Globalization in higher education: the evolution and trend.

For foreign institutions, partnership with local institutions enables them to broaden their education offers and reach a greater number of students, studying fo r a [r]

GLOBALIZATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION:

THE EVOLUTION AND TREND

Đào Thị Bích Thủy, Dr,

U n iv e rs ity o f E c o n o m ic s a n d B u s in e s s - V N U H a n o i, V ie tn a m

Abstract

Higher education is said to be an essential foundation for personal, social and econom ic success in a globalized economy The 21st century is the age o f globalization With dynamic processes of increasing interdependence, growing competition, communication technologies and changing skill requirements in the labor market, globalization has its impact on the life of higher education The paper provides an overall view on the evolution of and the trend in the globalization o f higher education The first wave of higher education globalization mostly meant the movements o f students across borders when students in one country moving overseas for their university education Over the past decades, the number of international students enrolled outside their country of citizenship has risen dramatically, from 0.8 million worldwide in 1975 to double at 1.7 million in 1995 and double again at 3.7 million in 2009 and this number

is forecasted to reach about 5.8 million by 2020 There is a clear tendency of international student movement from developing to developed countries Asia formed the largest group o f sending students to overseas study, account fo r more than 50% o f the world mobile students and North America and Western Europe is the predominant destination that receives international students, account for nearly 60% of the world mobile students The new wave of higher education globalization includes the movements of teachers, programs and institutions across borders and has grown rapidly over the last decade This form enables students to take degree offered by a foreign university without leaving their home country International m obility in programs and institutions poses many opportunities and challenges to institutions

in developing countries as it creates both collaboration and competition between foreign and domestic institutions In one hand, international mobility of programs opens up many opportunities for collaboration and development for higher education institutions in foreign developed and domestic developing countries The various forms of program mobility present the variety of models for collaboration between foreign and dom estic institutions and bring ample benefits to both sides In the other hand, international institution mobility increases competition among foreign and domestic institutions since physical presence

o f foreign providers forces domestic providers to have more incentive for innovation and improvement of their quality in courses, management and governance The ever-growing demand fo r higher education in developing countries plus the speed up of globalization in higher education opens a perspective for collaboration and development between foreign and domestic institutions that help to build the countries’ domestic capacity to provide good quality higher education

K eyw ords: higher education globalization, modes of higher education collaboration, higher education in

developing countries

Higher education is said to be an essential foundation for personal, social and economic success in a globalized economy A t the individual level, higher education prepares quality workers with robust skills needed by offering instructional programs, matching instruction to the needs of business and industry, and helping individuals learn throughout their lives Highly educated workers are equipped with necessary skills and competencies and thus are likely to have more chance for high income employment At the society level, higher education has a crucial role in training and building in the level o f human capital of the labor force which in turn fosters economic growth leading to a higher national income and living standard for people

The 21st century is the age o f globalization Globalization means the increasingly global relationships of culture, people and econom ic activity With dynamic processes of increasing interdependence, growing competition, communication technologies and changing skill requirements in the labor market, globalization has its impact on the life of higher education The globalization of higher education is understood as “the process of integration or harmonization of world higher education systems, knowledge, competencies and skills across national boundaries" (ishengoma, 2003)

Globalization in higher education arises for many reasons Accelerating economic development in developing countries requires more qualified knowledge workforce which raises a stronger need for higher education However, in those countries growing demand for higher education can not be met by the domestic supply so m any people who wish to study are unable to secure a place at the domestic universities Cross-border higher education is a solution to the shortage of domestic supply as it serves to bridge the gap between supply and demand in developing countries Cross-border mobility is a means of globalizing higher education It has evolved from the traditional form o f international mobility in students to

a new wave o f international mobility of programs and institutions

The first w ave o f higher education globalization

The first wave of higher education globalization mostly meant the movements of students across borders when students in one country moving overseas for their university education Over the past decades, the number of international students enrolled outside their country of citizenship has risen dramatically, from 0.8 million worldwide in 1975 to double at 1.7 million in 1995 and double again at 3.7 million in 2009 Especially since 2000, there has been a rapid increase in international mobile students at the average annual rate o f 6,5%

Figure 1 Long-term trend in the num ber o f international students enrolled outside their country o f

citizenship (in millions)

Source: OECD and UNESCO Institute fo r Statistics.

