metaphor in Metaphors we live by

(Lakoff & Johnson, 1980/2003), Metaphor in cognitive linguistics is a process of

cognition that allow US to comprehend one domain of experience (the target

M domain) in the term of another (the source domain) Two domains both participate

in conceptual metaphor as Lakoff & Johnson’ view, the same as Koveses (2002) who asserts that the domain used to understands another is called the source domain, vice versa the domain which is understood is called the target domain Domain was defined by Kovesces (2002) “a conceptual domain is any coherent organization of experience” (p.4), the coherent organization of experience depends on organized knowledge of human beings of the field that metaphor refers

to, it is conceptualized by concepts He believed that if we have coherently organized knowledge about one thing, we would see that, it has some definitions or concepts in dictionaries so it has characteristic linguistics Besides, it has features of psychology, chemistry, etc., which belongs to nature, then it is also experienced by human feelings, all of these must be coherently organization knowledge to become

“domain”

Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003) suggests that understanding takes place in terms of entire domains of experience and not in terms of isolated concepts” (p.117) So “concepts arising from our experience are opened-ended” (p.125), domain of experience of concepts are opened-ended too and it infers that domains are opened-ended Domain in process of conceptual metaphor is called domain of experience, which conceptualized and defined as basic domain of experience They seemed to call domains of experience are organized in terms of natural dimensions

to be “natural kinds of experience”, they are also called as “products of human nature” while others perhaps have changes depending on culture

In the process of conceptual metaphor we see that, understanding a domain A there are some domains which is natural kinds of experiences, (e.g to try to understand the LOVE (domain A) by some natural kinds of experience (domain B): JOURNEY, MADNESS, WAR, etc.,) Kakoff and Johnson called it as “interactional properties”, it were regarded as it is interaction with another and with the world Thus, each domain is not only understood by one other domain, but also can be understood by some of other domains (natural kinds of experience)

Lakoff and Johnson asserted that in a metaphor, there are two domains: the target domain, and the source domain Kovesces also believed that domain A (in picture 1) is target domain, and domain B is source domain

Target Domain Saying about target domain in a conceptual metaphor, Lakoff and Johnson

M defined “the target domain, which is constituted by the immediate subject matter”

(2003, p.265), target domain here is a subject matter which we need to understand

or try understand by using source domain, it were made comparison with “as an initial slide on the projector and metaphorical projection” (p.253), projection metaphor starts on the first step: target domain, which is goals of metaphorical projection too If metaphor projection is the give and take process so target domain would consider as an image recipient They also believed that target domain is often abstract subject matter, which is unintelligible, such as: LOVE, LIFE, ARGUMENTS, etc Basically, Kovesces has the same idea, he considered that target domain is abstract experiences, he wrote: “conceptual domain that is understood this way is the target domain” (p.4) conceptual domain He was regarded

as “coherent organization of experience”, so we infer target domain as coherent organization of experience (experiences) to be understood via an others

Source Domain Source domain which using to understand other concept domain (target domain) following Kovesces, Lakoff and Johnson In other words, source domain is conceptual domain which is used in reasoning about others Thus, source domain is

concept domain (domain of experience) which is typically a more concrete

concepts, such as: JOURNEY, WAR, BUILDINGS, FOOD, PLANTS, etc , Lakoff and Johnson (2003) “the source domain, in which important metaphorical reasoning takes place and that provides the source concepts used in that reasoning” (p.265) Source domain roles as image donor in projection metaphor and all of the source domains should be projected onto the target

2.3.3 Classifications of Conceptual Metaphors

According to the function Conceptual metaphor can be divided into three kinds: ontological metaphor, structural metaphor, and orientational metaphor (Kovesces, 2002, pp.33-34), he had the distinct types of conceptual metaphor and possibly to classify metaphors in a variety of ways but rely on especially important role of cognitive linguistic view he divided conceptual metaphor in this ways rely

on the “conventionality, function, nature and level of generality of metaphor” (p.33) Depending on cognitive function: structural, ontological, orientational, their nature: knowledge-based or image-based, their conventionality: conventional or unconventional, their complexity: simple or complex, and so forth (p.310) Lakoff and Johnson: “The division of metaphors into three types – orientational,

M ontological, and structural – was artificial” (1980/2003, p.264) They claim that all

types of conceptual metaphor are structural and ontological metaphor, and “many are orientational metaphor” (p.264) orientional metaphors are rarely used to

