Policy on enforcement of imprisonment sentences in Vietnam and China - from the perspectives of tradition, constitution and statutory law

Back to the 2013 Constitution of Vietnam, a 14 (2): “Human rights and citizens’ rights shall only be restricted when prescribed by law in imperative circumstances for the reasons of na[r]

TRADITION, CONSTITUTION AND STATUTORY LAW

Dr Le Lan Chi

School of Law, Vietnam National University, Hanoi

Abstract

Vietnam and China, the two neighbours are both in the family of the legal system of the feudalism

- “中华法系” (Chinese legal system) in the past and of the socialism now The paper raises the questions: Do such analogous points lead to any analogous policy on the enforcement of imprisonment sentences? Besides, are there any distinct points between the two countries? What

is the movement of these common and distinct points in the current policies on enforcement

of imprisonment sentences, especially when Vietnam and China have recently revised their constitutions and prison laws? The paper applies Comparison, “Yi – ology” and Generalization as three main methods to answer these questions; in addition, “Contextual analysis” and “Teleological Statute interpretation” ones are also employed The paper argues that apart from some differences between Vietnam and China, the two countries have the same approach, which is the outstanding

“阴法阳儒” (Yang Fa, Yin Ru), i.e Legalism with law (penalty) is the mainstream and Confucianism with morality (virtue) is subordinate in the enforcement of imprisonment sentences and which

is far distinct from the shown approach “阴儒阳法” (Yang Ru, Yin Fa) Nowadays, the more harmonious approach between government powers and human rights in the 2013 Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (the 2013 Constitution of Vietnam) and the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China with the 2018 Amendment (the Constitution of China) entails further adjustments to the policy on enforcement of imprisonment sentences based on the new context but in connection with history and tradition values of the two countries.

Keywords: imprisonment, punishment, reform, prisoners’ rights, Yin Yang.

Introduction

Policy on the enforcement of imprisonment sentences reflects the viewpoint of the state not only

on the nature of penalty in general and imprisonment in particular, but also on the benefits obtained from the inmates’ serving imprisonment sentences Besides, the policy provides a reflection of the state’s attitudes and behaviours toward the inmates, as well as a vivid demonstration of the level of human rights and the rule of law of a nation As Nelson Mandela had said: “It is said that no one truly knows a nation until one has been inside its jails A nation should not be judged by how it treats its highest citizens, but its lowest ones” Especially, the policy is one part of history, hold traditional concepts and values in the legal culture of a nation

Looking back into history, as a small country bordering a much larger and more populated one

- China, Vietnam has been heavily influenced by China’s legal philosophies and the legal system

In modern days, both are Communist countries with a relatively similar criminal justice system Therefore, it is necessary for research from comparative perspectives on policy on enforcement of imprisonment sentences of Vietnam and China to have a true grasp over the issue of each country However, studies with such an approach are still limited in numbers On the other hand, similar to those

in China, policy on enforcement of imprisonment sentences in Vietnam is a relatively sensitive field, sometimes avoided because of its association with democracy and human rights, many research with the view to considering the enforcement of imprisonment sentences have been published with limited access to sufficient and official data of practice In the current context when both countries give high priority to the rule of law, human rights, transparency, democratization in terms of criminal justice, further comparisons are necessary This paper examines the similarities and differences between the policy of China and Vietnam through the analysis of the history, constitution and statutory law concerning to enforcement of imprisonment sentences

Methods

Addressing the aforementioned questions, this research employs Comparison method and Generalization one to identify the similarities and differences between the two countries in terms of the history of law and penalty “Yi-ology” is used for the identification of the movement and changes among the conflicting political and legal philosophies co-existing in the policy on enforcement of imprisonment sentences, and between the ones in the old Feudalism and existing Socialism on the policy The method also aims to examine the movements and changes of Vietnam under the influence

of China The contextual analysis method is applied to specify the impacts of political, economic, and socio-natural contexts on the policy-making process of each nation The method of “Teleological statute interpretation” is applied for more detailed and accurate analysis of the constitution and law concerning to enforcement of imprisonment sentences in the association with criminal law and related bylaws