Where do the international students come from? According to UNESCO statistics, in 2009 Asian students formed the largest group, account for nearly 50% of the total Asia is followed by North America and

Europe with 26% Students from Sub-Saharan Africa account for 7% and Latin America and the Caribbean represent 6% of the total international students Notably, East Asia and the Pacific take the leading in sending students abroad, account fo r the largest share of the world mobile students By country, the top three countries who have the largest student demand fo r studying abroad are China, India and South Korea with 15.2%, 5.8% and 3.71% o f the total international students respectively

Figure 2 Outbound mobile students b y region - 2009

Where are the destinations foFinternational stũãOTts?_S tũ d ^ t^ 7 r â l^ t[T ẽ ir â ẽ c is io n s on w hicll cW ntry to study based on various underlying factors The OECD report on education (2011) gives out the four main factors First is the quality of programmes International students increasingly select their study destination based on the academic reputation of particular institutions or programmes, the recognition of foreign degrees as perceived from a wide array of information on or rankings of higher education programmes available in print and on line Second is tuition fees and cost of living Cost considerations may play a role in choosing between similar educational opportunities, especially fo r students from developing countries Third is language of instruction The language spoken and used in instruction is one

of major determinants in which country a student chooses to study Countries whose language o f instruction is widely spoken and read, such as English, French, German, Russian and Spanish can attract

a great number of students The progressive adoption of English as a global language makes English- speaking destinations being the dominance Students may wish to improve their English language skills through immersion in a native English-speaking context Forth is immigration policy Countries with eased immigration policies can encourage inflow of international students and makes the countries more attractive to them

By region, North Am erica and Western Europe is the predominant destination that receives international students, account for nearly 60% of the world mobile students This indicates that international students have strong preferences for choosing to study in institutions in this region It is not a surprise since most

of the highly international recognized and prestigious universities are allocated in this region

Figure 3 Inbound o f mobile students by region - 2009

South and West Asia

1%

Sub-Saharan Africa

2%

Arab States

North America and

Western Europe

59%

Central and Fastern Europe

9%

Central Asia

1%

East Asia and the Pacific

Latin America and the Caribbean

2%

Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics, International H igher Education.

By country, more than 77% o f international students have enrolled in institutions in countries belonging to the Organization fo r Econom ic Co-operation and Development (OECD) In OECD countries the top five countries are the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, France and Australia, which all together account for nearly 46% o f total international students in OECD countries In non-OECD countries, China, Singapore and Malaysia are becoming the emerging contenders who have set ambitions to become major exporters o f higher education (OECD and UNESCO statistics, 2011)

The trend o f international student mobility is expected to keep growing strongly in the future Forecasts done by the British Council, IDP Education Australia and Universities UK (2004) have showed that the number o f students studying overseas can reach to 5.8 millions by 2020 or at the expected annual growth rate o f more than 5% Am ong regions, Asia continues to be the main source o f sending students which account fo r 61 % of world mobile students in 2015 and increases to 65% by 2020

The new wave o f higher education globalization

The new wave o f higher education globalization includes the movements of teachers, programs and institutions across borders This form enables students to take degree offered by a foreign university without leaving their home country International mobility of programs and institutions has grown rapidly over the last decade (OECD, 2004)

The first type is international mobility of programs which can be described as “the movement o f individual education/training courses and programs across national borders through face-to-face, distance or a combination o f these modes Credits towards a qualification can be awarded by the sending foreign country provider or by an affiliated domestic partner or jointly.” (Knight, 2006) There are several popular methods under this type including franchising, twinning, double/joint, degrees and various articulation models These are arrangements between higher education providers in the source (sending) foreign country and the host (receiving) domestic country

Table 1 Forecasts o f global and regional dem and fo r all international student places

Number (000s)

Share (%) Number

(000s)

Share (%)

Central Asian Republics 119 2.71 145 2.49

Source: Vision 2020: Forecasting international student m obility a UK perspective (2004).