Basically, Conceptual Metaphor is classified into three types: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor, structural metaphor which divided by Lakoff and Johnson, Kovesces And following them, Structural Metaphor is used in most case vice versa Orientational and Ontological Metaphors are less

2.3.3.1 Orientational Metaphors

Conceptually, spatial orientation is regarded as locating something somewhere

in space, Orientational metaphors were said by Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003), that is one concept is organized by a whole system of concepts with regard to one other, most of orientational metaphors having to do with spatial orientation: un-down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral, and so on It is different from culture to culture because orientational metaphors are basic to our physical and cultural experience Following Lakoff and Johnson, physical and cultural basic here are human point of view in one culture or physical characteristic

of human beings, in a vertical position we rise from “DOWN” to polar opposition

“UP” It is Clearly that HAPPY IS UP (happy is good emotion, feeling, they are rising higher), GOOD IS UP (the same as happiness, health, life and control the principle characteristic of what is good for a person are all UP), MORE IS UP (quantity and number of a substance or physical objects are rising, or their container goes up), VIRTUE IS UP (a point of human view about the human nature, is good

in the society), HIGH STATUS IS UP (status is correlated with social and physical power, status up mean more social and physical power), have different means in our experience so gives rise to many different metaphors They recognized that most of their fundamental concepts are organized with respect to one or more spatialization metaphors and metaphor has many possible physical and social bases, but which is chosen that depending on a part of the coherence in overall system, this is the reason that why one concept structure in vertical orientation not breadthwise orientation, this is found that in some circumstances spatialization is an important part of a concept that is so hard to take place of metaphor that it might structure the concept, examples: “STATUS IS UP”, “HAPPY IS UP”, etc

Kovesces defined orientational metaphors “the name “orientational metaphor” derives from the fact that most metaphors that serve this function have to do with

M basic human spatial orientations such as up-down, center-periphery, and the like”

(2002, p.40), “Orientational metaphors have primarily an evaluative function They make large groups of metaphors coherent with each other”, he also calls orientational metaphor as “coherence metaphor”, and claimed that it is in accordance with the cognitive function in performing metaphors “Coherence” meant that certain target concepts were tendentiously conceptualized in a uniform manner He gave the examples about orientations such as: “upward” orientation and opposite orientation “downward” so he found that Upward orientation were consider with positive evaluation, vice versa downward orientation is negative evaluation He pointed out that lots of spatial image schemas are “bipolar and bivalent”, having two evaluations such as positive-negative evaluation

As the name suggests, in orientational conceptual metaphor, a system of ideas is organized in the relation and interaction in space like up-down, inside- out front- behind, shallow-deep, center- periphery, etc Lakoff and Johnson (1980) described this group the orientational, metaphor because they relate to the orientation in space The origin of this metaphor group is explained as follows by researcher Trần Văn Cơ (2007):

“We are the physical entity limited in a certain space and separated from the rest of the world by our skin; we perceive the rest of the world as the world outside

us Each of us is contained in a limited space by the surface of the body, which is a

potentially orientation type of “inside-out” This orientation makes us imagine

other physical objects also limited by the surface At the same time we also see them as containers with inner space and separated from the world outside.”

An example often cited to illustrate the orientational conceptual metaphor group is “HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN” (Lakoff & Johnson 1980) illustrated in these examples:

• I’m feeling up

• That boosted my spirits

• My spirits rose

• You4re in high spirits

• I’m feeling down

• My spirits sank

Conceptual metaphor “HAPPY IS UP, SAD IS DOWN” is derived from the human body posture while they are happy or sad Normally, when people are depressed or sad they often bow down and when they are happy they raise up their

M head and straight up their back Thus, we see that the orientational conceptual

metaphors are not arbitrary but based on culture and experiences

2.3.3.2 Structural Metaphors

Most of metaphors is structural metaphor, following Lakoff and Johnson (1980), he called metaphors in the cases that one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another to be structural metaphor In other words, structural metaphors are that restructuring the target domain in the perspective of sense when receiving new knowledge which to be mapped by conceptual domain Or it is more clearly that: “Structural metaphors (such as RATIONAL ARGUMENT IS WAR) provide the richest source of such elaboration Structural metaphors allow us to do much more than just orient concepts, refer to them, quantify them, etc.” (p.61), this means that we structure one concept by other highly structure and clearly delineated concept in systematic correlations within our experience “Structural metaphor involves structuring one kind of thing or experience in terms of another kind,

[ ] Structural metaphor involves imposing part of one gestalt structure upon another” (1980/2003, p.178)