Results

1 Traditional policy on enforcement of imprisonment sentences in Vietnam and China

Similar to other East Asian countries, Vietnam is deeply influenced by legal-political philosophies and feudal law of China For more than a thousand years of Chinese colonial rule and even after another thousand years after Vietnam reclaiming independence in 938, the two typical political and legal philosophies of the Chinese feudal regime, “Ru” (Confucianism) and “Fa”, have spread to Vietnam

In general, each feudal dynasty of Vietnam has passed down a legislative heritage by enacting a comprehensive code governing most of the basic fields of the society by the stipulations of criminal law, by criminal sanctions - penalties Two Codes, National Penal Code of the Le Dynasty (Quoc Trieu Hinh Luat) in the 15th century and National Penal Code of the Nguyen Dynasty (Hoang Viet Luat Le) in the 19th century, which are still preserved to date, set out the penalty system with 05 principal punishments (“the Five Punishments”) and some additional penalties The “Five Punishments” include: 1- “Xuy” (Chi): light stick, 2- “Truong” (Zhang): heavy stick, 3- “Do” (Tu): penal servitude), 4- “Luu” (Liu): life exile, and 5- “Tu” (Si): death The “Five Punishments” is not largely different

from ones in China as these originate from China itself “Imperial Chinese law did not distinguish

between criminal law and civil law Neither did it distinguish private law from public law as “the

Five Punishments” (“Wu Xing”), since ancient times, underwent changes and were enshrined in the Tang Code – the new codification of the Tang dynasty in 624 The Tang’s Five Punishments

“proved remarkably influential not only in China, but also in East Asia”1 The enforcement of these

punishments is not specified separately, but is always present in the regulations on grades of penalty

which also shows the forms of the punishments For example death sentence consists of 03 following

grades corresponding to 03 manners of execution: (1) “jiao” hanging or decapitation; (2) “xiaoshou”

(expose or display of the head); (3) “lingchi” (tormented death), prior to which are four less severe

penalties similar to “Five Punishments” in the National Penal Code of Le Dynasty2

“Tu” (penal servitude) and “Liu” (life exile) can be perceived as two versions of the current

imprisonment penalties and the policy on such Particularly, criminals have their freedom restrained

and must stay in a confined space under the management and supervision according to different levels

of security (though not in confinement facilities of such high concentration as the current “prison”)

Additionally, for both “Tu” and “Liu”, restricting freedom is one characteristic while the other is

compulsory labour For example, for “Tu”, according to Quoc Trieu Hinh Luat, criminals are forced

to serve their sentence in workplaces such as kitchens, fields, gardens, and silkworm or elephant

farms For “Liu”, despite the long or short distance of exile, the penalty in nature means isolating

criminals in a remote location and forcing them to work Besides, these two penalties stripped not

only the criminals’ freedom, but also their honour and social status as degrading them to the servants,

“cizi” (judicial tattooing) them as the dregs at the bottom class of the society So, the traditional policy

on enforcement of imprisonment sentences is featured by typical traits as such: grades of the penalties

are specified via the manners of enforcement thereof; the penalties and their enforcements are to

punish criminals not only by restricting freedom, but also degrading their honour and dignity; human

rights, rehabilitation and reintegration of criminals are not an issue of concern to the state; and, the

exploitation of penal labour is emphasised for various practical purposes

The most common model of the feudal dynasties of Vietnam and China is often generalized in

the formula of “Yang Ru, Yin Fa” (阴儒阳法): “Ru” (Confucianism) is the supremacy (“Yang”) and

“Fa” (Legalism) is the subservience (“Yin”), or its simple version of “De Zhu, Xing Fu” (德主刑

