Livelihood impacts of adaptive measures in relation to coastal inundation and submersion in ghana the case of ningo prampram coastal area in greater accra region

In spite the devastating impacts of inundation and submersion on the coast of the study area, there have been several adaptation strategies tabled down by the government of Ghana and the

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

NHA TRANG UNIVERSITY

GEORGE DARKO

LIVELIHOOD IMPACTS OF ADAPTIVE MEASURES IN RELATION TO COASTAL INUNDATION AND SUBMERSION

IN GHANA THE CASE OF NINGO-PRAMPRAM COASTAL

AREA IN THE GREATER ACCRA REGION

MASTER THESIS

KHANH HOA, 2019

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

NHA TRANG UNIVERSITY

GEORGE DARKO

LIVELIHOOD IMPACTS OF ADAPTIVE MEASURES IN RELATION TO COASTAL INUNDATION AND SUBMERSION

IN GHANA THE CASE OF NINGO-PRAMPRAM COASTAL

AREA IN THE GREATER ACCRA REGION

MASTER THESIS

Management and Climate

Change

Decision on establishing the committee:

Supervision

and Climate Change

Decision on establishing the

UNDERTAKING

I undertake that the thesis entitled: ‘‘Livelihood impacts of adaptive measures in relation to coastal inundation and submersion in Ghana The case of Ningo- Prampram Coastal Area in Greater Accra Region’’ is my own work The work

has not been presented elsewhere for assessment until the time this thesis is submitted

- Date 30 Month: May Year: 2019 George Darko

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My utmost appreciation goes to Nha Trang University and Tromso University respectively for the space and resources that made it possible for a successful completion of my whole academic study in Nha Trang, Vietnam

To Professor Jahn Petter Johnson (University of Tromso), I am most delighted to express my heartfelt gratitude for your relentless devotion in supervising this dissertation Your comments and directions have guarded the success of this work

to its completion Your supervision has been very useful in building my understanding of conducting a study and equipping me for the future studies I will posit that I am the luckiest student to have you as my supervisor

To my lecturers and professors, Professor Kim Anh Thi Nguyen (Nha Trang University), Professor Curtis M Jolly (Auburn University, USA), all and sundry, who contributed in diverse ways to the success of my study, words could not describe the gratitude I owe you all God bless you

Finally to Isaac Sarfo and the data collection team, kudos

………Date 30 Month: May Year: 2019 George Darko

TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNDERTAKING i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vi

LIST OF TABLES vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

ABSTRACT ix

CHAPTER ONE: 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 BACKGROUND 1

1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVES 4

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 6

1.3.1 EXPECTED RESULTS 6

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 7

1.5 CHAPTER ORGANIZATION 7

CHAPTER TWO 9

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORY 9

2.1 INTRODUCTION 9

2.1.1 CLIMATE CHANGE IN GHANA 11

2.1.2 CAUSES OF INUNDATION AND GRADUAL SUBMERSION 12

2.1.3 A REVIEW ON ADAPTATIONS ON IMPACTS OF INUNDATION AND SUBMERSION 13

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 14

2.2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF VULNERABILITY AND ADAPTATION TO INUNDATION AND SUBMERSION OF COASTAL AREAS 15