More simply, Kovesces (2002) stated that structural metaphor is which “the source domain provides a relatively rich knowledge structure for the target concept”, in other ways we understand “target A by means of the structure mapping

of source B”, most of structural metaphors provide this type of structuring and understanding for their target concepts Conceptually, domain B here is the complicated and abstract experiences is used as means to understand domain A (the simple and specific experiences), domain A here often are the concepts that is

difficult to imagine if we would not have metaphor, so it is difficult for us to

understand

Structural conceptual metaphors are considered by Lakoff and Johnson (1980)

as the group with the highest number In this kind of conceptual metaphor, complicated and abstract experiences are conceptualized based on the experience of simple and specific experiences Following Kovecses (2010:37), in this type of metaphor, “the source domain provides a relatively rich knowledge structure for the target concept”

In other words, the cognitive function of these metaphors is to enable speakers

to understand target A by means of the structure of source B This understanding occurs by means of conceptual mappings between elements of A and elements of B

M An example often used to demonstrate this kind is the conceptual metaphor

“ARGUMENT IS WAR” which is expressed through a series of the following expressions in English:

• Your claims are indefensible

• He attacked every weak point in my argument

• I’ve never won an argument with him

• He shot down all of my arguments (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980:4) The above examples state that many actions that we perform when debating are structured from the concept of war We can win or lose in a debate During the dispute, we consider the one we argue with as the opponent As a result, we “attack” the opponent’s point of view and “protect” our viewpoint We can win or lose and also use strategy to win When we see the unfavorable situation making it difficult

to protect our opinions, we often “retreat” and “open the new attack route” In this case, even without a fight, causing casualties, obviously we have a war of words through the words of war that we use

Through these examples, Lakoff and Johnson explained that an abstract conceptual domain “debate” is understood through a specific conceptual domain of

“war” Therefore, the concepts used in the sample expressions above come conceptual domain of “war” This is the basic characteristics of the structural conceptual metaphor

So we see, structural metaphor is defined as using the experience of domain B

to understand domain A, or Domain A is often the abstract concept that is difficult

to understand which is understand by using the experience of domain B which is often the concrete or physical concepts This means that we structure one concept

by other highly structure and clearly delineated concept in systematic correlations within our experience or structural metaphor is the using experiences of a conceptual metaphor to understand other one

2.3.3.3 Ontological Metaphors

Kovesces (2002) claim that ontological metaphor has much less cognitive structuring for target concepts than structural metaphors do (p.38), “Ontological conceptual metaphors enable speakers to conceive of their experiences in terms of objects, substances, and containers in general, without specifying further the kind of object, substance, or container (p.328), It seems that ontological metaphor is means, that to be structured further structural metaphors He considered that, abstract target

M in this case brought new abstract entities This means target domain will become the

concept with more experiences than initial one in terms of objects, substances and containers (our experience in objects, substances, containers) And vice versa, personalization, when nonhuman is understood as human

Following Lakoff and Johnson (1980), always having a consistent set of ontological metaphors in each structural metaphors, so structural metaphors is structured more complicated than ontological or ontological metaphor is sub-parts

of structural metaphor They thought that: “Understanding our experiences in terms

of objects and substances allows us to pick out parts of our experience and treat

them as discrete entities or substances of a uniform kind Once we can identify our experiences as entities or substances, we can refer to them, categorize them, group them, and quantify them – and, by this means, reason about them” (1980, p.25), thus understanding, experiences about objects or substances, which provide principle for unusual wide variety of ontological metaphor, that is the ways we view events, activities, emotions, ideas, and so on Ontological metaphors have different diverse purposes in use, each kind of metaphors reflect the kind of particular target They also asserted that using personification the physical object as a person that is

“the most obvious ontological metaphors” the most popular ontological metaphors which we often use in life and literature Personification here is defined as a

“general category that covers a very wide range of metaphors, each picking out different aspects of a person or ways of looking at a person” (p.34), commonly they

consider as extensions of ontological to provide us making sense of phenomena in

human terms that can be experience of own motivations, goals, actions, and characteristics basically

Container metaphors is part of ontological metaphor, thus when we use ontological this means that to use ontological metaphors to understand events, actions, activities, and state which are conceptualized as objects, activities as substances, states as containers metaphorically This one arises from the fact that:

“Each of us is a container, with a bounding surface and an in-out orientation We project our own in-out orientation onto other physical objects that are bounded by surfaces” (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980/2003, p.25), each person is a container and all things (objects, substance), which we can see by sight they all have boundary That

is, considered our visual field as a container then we conceptualize all thing what