辅): the supremacy of “De” – one of the core concepts of “Ru” and the subservience of “Xing” - one

of the core concepts of “Ru” It originates from the combination of two conflicting legal-political

philosophies, which are “Ru” and “Fa” As Confucius, the vital figure of “Ru”, states: “Guide them

by edicts, keep them in line with punishment and the common people will stay out of trouble but

will have no sense of shame Guide them by virtue, keep them in line with the rites and they will,

besides having a sense of shame, reforms themselves” (Analects II, 3) Confucianism puts forward

the theory of “De” (morality or virtue) and “Li” (rites) The objective of Confucianism is to prevent

crime by the shame, honour and self-restraint of each individual person since it is believed that human

beings could be reformed thanks to the good nature of human nature, that people could be improved

through education and persuasion Meanwhile, Legalism introduces the theory of “Fa”, “Xing”: “Fa”

1 Klaus Mühlhahn, Criminal Justice in China A history (Havard University 2009) 31

2 Quoc Trieu Hinh Luat (National Penal Code of Le Dynasty) in Mot so van ban dien che va phap luat Viet Nam tu the

ky XV den the ky XVIII (Some legislations and legal documents of Vietnam from 15th century to 18 th century) (Vol 1,

Khoa hoc xa hoi 2006) 48

(law) is “Xing” (penalty); penalty is punishment; the results of law enforcement are more important than the process of the enforcement itself, in other words: “Power regarded as law, law regarded as punishment, contempt for law on proceedings, emphasis for mediation, disregard for the rights, and emphasis for prevention”1 This is considered to be a common formula of governance mentioned in studies on the history of Vietnam and China “In particular, the emphasis of the supremacy of “De” and the subservience of “Xing” (德主刑辅), or the idea of “morality given priority over penalty”, was fundamental to the administration of justice in the imperial state”2 Such combination of the two philosophies is considered a basic rationale for the administration of justice and punishment that even continued to influence the way criminal justice operated up to the modern time in their publication before3 Looking back into history, Dong Zhongshu (195-115 B.C) was the first author

of the formula of the relationship between “Ru” and “Fa” originated from Yin Yang cosmology “He related Punishment to “Yin” and virtue or morality (“De”) to “Yang” “Yin” was subordinated to

“Yang”, and by analogy, the ruler should in his rest mainly in virtue, not on punishment Punishment should be a helper of morality as “Yin” is supposed to be the helper to “Yang”4

However, in the field of criminal justice, “Fa” is the dominant, which can not serve as “Yin” and only support to “Ru” Law or criminal law demonstrates the authoritarian power of the emperors,

so “Fa” (upholding punishments, incapacitation, deterrence, and prevention with the severity of the penalty) shows “Yang” - the main role, expressed in a major, common and permanent manner; “Ru” (treasuring education through virtues and rites) signifies “Yin” as a supplementary role, expressed in

a minor, uncommon, non-permanent manner in stipulations on punishments and their enforcement The National Penal Code of Nguyen Dynasty, with its preface written by Emperor Gia Long himself, despite expressing the Confucian thought the possibility of human rehabilitation, has its nature imbued with the spirit of the Legalism about the role of punishments and their enforcement in inducing fear to deter people from committing crimes Emperor Gia Long stated: “I personally did the final revision

of the Code so that everyone would learn in order to prevent mistakes The Code shines like the sun and the moon, leaving no shadow anywhere, and the strict punishments are as dazzling as lightning, resounding like thunder which spare no wrongdoing And the obstinate can easily be looked upon

to avoid crimes and punishments Therefrom they can go down the path of self-education and avoid committing wrongdoings, thus, the officials have few reasons to intervene Then all things will go well without the enforcement of laws Is that not a good thing?”5

That “Fa” (Penalty/Xing) is better regarded also takes root from the practical benefits yielded during the enforcement process Enforcement of penalty does not only achieve such objectives as retribution, rehabilitation, deterrence, and incapacity, but also yields many practical benefits for the state Enforcement of penalty provides cheap labour for building constructions such as palaces, temples,

1 Du Vinh Can, Tong quan tu tuong phap luat Nho gia (Overview on Confucists’ Ideals on Law), (Nhan dan Quang Tay

2000), Vietnamese version translated by Institue of Scientific Information, Hochiminh National Political Academy) 29.