Franchise

A foreign provider (franchiser) designs courses/programs and authorizes a domestic provider (franchisee)

to deliver in the dom estic country under pre-determined contractual conditions The qualification is awarded by the foreign provider Franchise can range from “full” to “part” In a full franchise, the foreign provider delegates all powers (including full academic authority) to the domestic provider In a part franchise, the agreem ent between the partner institutions specifies the division o f responsibilities among themselves In reality, part franchises are more common (Bashir, 2Ó07) The foreign provider is in charge

of the course syllabi, course materials and provides guidelines on student admission criteria and assessment and technical support to staff Usually, they assess and frequently check to assure the ability

of the local partner to meet quality standards Although the qualification is awarded by the foreign provider, it may state the site of study Under franchise, arrangements for teaching, management, assessment, profit-sharing and awarding of crediưqualiíication are customized for each franchise arrangement and must com ply with national regulations in the host country (Knight, 2006)

In a twinning program, students are enrolled with a provider in foreign country and follow a foreign program They pursue part o f the program at the domestic institution and part in the partner foreign institution Only one qualification is awarded by the foreign institution Arrangements fo r twinning programs and awarding o f degrees usually comply with national regulations o f the provider in the source foreign country This cross-border education method usually requires the mobility o f both students and programs Students usually study in the domestic institution for one or tw o years and travel abroad to complete their course in the foreign institution Courses conducted in the domestic institution generally use same teaching form ats, texts and evaluation methods as in the foreign campus, with some adaptation for local content Faculty o f foreign provider may also travel to domestic country fo r teaching some part of the course along with local instructors The local provider supplies physical facilities and recruits teachers and staff, according to criteria and standards set by the foreign provider (Bashir, 2007)

Double/joint degree

Higher education providers in deferent countries collaborate to o ffe r programs which typically feature a jointly developed and integrated curriculum and agreed-on credit recognition Students usually study at the two partnering higher education institutions Upon completion o f the joint/double degree program, students are awarded a single degree certificate issued and signed jointly by all institutions involved in the program or separate degrees issued by each partner institution

The report on Joint and Double Degree Programs in the Global Context (2011) shows a growing number

of universities around the world developing joint and double degree programs The study is based on the survey of major 245 higher education institutions from 28 different countries It finds that joint and double degree programs tend to be a relatively new mode o f academic collaboration but has now become an increasingly important global trend as 95% of the responding institutions saying they plan to develop more joint and double degree programs Double degrees are much more common than joint degrees with 84% of the respondents offer double degrees, while 33% offer joint degrees The most popular academic discipline among the collaborative degree programs noted in this study is Business and Management, followed by Engineering

Articulation

Higher education providers in different countries permit students to gain credit for courses/programs offered by all of the collaborating providers This allows students to gain credit for work done with a provider other than the provider awarding the qualification (Knight, 2006)

Validation

A foreign institution approves a domestic institution to develop a program which is equivalent to its own and allows the dom estic institution to award the qualification of the foreign institution The foreign provider may assist the local provider to design and establish the course which it approves (Bashir, 2007)

Virtual/distance

A higher education provider delivers courses or a program to students in deferent countries through distance and online modes The students may get face-to-face support through the study or support centres, study centres can be operated in collaboration with local providers in the host country (Knight, 2006)

International m obility o f programs opens up many opportunities fo r collaboration and development between higher education institutions in foreign developed and dom estic developing countries The various forms o f program m obility present the variety of models fo r collaboration between foreign and domestic institutions They bring ample benefits to both sides

For foreign institutions, partnership with local institutions enables them to broaden their education offers and reach a greater number of students, studying fo r a degree awarded by a foreign developed country institution is a dream for many people in developing countries as it will give them a better future carrier However, low average national income means not many of them can afford to study abroad because of high tuition fees plus high overseas living cost By providing courses in the domestic country, foreign

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high tuition fees but not high living expenses incurred while studying abroad And there is another group

of students, especially mature adult when money is not a matter for them but commitments to work and fam ily are a m atter that restraint their ability to study abroad This group of students is eager to take foreign courses provided locally since they do not need to leave their home country

Partnership with local institutions may reduce entrepreneurial risks to foreign institutions, such risks may

be associated with the unfamiliarity with culture, political system, law and regulations and the custom in business practice Beside they may offer high demand courses without much of infrastructure initial investment since premises and facilities are provided by local partners, o th e r motivations for foreign institutions to collaborate with domestic institutions are to strengthen their research collaboration, advance internationalization, and raise international visibility/prestige The overall consensus is that international m obility o f programs is not of their lucrative nature, but rather to strengthen and broaden an institution’s portfolio (Institute of International Education, 2011)