M we see as being inside It, each can see or not but all of them can be conceptualize

by one boundary of another one if personification is experiences with nonhuman entities in terms of human motivations, characteristic, and activities, human have boundary to be bounded by the surface of our skins, so by using ontological metaphor activities, actions and state would have imagined boundary that come from experience of human boundary

 Cognitive Linguistics

The term of Cognitive Linguistics maybe came from the term of

Linguistics and Cognitive Science (which Lakoff said in Woman, Fire and Dangerous Things, 1987) was regarded as including many academic disciplines: psychology, linguistics, anthropology, philosophy) In Metaphors

We Live By, Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003) said that Cognitive Linguistics

was included central subdisciplines of the field of cognitive linguistics: Metaphor Theory, the semantics of closed-class elements such as spatial relations (Talmy 2000), studies of category structure, including basic level categories, prototypes, and radial categories (Lakoff 1987), mental spaces (Fauconnier 1985; Fauconnier and Sweetser 1996), frame semantics (Fillmore

1982 1985; Sweetser 1990), blended spaces (Fauconnier and Turner 1998, 2002), cognitive grammar (Langacker 1986, 1990, 1991), cognitive construction grammar (Goldberg 1995; Lakoff 1987, Case Study 3) (p.270-271)

Langacker (2008) said about Cognitive Linguistics: “Cognitive Grammar belongs to the wider movement known as cognitive linguistics (p.7)

He also claimed that, important strands of cognitive linguistics include construction grammar, metaphor theory, the study of blends and mental spaces, and various efforts to develop a conceptualist semantics Vyvyan Evans and Melaine Green (2006) considered cognitive linguistics as one of the most innovative and exciting approaches to the study of language and thought (p.5) Leonard Talmy (2000) referred the term “cognitive linguistics” as his

M own body of work as “cognitive semantics” (p.4) So we see there are many

definitions of cognitive linguistics, it depends on what aspects of linguistics that researchers want to study on the cognitive perspective

Commonly, cognitive linguistics is a branch of linguistics It is the studying linguistics on the cognitive perspective, the way language interacts with cognition and how language forms our thoughts On the other word, it is the studying of relationship of human language and the mind, socio-physical experience

Metaphor Theory

They said that Metaphor is origin of Greek and starting by Aristotle, who had seen Metaphor as powerful rhetorical and poetic devices of language, conspicuously it is used of ornate and flowery words by the poet, literature for a long time In Aristotle’s time, some people Metaphors are most regularly compared with similes (Similes is most famous by Homer, who sometimes calls metaphor side by side with similes), but as Aristotle is considered simile as a specific type of metaphor, simile uses the words "like" or "as" in comparing two objects While a metaphor is identical on the point of comparison, simile merely

is a similarity

2.4 Dog

2.4.1 What is Dog?

Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) are domesticated mammals, not natural wild

animals They were originally bred from wolves They have been bred by humans for a long time, and were the first animals ever to be domesticated There are different studies that suggest that this happened between 15.000 and 100.000 years before our time The dingo is also a dog, but many dingos have become wild animals again and live independently of humans in the range where they occur (parts of Australia)

M Today, some dogs are used as pets, others are used to help humans do their

work They are a popular pet because they are usually playful, friendly, loyal and listen to humans Thirty million dogs in the United States are registered as pets.Dogs eat both meat and vegetables, often mixed together and sold in stores as dog food Dogs often have jobs, including as police dogs, army dogs, assistance dogs, fire dogs, messenger dogs, hunting dogs, herding dogs, or rescue dogs

They are sometimes called "canines" from the Latin word for dog - canis

Sometimes people also use "dog" to describe other canids, such as wolves A baby dog is called a pup or puppy A dog is called a puppy until it is about one year old According to The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (1994), ‘dog is a common domestic animal, a friend of a man, of which there are many breeds’ Dog

is a member of the genus Canis (probably descended from the common wolf) that has been domesticated by man since prehistoric times There are many kinds of dog: domestic and wild dogs; wolves; jackals, doggie, doggy, pooch, barker, bow-wow, black dog, yellow dog; wild dog, spotted dog, piebald dog, mongrel dog, pedigree dog In terms of the birthplaces of dogs, there are Chow-Chow, Collie, Leonberger, Cokerspaniel, Husy, Bernhardiner, Basset Hound, West Highland White Terrier, Mops, Boxer, Mastiff, Dalmatiner, Afghhane, Deutsch Kurhaar, Airedaleterrier, Japanese dog, Welsh corgi, Mexican hairless, basenji,see dog or seal, Bejing dog, Spanish dog, etc In terms of the special features of the dogs, there are hairy dog, shock dog, little dog, poodle, pug-dog In terms of functions, there are watchdog, sleddog, army dog, scout dog, hunting dog, police dog, guide dog, shepherd-dog, sheepdog, etc In English, to mention this animal, people often use two words ‘dog’,