2 Wei Wu & Tom Vander Beken, “Understanding Criminal Punishments and Prison in China” (2018) The Prison Journal

98 (6) 700, 703 <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322166533> accessed 28 October 2019.

3 Wei Wu & Tom Vander Beken, “The evolution of criminal interrogation rule in China” (2012), 40 (4) International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251706141> accessed 28 October 2019

4 Mühlhahn (n 1), 24

5 The Preface written by Emperor Gia Long in Hoang Viet Luat Le (National Penal Code of Nguyen Dynasty) (Van hoa

thong tin 2002) 21.

pagodas and shrines, which required huge amounts of workforce, resources, and was conducted in

harsh natural conditions Feudal legislators have seen the benefits of inmates’ labour for national

defence and security purposes, including construction of defensive structures, military replenishment,

relocate to border areas, and newly expanded areas) For instance, in China, “under the Qing, the

punishment of exile was expanded in proportion and in response to the territorial expanse of the Empire To form of deportation were added: military life exile (jun or chongjun) and the banishment

to the frontier (fapei)”1 Establishing a multi-purpose policy of punishment enforcement completely

fits Han Feizi’s realistic approach who “made a mark in the history of mankind with a doctrine that

dares to look straight to the truth and affirms that the basic values of benefits are the motive for all

human actions” 2

Despite the fact that “Fa” plays a major role and “Ru” plays a supporting one, politicians still

uphold the formula “Yang Ru, Yin Fa” The employment of such formula aims to advocate for holders

of political authority, affirming the good nature of the ruling regime, and the “heavenly integrity” of

their rule Hence, the formula can enhance the effectiveness of mass mobilization In fact, there are

two formulas: the substantinve formula and the demagogic one The substantinve formula is “Yang

Fa, Yin Ru” and the demagogic one is “Yang Ru, Yin Fa” The practical benefit of imprisoment

enforcement and the utilization of the demagogic formula are the vivid manifestation of “Shu” (術)

in the theory of “Fa”, “Shi” (勢) and “Shu” of Legalism and reinforce the dominant of Legalism in

the area of criminal justice “Shu” is considered an administrative method, and the art of reigning

a country and its people3) which is one of three pillars of ruling in Legalism, namely “Fa”, “Shi”,

and “Shu” “Fa” and “Shu” are used to reinforce “Shi” “Shi”, also known as the position, power or

authority of the head of the state, the king, which is a fundamental condition for leadership, ruling a

country and all lands and commanding over the officials.4 “Shu” - the art of ruling and manipulating

the people, does introduce a gentle formula “Yang Ru, Yin Fa” while in true nature, the positions

between “Ru” and “Fa”, and between “De” and “Xing” are reversed

Upon the comparison between Vietnam and China, several literatures in Vietnam‘s history (refecting the sharing of Ly Thanh Tong (King of Ly Dynasty) with inmates’ sufferings and several

pardons granted by some other kings) have been cited to prove that Vietnam’s feudal law was more

humane and distinctive in terms of imprisonment sentences and their enforcement than that of China

However, such comparison was not truly convincing In China’s history, “The Penal Code also had provision forbidding the imposition of heavy punishments for the very old or the very young

Amnesty was granted frequently by the emperor, and this system of “acts of grace” was indeed a

striking aspect of Chinese criminal justice”5 Whether practical or populist, Chinese emperors also

adopted similar humane policies from time to time The major difference, perhaps lies in the actual

adoption of the policy on imprisonment sentence enforcement and such difference is attributable to

contextual factors The Southeast Asia (including Vietnam) has been proven to be a place of origin

of “Yin and Yang” philosophy The philosophy “originates from the only place in the world where

1 Mühlhahn (n 1), 32

2 Do Duc Minh, Hoc thuyet phap tri trung Hoa co dai, Gia tri tham khao trong quan ly xa hoi o Viet Nam (Legalism in

acient China, Reference Values in Society Administration in Vietnam) (Chinh trị hanh chinh 2013) 139