2.2.2 Coastal Vulnerability 17

2.2.3 Adaptive Capacity 19

2.2.4 Adaptation Constraint 20

CHAPTER THREE: 23

METHODOLOGY AND METHODS 23

3.1 INTRODUCTION 23

3.2 Study Design 23

3.3 Source of Data 25

3.3.1 Vulnerability Matrix 25

3.3.2 Focus Group Discussion 27

3.3.3 Questionnaire 27

3.4 Sampling 28

3.4.1 Sampling Method 29

3.5 Data Analysis and Presentation 30

3.6 Limitations of the Study 30

3.7 Validity and Reliability 31

CHAPTER FOUR: 33

DESCRIPTION OF THE CASE AREA 33

4.1 INTRODUCTION 33

4.1.1 The Greater Accra Region: Locating Accra 33

4.1.2 Characteristics of the Greater Accra Region 34

4.1.3 The Case Site Ningo-Prampram 37

4.2 BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON REESPONDENTS 39

4.3 Summing up the case description Relevance for answering the RQs 44

CHAPTER FIVE: 45

RESULTS ON ASSETS AND LIVELIHOODS 45

5.1 INTRODUCTION 45

5.2 Assets 45

5.2.1 Knowledge Asset and Acquisition 45

5.2.2 Physical and Capital Assets 48

5.2.3 Asset Income 54

5.2.4 Asset Insurance 56

5.3 Summary of the livelihood activities and returns from them 57

CHAPTER SIX: 58

RESULTS, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS 58

6.1 INTRODUCTION 58

6.2 Results and Findings 58

6.2.1 Focus Group Discussion and Vulnerability Matrix 58

6.2.2 Impacts of Inundation and Submersion on livelihoods in the Ningo-Prampram coast 61

6.3 Coping and Adaptation and their impacts on livelihoods 66

6.3.1 Individual household coping and adaptation 66

6.4 Intervention Programs in Ningo-Prampram 68

6.4.1 Sea Defense Wall and Dyke 68

6.4.2 Mangroves and Coconut trees 69

6.4.3 Drainage and Irrigation Systems 70

6.5 Institutional Aid and Support 70

6.6 Impacts of Adaptive measures 72

CHAPTER SEVEN 75

DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSION AND FURTHER RESEARCH 75

7.1 DISCUSSIONS 75

7.2 CONCLUSION 79

7.2.1 Lessons: 80

7.2.2 Best Practices 81

7.3 RECOMMENDATIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH 82

7.4 FURTHER RESEARCH 83

REFERENCE 85

APPENDIX I 91

1.1 INTERVIEW GUIDE 91

APPENDIX II 98

1.2 FREQUENCY TABLES – SPSS 98

APPENDIX III 126

1.3 FIGURES FROM SAMPLING ACTIVITIES 126

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AMA Accra Metropolitan Assembly

DA District Assembly

DECCMA Deltas, Vulnerability & Climate Change: Migration & Adaptation DFID Department for International Development

FDG Focus Group Discussion

GAMA Greater Accra Metropolitan Area

GMA Ghana Meteorological Agency

GSS Ghana Statistical Service

IFRC International Federation of Red Cross

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

MMDA Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assembly

NADMO National Disaster Management Organization

NCCAS National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy

NDPF National Decentralization Policy Framework

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences

UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

UNEP United Nation Environmental Program

UNDP United Nations Development Program

VCA Vulnerability and Capacity Approach

WHO World Health Organization

WMO World Meteorological Organization

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Vulnerability Matrix 1 26

Table 3.2 Vulnerability Matrix 2 26

Table 4.1 Gender Of Respondents In Ningo Prampram 39

Table 4.2 Age Intervals Of Respondents 39

Table 4.3: Educational Background Of Respondents 40

Table 4.4: Primary Occupation Of Respondents 41

Table 4.5 Alternative Livelihood Of Respondents 42

Table 5.1 Media For Acquiring Climate Change Knowledge 47

Table 5.2 Institutions That Provide Knowledge On Climate Change 48

Table 5.3 Building Material Composition Of Housing Units 49

Table 5.4 Assets, Their Status And Cost Intervals 51

Table 5.5 Net-Income From Other Sources Apart From Fishing And Farming 54

Table 6.1 Vulnerability Matrix Of Fdg 59

Table 6.2 Impacts Of Climate Change On Coastal Livelihoods 60

Table 6.3 Rankings Vulnerability Categories/Livelihoods 61

Table 6.4 Ranking Climate Events/Stressors 61

Table 6.5 Impacts Of Inundation And Submersion On Livelihoods 62

Table 6.6 Household Coping And Adaptations 67

Table 6.7 Assistance, Interventions And Importance 73

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Coastal inundation and gradual submersion and associated impacts 15

Figure 2.2 Effects of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity 17

Figure 2.3 Conceptual model of vulnerability 18

Figure 2.4 The vulnerability scoping diagram 19

Figure 2.5 Adaptation contraints 20

Figure 3.1 Focus group discussion with key personalities 29

Figure 3.2 Focus group discussion 2 29

Figure 4.1 New map of ghana 33

Figure 4.2: Districts of the Greater Accra Region (population & housing census, 2010) 36