‘cur’ The first, ‘dog’ is used for the male, the second, ‘cur’ is a bad quality kind of dog and also used with connotative meanings to talk about the ‘rotter’, ‘uneducated’

or ‘humble’ The male is usually just called, ‘dog’, the female dog is called, ‘bitch’ and the young are called ‘puppies’ or ‘pups’ A group of dogs may be referred to as

a pack Maybe, the special eating way of the dog may be a reason why the English use the word ‘dog’ to point the tongs or hooks for technical terms ‘Dog’ is a hinged catch that fits into a notchofa ratchet to move a wheel forward or prevent it from moving backward direction Moreover, in American English slang, the word ‘dog’ can be used in ‘dogface’, means ‘infantryman’ The word ‘dog’ can be referred to a dull unattractive unpleasant girl or woman; ‘she got a reputation as a frump’; ‘she's

a real dog’ frump disagreeable woman, unpleasant woman - a woman who is

M unpleasant used as an informal term for a man, like chap, fellow, cuss for a boy or

man; ‘you lucky dog’; ‘that chap is your host’; ‘there's a fellow at the door’; ‘he's a likable cuss’ People use ‘dog’ to say someone who is morally reprehensible; ‘you dirty dog’ blackguard, bounder, cad, hound, bounder scoundrel, villain - a wicked

or evil person; someone who does evil deliberately The ‘dog’ is used in hot dog, hotdog sausage - a smooth-textured sausage of minced beef or pork usually smoked; often served on a bread roll The word ‘dog’ can also be used in some phrases and combined words such as: ‘dog-fennel’ (a kind of chrysanthemum), ‘dog-tooth’ (pyramid architecture), ‘dog-trot’ (amble/pace), ‘dog’s-tooth’ (lily), ‘dog’s-tongue’(dog’s-tongue tree), ‘dog’s-tail’ (goose grass), ‘dog’s-grass’ Bermuda grass), ‘dog-salmon’, etc To sum up, the English quite like using the features of parts of the dog’s body to name other objects Like this way, the Vietnamese also says ‘cây cứt chó’ (a kind of plant), ‘rau húng chó’ (common basil), ‘chòm sao Thiên lang’ Dog Days of summer: In the six weeks after the solstice, the Dog Star, Sirius, appears in the night sky of the Northern Hemisphere It was once thought that this bright star contributed to the heat characteristic of the beginning of August

2.4.2 Literal meanings of the word ‘chó’ in Vietnamese and English

In Vietnamese, the animal with four legs, long face, sensitive nose, keen ears, long tail, reared to watch house is called ‘dog’ (chó), with a very popular sentence

‘Nhà bà có con chó đen, Người lạ nó cắn người quen nó mừng’ One of the most typical characters of the dog is his/her voice ‘bow-wow’ (gâu gâu), therefore, she/he

is often named ‘con gâu’ (bow-wow animal) Besides, the ways people call their dogs can also become their funny names: ‘tun tun’, ‘lu lu’, ‘lêu lêu’, ‘êu êu’ Many others call the dog ‘mích’ or ‘tuma’ The word ‘dog’ can also be used in some phrases and combined words such as: ‘dog-fennel’ (a kind of chrysanthenum), ‘dog-tooth’ (pyramid architecture), ‘dog-trot’ (amble/pace), ‘dog’s-tooth’ (lily), ‘dog’s-tongue’ (dog’s-tongue tree), ‘dog’s-tail’ (goose grass), ‘dog’s-grass’ (Bermuda grass), ‘dog-salmon’, etc To sum up, the English quite like using the features of parts of the dog’s body to name other objects Like this way, the Vietnamese also say ‘cây cứt chó’ (a kind of plant), ‘rau húng chó’ (common basil), ‘chòm sao Thiên lang’

In ancient Vietnamese, there are also other nouns referring to the word ‘dog’ such as ‘cẩu’(‘hải cẩu’ (seadog, seal), ‘linh cẩu’ (hyena)) and ‘khuyển’ (‘khuyển dương’, ‘khuyển mã’ (dog and horse or loyal servant), ‘khuyển ưng’) In a certain