3 Ibid, 37

4 Ibid, 35

5 Mühlhahn (n 1), 38

wet-rice farming was born and people lived on such farming throughout the history Meanwhile, Vietnam is both in Southeast Asia – the cradle of the philosophy and the only country of the region that adopted the philosophy after China had perfected it”1 Vietnam is the land upholds “Yin” –

“Yang” balance that leads to a moderate, harmonious and non-extreme attitude towards life Thanks

to harmonious comportment, social disputes and political conflicts in Vietnam were not as bitter

as in China; therefore, the need for deterrence in social management of Vietnam rulers was not so strong to impose extreme sentences Division, ruling as a feud and a power struggle among feudal clans were in place, but not as apparent as in China On the other hand, the difference between Vietnam and China can be explained from the view of history Vietnam’s history largely revolved around resistance against invasion and territorial expansion of China; as a result, law and penalty were put in a political and social context that valued the close relationship between the ruler and his or her people – the ideology of “亲 民” (closeness to the people) and “且寬民力” (easing the people’s burden of life) to gain the people’s support and nurture their strength The ideology has a quite profound presence throughout Vietnam’s history Some typical works of national heroes Ly Thuong Kiet, Tran Nhan Tong, Nguyen Trai, and Le Thanh Tong demonstrated such, and a particular one by Tran Hung Dao: “As the long-term strategy of “easing the people’s burden of life” is the best policy to defend the nation”2 Maintaining closeness to the people in Vietnam’s politics contributes

to the tolerance in legislation and its enforcement, as well as less strict and punitive requirements of the criminal law This is different from China’s history featured by the division and power struggles among feudal clans, as well as the territorial expansion taking roots from Unileversalism (conquering others) and Sinocentrism (China is central) of the Chinese In addition, the approach to forced labour

in the two countries also differ Vietnam did not lay heavy emphasis on the need for penal labour due

to its smaller area and population, less severe climate, along with community and religious works

of smaller scale and lower complexity, including palaces, temples and tombs Conversely, in China, penal labour was used to control floods in Huang He river, construct the Great Wall, or far-flung boundary outposts (“Those sentenced fapei were sent to Manchuria, Mogolia, or later, Xinjiang in the North West These regions were considerable farther away than the maximum distance stipulated for regular or military exile”3) Therefore, the policy of Vietnam on enforcement of imprisonment sentences was more moderate, in which criminals are allowed to stay and work in shorter distance and less severe conditions

2 Modern policy on enforcement of imprisonment sentences

The 20th century witnessed momentous changes in the national and the legislative history of the two countries On September 2, 1945, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was established Throughout the next 30 years of war (1945-1975), in the North Vietnam - a socialist legal system was

in gradual development which was strongly influenced by the law of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soviet Union) On October 1, 1949, the People’s Republic of China was formed and its legislation on the enforcement of imprisonment sentences was also under the influence of the Soviet Union As the states shifted to socialist regime, their policy on such was based on a shared outlook

1 Tran Ngoc Them, He gia tri Viet Nam tu truyen thong den hien dai va con duong toi tuong lai (Vietnam Values System from Tradition to Modernity and the Way to the Future) (Van hoa nghe thuat 2016) 205

2 Ngo Sy Lien et al., Dai Viet su ky toan thu (Daiviet ‘s General History Book) (Khoa hoc xa hoi 1993) 126

3 Mühlhahn (n 1), 33

on human ity, i.e human can be rehabilitated; therefore, the enforcement of these sentences moves

towards rehabilitating people and combining “punishment with education and reform” In China and

Vietnam alone, this policy is also an inheritance of the historical flow with a combination between

the theories of “Ru” and “Fa” in the new context “The basic principle of Confucian thought-bringing

out the good nature of people and creating change through imposing moral education – has meshed

with the Communist’s need to reeducate the people in Socialist values The ancient legalist view

promoting the use of strict punishments to punish wrongdoing and prevent crime were also within

the philosophical framework of the Communist regime, which believes the punishment and reform

go hand in hand”1

For Vietnam, the policy has clearly and consistently highlighted its nature as a combination of

punishment with education and reform, which is still in place and aligns with the regulation for the

purpose of penalty stipulated in the Penal Code 2015, a 31 (penalty is not only to punish offenders but

also to educate them on the compliance with laws and social norms while deters them from committing

more crimes); this policy is further reflected in the regulation on the principle for enforcement of

criminal sentences specified in the Law on enforcement of criminal judgements 2019, a 4(4) and

before that, Law on enforcement of criminal judgements 2010, a 4(4): “Combine punishment with

education and reform in judgement enforcement” For China, the Prison Law 1994, at 3 provides that:

“A prison shall, with regard to prisoners, implement the principle of combining the punishment with

reform and combining education with labour, in order to transform them into law-abiding citizens”

This principle remained unchanged in the most recent amendment of Prison Law of China in the 29th

meeting of the 11th National People’s Congress date October 26, 2012 Vietnam’s and China’s policies

are similar in the sense that enforcement of the imprisonment sentence shall be the combination of

punishment with education and reform, in which punishment shall be put before Therefore, such

policies in socialist era still considers the enforcement of imprisonment sentences as punishment

at first (similar to the theory of Legalism) and then education and reform (similar to the principle

of Confucianism on the role of education and that human can be rehabilitated) Modern policy on

the enforcement of imprisonment sentences of China and Vietnam use the “combination” between

punishment and education and reform, but they make not much of a difference from the previous

“Yang Fa, Yin Ru” However, concerning form, education and reform continue to rank first, following

the line of socialist humanity with the mission of revolution of reforming human on the belief that

human is reformable; in fact, punishment still outweighs education and reform due to the demand

of proletariat dictatorship entailing vigorous repression via institutions on sanction and penalty and

its enforcement There is a switch between “Fa” and “Ru” according to “Yin and Yang” in terms of

the form and content Regarding content, “Fa” represents “Yang” and “Ru” represents “Yin” but the

opposition is true in term of form

On the other hand, the dual existence (“Yin” in “Yang” and “Yang” in “Yin”) can be used to

highlight a principle of conversion between punishment with reform and education in the enforcement

of imprisonment sentences The penalty itself is punishment (deriving of the inmates’ freedom and

relating rights due to being derived of freedom) However, only under punishment can the inmates

recognize of their wrongdoings and correct themselves (education and reform based on punishment)

1 Erika Fairchild, E and Harry R Dammer, Comparative Criminal Justice System, (2nd edn, Wadsworth Thomson

Learning 2001) 259

On the contrary, punishment is embodied in education and reform Criminals are penalized in the name

of education and reform This nature was extremely prominent in the period prior to the introduction

of the Prison Law 1994 In 1954, China issued the Act of the People’s Republic of China for Reform through Labour Despite its name as “Reform through Labour”, Article 2 of the Act considers prisons

as a part of the “people’s democratic dictatorship” Given its disarray of social orders and values

in the second half of the 20th century, China has coined a distinctive definition of “reform” Three China’s distinctive aspects of reform in this special period are generalized as follows:

First, in terms of content of reform: political ideology and viewpoints are particularly emphasized

in reform program: “Inmates are subject to institutions called laogai to promote “thought rehabilitation

through labour” 1 “Inmates also obtain moral education in Socialist ideology such as sound work ethic and acceptance of the ideal of collectivity” 2 Inmates are politically reformed by undergoing

“different kinds of degradation ceremonies, such as mass trials (gongshendahui公审大会) and mass sentencing rallies (gongpandahui 公判大会), providing an important avenue through which the emotive representations of public shaming and moral indignation toward crimes and criminals were constituted” 3 Political views and policy lines must be learned and reiterated by the inmates Their shortcomings, their criminal past must be repeated in activities of self-reflecting and giving criticism

to other inmates Re-educating their way of thinking is also a form of mental punishment for inmates

Second, in terms of target groups of reform: inmates – those who are sentenced to imprisonment

and sent to “Laogai” (Reform through Labour Camps) only make up a part in the total number of people reformed in the system of correctional facilities, Because apart from inmates, there are also lawbreakers or counter-revolutionaries being detained without trial in “Laojiao” (Reform through Labour facilities), which is a part of the Administrative Detention Centers Laojiao had existed for

a long time and detainees here, though in the name of being reformed, are in fact deprived of their freedom and punished Generally speaking, there is a wide range of reform subjects due to the fact that the need for reform (a political ideology) is given as an excuse to expand the target groups of reform and scope of confinement without court proceedings