For domestic institutions, partnership with foreign institutions can add to their value as they have access

to skills in delivery, curriculum design, teaching resources and quality assurance and accreditation systems The quality o f human resource in local institutions also improves as their faculty can approach and adopt modern modes of teaching and learning, have access to foreign institution resources such as training network, workshop and e-library which strengthen their teaching skills and research capacity All

of these can enhance educational quality and com petitiveness of local institutions which place them into a higher national position Beside, partnership with well accredited foreign institutions gains international perspective for local institutions since the appearance of their name in the partnership list of well internationally recognized institutions indicate their quality and potential for expansion The prestige and reputation of a foreign institution may assure the quality of institutions they partner with Last but not least

is the chance fo r local institutions to broaden their market and reach a great number of students who wish

to study for a foreign awarded degree Obviously, this group of students would not study in the local institutions if these institutions did not partner with foreign ones to offer such courses to meet their expectation

The second type o f the new wave o f higher education globalization is international mobility of institutions International mobility o f institutions can be described as "the physical or virtual movement of an education provider (institution, organization, company) across a national border to establish a presence in order to offer education/training programs and/or services to students and other clients." (Knight, 2006) There are different forms of cross-border provider mobility

Branch campus

A higher education institution in foreign country establishes a satellite campus in the host domestic country to deliver courses and programs to students in the host country A branch campus is a subsidiary

o f the foreign institution Students, upon successful completion o f the course program, are awarded a degree from the foreign institution In a few cases, branch campuses offer the opportunity fo r their students to study at the home university for part of their program, and offer study abroad facilities for students from the home campus (Altbach, 2011)

Recent years see many universities, mostly from the developed and mainly English-speaking countries, have established overseas branches worldwide — mainly in developing and emerging economies According to the Observatory on Borderless Higher Education there are 162 branch campuses in

2009, with Am erican universities accounting for 48 percent of the total

Independent institution

A foreign provider establishes in host domestic country a stand-alone higher education institution to offer courses/programs and awards Unlike branch campus, there is usually no “home institution” in the foreign country and it is therefore independent (Knight, 2006)

Virtual university

A higher education provider in foreign country delivers credit courses and degree programs to students in deferent countries through distance education, using predominantly the Internet technology mode and generally without face-to-face support services for students (Knight, 2006)

International institution m obility is some kind of foreign direct investment when foreign education provider establishes its physical presence in the host domestic country It thus requires attention to national regulations regarding status o f the entity, tax laws, repatriation o f earned income, boards of directors, staffing, granting of qualifications, and selection of academic programs and courses This type involves greater entrepreneurial risk than international mobility of programs Beside, international mobility in institutions increases competition among foreign and dom estic institutions Presence of foreign institutions forces dom estic institutions to have more incentive for innovation and improvement o f their quality in courses, managem ent and governance

As can be seen, international mobility in programs and institutions poses many opportunities and challenges to institutions in developing countries since it creates both collaboration and competition between foreign and dom estic institutions In one hand, international m obility o f programs opens up many opportunities fo r collaboration and development for higher education institutions in foreign developed and domestic developing countries In the other hand, international institution mobility increases competition among foreign and dom estic institutions In both cases they help to build the country's domestic capacity

to provide good quality higher education which benefits students and thus the country

At the national level, the new wave o f higher education globalization benefits the host countries in several aspects Economically, it helps to increase the GDP of the host country The international mobility o f programs and institutions means the production of education services taken place in the host country which then adds up to the country level of GDP Secondly, it lessens the pressure on domestic higher education supply while providing more education opportunity fo r people that helps to build in even stronger quality o f the labor force W ithout international mobility of programs and institutions, only small fraction of people who have high income can afford to study overseas The presence of international higher education at home can broaden the number of students as it reaches to the middle income group who can afford to pay high tuition fees but not high living expenses overseas As more people have access to higher education, the percentage of work force with higher education level increases which improves the quality of human resource in the country It is well known that higher stock of human capital increases labor productivity and is the driven force of economic growth Thirdly, foreign investment in education aids dom estic investm ent and release more domestic scarce resources fo r other development activities Finally, international mobility in programs and institutions may reduce the likelihood of “brain drain", a situation refers to good educated people studying overseas decided not go back home

The new wave of higher education globalization tends to grow stronger in the future With the generous advantages it provides, governm ents in developing countries should prepare to host and provide attractive environment fo r it Beside they should work closely with foreign institutions and implement quality control to assure the programmes consistently meet the world quality standards

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