M circumstance, reminding the image of the dog, ‘tuất’ is used instead (‘tuổi tuất’

(born in the year of the Dog), ‘năm tuất’ (the year of the dog) Cun con (Puppy) is a word used for a cute baby or a lover, and sometimes a dog may be treated as a member of the family ‘Dog paddle’ is a swimming style that amateurs use, and a

‘dog circus’ is a performance of the dogs’ intelligence and cuteness which attracts many audiences

2006 was the year of the dog, an animal closely associated with human life and appearing frequently in Vietnamese culture Of the twelve Asian horoscope animals, the dog appears most frequently in Vietnamese culture, such as poem, literature, and especially proverbs and idioms, due to its positive characteristics of intelligence, and usefulness

A Vietnamese saying, ‘Dogs protect homes, roosters showtime’ highlights the usefulness of the animal However, the crowing cock usefulness is negated in another proverb, ‘When the householder is not at home, chickens put the kitchen in disorder’ Only the dog never causes any complaints Owners can trust their dogs to take care of the home protecting it from thieves when they are away, and as active hunters, dogs also help their masters and protect them when they are in danger

‘Dogs are in the home, chickens are in the coop’ is a saying about the true loyalty of family Although a master may not come home for several years, the dog will still recognizes its boss and welcome him warmly In addition, with a sharp-nose, dogs help people in imatters of security and rescue Dogs are useful in a multitude of ways

In English, Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) are domesticated mammals, not

natural wild animals They were originally bred from wolves They have been bred

by humans for a long time, and were the first animals ever to be domesticated There are different studies that suggest that this happened between 15.000 and 100.000 years before our time The dingo is also a dog, but many dingos have become wild animals again and live independently of humans in the range where they occur (parts of Australia)

2.4.3 People born in the Year of the Dog

Dogs are the most likable sign of all the animals in the lunar zodiac cycle A person born in the Year of Dog is considered honest, intelligent and straightforward with a deep sense of loyalty and a passion for justice and fair-play

Dogs are also unpretentious, know how to get along with others and are never

M too demanding They like to meet others halfway and are willing to listen to reason

If you have a dog as a friend, you will not worry when you are in trouble because dogs never ignore a cry for help Dogs protect the interests of others more avidly than themselves and never give up

Dogs are also open-eyed and open-minded observers, with the objective of preserving social goals and guarding the interest of the public at large However, although dogs can be quite defensive, they are not materialistic or fond of ceremony and prefer plain talk Dogs will see through people’s motives as natural lawyers and listen to your case objectively

As the symbol of justice, dogs are very serious about their responsibilities, practical, fearless and the owners of very sharp tongues, dogs are very realistic and outspoken

Dogs make for good impartial judges as they spare nobody, not even themselves, in the final analysis People born in the Year of the Dog will probably

be a good but somewhat reluctant leader with an astute intelligence and noble character

Females born in the Year of the Dog are considered a thoughtful and capable person who will be a simple dresser in all situations, preferring casual and serviceable clothing She is unaffected and attentive to the needs of others, cooperative, unprejudiced and very good at sport Dogs are warm and often beautiful For an example of some famous females born in the Year of the Dog, we have Ava Gardner, Sophia Loren, Brigitte Bardot and Naomi Campbell

The Year of the Dog is also one year in which parents choose to give birth to their babies because they believe that children born in the Year of the Dog are friendly, happy and well-balanced and get schoolwork done without too much trouble Cheerful and harmonious, children born in the Year of the Dog will be reasonable when asked to help around the house and will be protective toward younger family members They will also expect little from others and accept parents and friends as they are

Young dogs also may put up a fight with the neighborhood tyrant or bully and win the respect of their peers Open, confident and loyal, young dogs perceive other people’s viewpoints with amazing clarity while still maintaining their own convictions and dignity

Generally, people born in the Year of the Dog are never without resources and

M wield influence on important or decision-making people through sound advice and

remarkable insight

The dog is most compatible with the horse, the cat and the tiger He will have

no conflict with the rat, snake, monkey, pig or even another dog But the one he will never really get himself to believe in is the overconfident dragon

2.5 What are idioms and proverbs?

Idioms are a type of figurative language, which means they are not always meant to be taken literally Idioms express a particular sentiment, but they do not literally mean what the individual words themselves mean

Proverbs are short sayings that are used to impart wisdom To some extent the literal meaning of the words in a proverb can be used to infer the underlying meaning of the proverb However, a true understanding of these short sentences will

be achieved only if you go beyond the literal meaning of the words The tense of proverbs cannot be changed Proverbs always have a moral or social message while idioms do not