Third, in terms of manners of reform: labour is the manner that plays a vital role in reform

inmates In the minds of Mao ZeDong and other Chinese communists, labour plays a particularly important role: “Labour in Chinese Communism was above all understood as a cultivating activity for transforming the mindset of those who were engaged in it”4 So, “In the rehabilitation of criminals, China operates on the principle that education is very important, attaching great importance to physical labour in addition to legal, moral, cultural and technical education to encourage criminals to stop considering their time in prison as a forced prison term but think more in terms of conscientious reform, to give up the idea of obtaining personal profits through criminal means, to form the habit

of respecting other people and society in general, and to obtain the work skills needed for later employment so that they may become law-abiding citizens”5 “In all forms of Chinese punishment,

1 Ibid, 216

2 Ibid, 261

3 Wu & Beken (n 4), 78

4 Mühlhahn (n 1), 152

5 Information Office of the State Council Of the People’s Republic of China, Criminal Reform in China (White Papers 1992)

labour is a recurring theme”

In Vietnam, followed the Soviet model, there was a period since 1954 as the born of the so-called

Reform Camps under the management of the General Department of Reform through Labour (Cuc

Lao cai) and this name was maintained until 1961 when the People’s Police Ordinance was issued,

it was changed to General Department of Police of Prison Management (Cuc Canh sat quan li trai

giam) Vietnam also conducted ideological reform, but for completely different subjects - a part of

officials of the Republic of Vietnam regime after 1975 (within a few years after the war and only

for those who were former enemies on the front lines) In the case of Vietnam, to a certain extent,

there are similarities with China in terms of reform policy and the context in which the policy is

implemented: political-ideological context (one party, one ideology), socioeconomic context (severe

economic crisis in both countries during this period) In the case of China, China’s approach stemmed

from the internal political problems of a large nation with a huge population without great importance

placed on human rights in general and freedom of thought in particular As for Vietnam, two wars

in 30 years (1945-1975) divided the country both geographically and ideologically Therefore, when

the country was united, objective ly speaking, this model of concentrated reform and ideological education in this case, despite receiving mixed reviews, was not vengeful, but it was a transitional

approach to stabilize the country after the unification

Currently, China is still heavily criticized for poor protection of human rights of inmates, for

over exploitation of inmates’ labour, for the use of organs of criminals sentenced to death2, etc even

though China always denies or mitigates the severity of the problem We do not have access to authentic information to affirm or deny However, since the promulgation of the Prison Law 1994,

China has adjusted its policy on enforcement of imprisonment sentences that respects human rights

and the rule of law more The Prison Law 1994 “has recognized and implemented common principles

such as rule of law, fairness and justice” 3 “Inmates’ rights cumulatively form the largest portion of

the new Prison Law Due treatment goes far beyond the prohibition against mistreatment and corporal

punishment (which are still “strictly prohibited” under new Article 14)” 4 The Law confirmed that

“Human dignity of a prisoner shall not be humiliated, and his personal safety, lawful properties, and rights to defend, petition, complaint and accusation as well as other rights which have not been

deprived of or restricted according to law shall not be violated” (a 7), demanded that “The people’s

1 Chad Cook, “The Chinese System of Corrections: Searching for Answers” (2011) 3 (Chinese Law Paper Series ©

Government Law Center of Albany Law School) < https://www.albanylaw.edu/media/user/glc/china_law_paper_

series/chad_cook_final.pdf > accessed 28 October 2019

2 See: 1, Joan E Hemphill, Comment, China’s Practice of Procuring Organs from Executed Prisoners: Human Rights

Groups Must Narrowly Tailor Their Criticism and Endorse the Chinese Constitution to End Abuses, 16 Pac Rim