Figure 4.3 Ningo-prampram beach depicting an open and exposed coast 38

Figure 4.4 Satellite picture of ningo prampram 38

Figure 4.7 Range of years respondents have lived in the study area 43

Figure 5.1 Bar chart of asset knowledge of respondents 46

Figure 5.2 Tenure status of housing units of respondents 49

Figure 5.3 Assets owned by respondents 51

Figure 5.4 Insurance as an asset to local dwellers of ningo-prampram 56

Figure 6.1 Affected houses in ningo-prampram 63

Figure 6.2 Fishermen at the shores of the study site 65

Figure 6.3 The sea claiming the coastal land 66

Figure 6.4 Coastal defense by resorts to protect their business 68

Figure 6.5 District assembly, ningo-prampram 69

Figure 6.6 State of mangroves and coconut trees in ningo-prampram 69

Figure 6.7 venn diagram of institutions with level of assistance 71

ABSTRACT

Undeniably factual, the world has undergone changes as a result of natural and human induced factors in the atmosphere and land use The results of these changes are global warming which has given rise to sea level rise, flooding in low-lying coastal regions and submersion Studies have shown that Greater Accra in general

is a low-lying region that has an open and exposed coast which allows unhindered strong waves from the Gulf of Guinea Thus, this study aimed at finding the livelihood impacts of adaptive measures in relation to inundation and submersion, specifically in the Ningo-Prampram coast Based on Macchi’s community-based vulnerability and capacity assessment approach which has its foundations on the sustainable livelihood approach, research questions were formulated and answers sought to them Focus group discussions were held to ascertain the major climate and non-climate events, their impacts and vulnerable areas The focus group discussion was followed with face-to-face survey of 70 respondents and this revealed inundation and submersion as the major stressors that trigger dysfunctions

of fishing, farming, and others that consist the major livelihoods of residents in the study site Impacts range from collapse of several buildings along the beach, salt water intrusion rendering farmlands infertile and unproductive The ones farmlands for growing cabbage and chilli pepper are no more rather these lands have been sold to estate developers and the coastal land has been claimed by the sea by one (1) to two (2) kilometres As regards adaptations, residents basically harvest rainwater and most times have to evacuate temporary Residents per these, have joined credit unions and other micro-finance institutions so as to save some money and get financial aid To residents, this is the business as usual Irrespective

of the coast been open and exposed to the Gulf of Guinea, no significant adaptations are found except some few ones built by resorts and hotels to protect their businesses Other natural adaptations found include mangroves and coconut trees but they are mostly harvested and very few remain on the coast with no plans for afforestation and replanting them The Ghana government has plans to extend the sea defence system from Ada through to Ningo-Prampram This has not been initiated and therefore, leaving the Ningo-Prampram coast highly vulnerable with low adaptive capacity Livelihoods are therefore impacted negatively

CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND

The earth has undergone warming and cooling numerous times since it was formed over billions of years ago (King et al, 2015) These are as a result of both natural and human induced changes within the atmosphere and in land use There have been high rates of sea level rise as a result of global warming in the 21st century This has given rise to expected submersion and occasional flooding tide in low-lying coastal environments (Appeaning, et al, 2011)

It has been 100 years till now since concerns on fossil fuel burning that eventually contribute to high levels of carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere, and subsequently lead to climate change were raised (Kulkarni, 2010) But it must be emphasized that it is only in recent times that governments and environmental stakeholders have realised how human activities have, influenced the earth’s climate It is evident that the harsh effects of climate change is much felt in the sub-Saharan Africa and its respective coasts, together with the coastal areas of the Indian and Pacific oceans which are most vulnerable in terms of coping and adaptive mechanisms The world Health Organization (WHO) estimates that climate changes causes over one hundred and fifty thousand (150,000) deaths in the sub-region (WHO World Health Report, 2002)

To these effects and awareness created, governments, policy makers and international organizations have made it a priority to adapt and commit to initiatives that seek to mitigate the climate change phenomena if could not be prevented For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), basically to provide an unbiased source of scientific information In the fifth assessment report (IPCC, 2013), the focus was on the science of climate change, it made explicit conclusions that climate change is real and human activities are the main causative agents The report also provided a complete assessment of sea level rise and its devastating cause and effects over the years gone by The new IPCC

report; the AR5, buttresses that the earth is warming up at a rate which is more than the global average with human induced activities accounting for approximately 1 oC that is above the pre-industrial levels in 2017 and this is increasing at 0.2 oC every decade.