Proverbs of dog Dogs are domestic animals in both Western and oriental countries In Vietnam, dogs are inferior animals; they are born to eat excrement It

is a natural instinct of dogs Thus dogs are regarded as those bad people who can not change their bad behavior Although a dog may travel a thousand leagues, it will still eat excrement; and although a wolf may travel a thousand leagues, it will still eat people, bad people are dogs And because eating excrement is a natural instinct

of dogs, people think that dogs’ mouths are dirty, their teeth are ugly As the proverb says Out of a dog’s mouth will never come ivory tusks In the two proverbs From the lowly perspective of a dog’s eyes, everyone looks short; Just as dogs don’t bite those who come to pay formal New Year’s call, government officials don’t beat those who send money, here snobbish people are dogs In dog in the manger, dog refers to those people who are useless while they are still occupying the positions selflessly In proverb - Just as a cornered dog will leap over

a wall, so a desperate person will hang himself from a roof beam, desperate situation is dog - A dead dog can’t be propped up on top of a wall, good-for-nothing person is dead dog A hungry dog is not afraid of a wooden club, wicked people are hungry dogs and when vicious dogs bite people they do so without warning implies dangerous people are hungry dogs However, western people treat dogs as friends, family members, soul mates They like taking orders and pleasing

M their owners And they are considered to be loyal animals In this proverb “If the

dog barks, he gives the counsel”, loyal people are dogs People’s friends are dogs in this proverb Love me, love my dog Dogs do not eat dogs Here dogs are given human’s emotion, and in “A good dog deserves a good bone”, here people are dogs The above examples show that there are numerous metaphorical meanings of dogs both in English and Vietnamese And most of the metaphorical meanings of dog in Vietnamese are negative while mostly positive in English The differences mainly come from dogs’ positions or status in With the influence of local climate and environment, western people earn their life mainly by hunting, and dog is an important tool for production Thus dog is not only a watch dog, but also a hunter, a partner and a friend in west There are a great number of English proverbs which speak highly of dogs

2.6 Summary Summary, this chapter includes important theories that help us to study this

thesis First of all, the first theory we must mention in this thesis is: Cognitive Linguistics, which is the foundation theory; new trend of theory in linguistics we are used to study in this thesis which Lakoff (1987) claimed that it is known as including many academic disciplines: a psychology, linguistics, anthropology, philosophy, and computer science Or in other words, Cognitive Linguistics is the studying linguistics on Cognitive perspective In this base, this chapter gets some points of view of Metaphor This means that we have main viewpoints of Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003), Kovecses (2002) about metaphor in the cognitive perspective, which Lakoff &Johnson (1980/2003) called as Conceptual Metaphor It

is absolutely different with the points of view of metaphor in the past (which is defined by Aristotle firstly, and then to have been understood by other famous researchers in long times ago) Following Lakoff and Johnson (1980/2003), we see that Conceptual Metaphor or so call Metaphor is used in everyday language of life not just in poetry or literature like we have ever thought Conceptual Metaphor is used one Domain to understand other Domain, or it is used one Conceptual Domain

to understand others In addition, it needs more than one source domains to understand a target domain The next, this chapter wants to deal with some main points of classifications of conceptual metaphors It is various kinds of classification

as conceptual metaphor is, should it depends on function Lakoff & Johnson, Kovecses divided into three types: Structural, Ontological, Orientational Metaphor

M One more concept we must mentions in this chapter is Dog, a concept that Lakoff

and Johnson, Kovecses claim that, was difficult for understanding but conceptual metaphor to comprehend meaningful, not just meaning And finally, this chapter shows some of information about dogs idioms and proverbs in English and Vietnamese

M CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Theoretical framework

Conceptual metaphor theory was introduced by Lakoff & Johnson in 1980 Pioneers within the field of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) developed a theoretical framework which identified how the source and target domains are related to the metaphors Their findings made a difference in the understanding of how to work during the process of determining conceptual metaphors

In Metaphors We Live By (2003), Lakoff & Johnson explain that in our

everyday life we use metaphors not only in conversation and writing but also in our thinking and in how we pursue our lives What is happening in our minds ultimately goes back to our experiences of the world and how it is influenced by our practical doings Lakoff & Johnson argue that a concept of mind is how one makes sense of the world in connection with other people Thus, a conceptual metaphor is based on the experiences people have in their everyday lives Lakoff & Johnson (2003) point out that our normal conceptual system is metaphorically structured so that one concept is understood by means of our experiences of another concept The metaphors can be grounded in a cultural, ontological, and structural system This means that concepts which are based on the cultural systems derive from the idea that all values will be coherent with the structure of the metaphor Furthermore, the concept of culture is deeply rooted in the culture one is living in Therefore, the expression will be reflecting the view of the culture it comes from The metaphorical concept that has the greatest influence depends on the subculture one

is living in and on the strength of one’s personal values (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003)