L & Pol’y J 431 (2007) < https://digitalcommons.law.uw.edu/wilj/vol16/iss2/6> accessed 28 Oct 2019; 2, Donald

C Clarke and James V Feinerman, Antagonistic Contradictions: Criminal Law and Human Rights in China, The

China Quarterly, No 141, Special Issue: China’s Legal Reforms (Mar., 1995), pp 135-154 <https://www.jstor.org/

stable/655094?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents> accessed 28 Oct 2019; 3, Randall Peerenboom, Assessing Human

Rights in China: Why the Double Standard, 38 Cornell Int’l L.J 71 (2005) <https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cilj

vol38/iss1/3/> accessed 28 Oct 2019

3 Mühlhahn (n 1), 293

4 Allen F Anderson, “A Perspective on China’s New Prison Law” (1996), International Criminal Justice Review (Vol

6) 79, 83 <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/105756779600600105?journalCode=icja> accessed 28

October 2019

police of a prison shall strictly abide by the Constitution and the law, be loyal to their duties, enforce the law impartially, strictly observe discipline and be honest and upright”, set prohibited acts of infringement on inmates, identified grounds for reward and punishment (s 6) and specified, the content and methods of Education and Reform (c V), especially legalizing the labour regime in the mode of rehabilitation based on the principles “An able-bodied prisoner must do labour” (a 69)

Overall, after 40 years of renewal, China has consistently advocated building its own socialist state with centralized power The Constitution of China does emphasize the authoritarian power of the State The Constitution of China, a 1 enshrines: “The People’s Republic of China is a socialist state under the people’s democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants” Meanwhile, the 2013 Constitution of Vietnam does not mention “democratic dictatorship” when defining the nature of the State (“The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a socialist rule of law State of the People, by the People and for the People” (a 2) The Constitution of China, mainly uses the concept of citizens’ rights while the Constitution of Vietnam simultaneously uses the two concepts of human rights, citizens’ rights, putting the concept of human rights first1 On the other hand, the 2013 Constitution of Vietnam sets out a rule that restricts human rights and citizens’ rights:

“Human rights and citizens’ rights shall only be restricted when prescribed by law in imperative circumstances for the reasons of national defence, national security, social order and security, social morality and community well-being” to determine the scope and manner of restricting human rights and citizens’ rights of the State while the Constitution of China has yet to set this rule In terms of labour, unlike the 2013 Constitution of Vietnam, the Constitution of China continues to emphasize the role of labour: “Work is a matter of honour for every citizen who is able to work” (a 42) as a continuation of the value of labour in the cultural tradition of this country Vietnam does not regard labour as a civic value reflecting social standard enshrined in the constitution, nor identifies labour as

an element of the imprisonment sentences and policy on enforcement of imprisonment sentence as China does

Based on the provisions on human rights and citizens’ rights in the 2013 Constitution of Vietnam, the Law on Enforcement of Criminal Judgments 2019 of Vietnam has supplemented several important provisions defining and ensuring the rights of inmates: (1), introducing a new provision only on inmates’ rights and duties (a 27), inmates’ rights, including: Have their lives, health, assets, dignity protected and respected; having been informed of their rights and obligations and regulations of places of detention; Receive board and lodging, clothes, personal care, health care as prescribed; receive letters, gifts, money; read books, newspaper, listen to the radio, watch television in conformity with conditions of the place where they serve the sentence; Participate in physical training and sports, cultural and performance activities; Participate in work, study, apprenticeship activities; Meet and contact with relatives, representatives of agencies, organizations, and individuals; or have consular visit and contact in case of foreign inmates; Conduct civil transactions as per the law by themselves

or via their representatives…; (2), introducing new provisions on rights for inmates of vulnerable groups: in addition to groups of inmates prescribed in the Law 2010, inmates as nursing women with children under 36 months of age residing with their mothers in prison, inmates who are LGBT

or whose gender is unidentified shall be held separately(a 30) These are the provisions ensuring the

1 See the title and content of Chapter 2 of the Vietnam Constitution 2013 and of Chapter 2 of the China Constitution (2018 Constitutional Amendment)