3.2 Analytical framework

The study is employed in the help of the structural metaphors and ontological metaphors Structural metaphors let us do more just adjust concepts like referring

and quantifying them They give us the chance to use well structured and clearly

described concepts to structure another concept Structural metaphors are also grounded in systematic correlation with our experience An example of a structural

metaphor is the metaphor Rational Argument is War

While ontological metaphors are entity and substance metaphors Examples of ontological metaphors reflecting entity might include referring metaphors (We are

working toward peace.), quantifying purpose metaphor (Like it will take a lot of patience to finish this book.), identifying aspect metaphor (His emotional health has

M deteriorated recently.) and identifying causes metaphor (He did it out of anger.) and

getting goals and motivating actions metaphor (She saw getting married as the

solution to her problems.) (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003, pp.26-27) A substance

metaphor might be a container metaphor Examples of this metaphor can be visual

field metaphors and an example of such a metaphor might be: I have him in sight

Another kind of container metaphor can be either events, actions, activities or

states An example of such a metaphor is: How did Jerry get out of washing the

window (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003, pp.30-31)

3.3 Procedures

After choosing the topic, the author will orient the thesis by the appropriate steps to support the content

Step 1: Determine and define the research questions

Step 2: Read, search and present the theoretical background and literature

review for the study

Step 3: Collect English and Vietnamese idioms and proverbs using dogs as

source domain under the theoretical basis of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff

& Johnson, 1980)

Step 4: Classify the dog metaphorical expressions into subtypes considering

the particular mapping between source domain “dogs” and its target domain

Step 5: Compare and find out the similarities and differences between

conceptual metaphors using dogs as source domain in English and Vietnamese idioms and proverbs

Step 6: Suggest some implications for language learners, teachers as well as

translators, give some conclusions and suggestions for further study

3.4 Statistical Analysis

The main methods which are utilized for this study are documentary analysis, descriptive research methods, and contrastive analysis on the level of lexical and phrase units First of all, idioms and proverbs about dog metaphors are collected After analyzing and interpreting data created from the examination of the documents, the author will classify and synthesize them Descriptive research provides a precise portrayal of the characteristics of metaphors and typical metaphorical images of dogs in English and Vietnamese online newspapers basing

on theoretical framework In this thesis, Contrastive Analysis is also essential because the aim of this study is to discover the similarities and the differences of

M conceptual metaphor using dogs as source domains in English and Vietnamese

online newspapers Conceptual metaphors using dogs as source domain in English are referred and analyzed first and then they are contrasted with Vietnamese conceptual metaphors

3.5 Analytic Model of the research

The categorization of the data is carried out on the basis of Lakoff Johnson"s Conceptual Metaphor Theory (1980/2003) In this model, the elemental principle is that our conceptual system is “fundamentally metaphorical in nature” (Lakoff and Johnson, 2003:3) Metaphorical expressions are not only used in literature but also shows in everyday life language and in every field of the society In this respect, the thesis conducts some investigation into the use of metaphor using dogs as source domains in English and Vietnamese idioms and proverbs in order to discover the top target domains from this source domain, mapping system among the conceptual domains

- Method of data analysis Data are both qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed

Firstly, qualitative research focuses on gathering of mainly lexical data rather than measurements Gathered information is then analyzed in an interpretative manner, subjective, impressionistic or even diagnostic The basic aim of a qualitative research is to provide a complete, detailed description of the research topic

In this study, qualitative method gives the author permission to conduct a deeper and more detailed conceptual analysis of the data, contributing to reveal possible similarities and differences in the use of the metaphorical expressions using dogs as source domains in English and Vietnamese internet newspapers, then interprets their meaning in both languages, English and Vietnamese To be more specific, the data is qualitatively analyzed as follows:

- Describing the representations of the conceptual metaphor using dogs as source domain in English and Vietnamese idioms and proverbs

Analyzing what target domains can use these expressions basing on metaphorical mapping and why these target domains are metaphorically understood and described in such way According to the author’s findings, there are many target domains using dogs as source domain, but the top target domains are characteristics and habits