More so, a pledge of one Hundred Billion US dollars was made at the UN conference in Copenhagen This move was to give a solid financial backing to support response efforts and adaptation measures to climate change

Ghana has not been spared of the effects of climate change Especially, in its coastal belt, where flooding, impacts from storm and erosion are rampant and problem For instance, the CityStrength Resilient Cities Program in its report

‘’Enhancing Urban Resilience in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (2017), highlights the major shocks as identified by the local stakeholders during the CityStrength workshop The report mentions flooding and coastal erosion, with associated tidal surge, windstorm and earthquake as the major shocks faced by the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) These natural phenomena impact infrastructure for transport and food production and cause building collapses These shocks have significantly affected negatively on food security, the economic structure, private and public properties and infrastructures, the general coastal habitat, lives of the coastal dwellers and overall displacement of people’s traditional homes along the coastal areas In addition, torrential heavy downpour has contributed immensely to sea level rise which in effect resulted

in coastal inundation and gradual submersion of the coastal belt of Accra of which the study area is included A report is given by (Asumadu et al, 2015), showing the rainfall patterns which increase yearly and as an agent for major flooding in the capital city of Accra and its low lying coastal areas In this study, the focus will be on, Ningo- Prampram which is one of the sixteen districts merged between Ningo and Prampram in the Greater Accra region of Ghana The district and as the study area, is bounded to the north by Shai-Osudoku district, south by the Gulf of Guinea and in the east and west by Ada East and Kpone-Katamanso districts respectively The study area spans over a total land area of about 622.2 square kilometres with a population size of 70,923 of which about 28.5 percent are engaged in fishery work (Ghana Statistical Service,

2018) The Ningo-Prampram district is again located about 15 km to the east of Tema and about 40 km from Accra the capital of Ghana Found on latitude 5.31800N and 0.100100W respectively, along the Gulf of Guinea

Notice should be taken therefore, that, Ningo-Prampram is similar to most parts

of the Accra Coast that has relatively an open and exposed coast that enables considerably strong unimpeded swell waves to reach the coast and break obliquely given rise to long shore currents The significant wave height for 50 percent of the time is about 1.4 m, the period is between 10 to 15 seconds and spring tide is about 1.26 m (Appeaning et al, 2011) The description given tend

to make the district prone and vulnerable to occasional and recurrent sea level rise, unimpeded inundation and submersion which was evidenced in the recent June 3 flooding which claimed human lives and properties in the Greater Accra region These phenomena have put pressure on the economic activities, ecology and residential areas, making them vulnerable

The phenomena of climate change has not been overlooked, several counter policies, plans and projects have been initiated by the Government of Ghana, Private firms, international donors, at community, households and individual levels A responsibility has been bestowed on the MMDA’s to ensure the overall urban development which is informed by the Local Government Act, 1993 (Act 462) and the National Decentralization Policy Framework (NDPF, 2015-2019) This responsibility however, is subjected to policy directives and guidance, planning, evaluation and monitoring responsibilities of national level urban sector ministries, departments and agencies The National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS) was adopted in 2010 with strategies enshrined

to institutionalize the policy’s plans, programs and projects in local areas through District Assemblies across the country to enhance resilience, adaptive capacity and mitigations (Nutsukpor, 2013)

In light of these developments, this study aims to explore the impacts of such programs, coupled with several coping and adaptation strategies that are in place and their effects on the livelihoods of households in the coastal community

1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVES

The research has been prompted by the huge impact on people’s livelihood as a result of inundation and submersion A report on floods in the capital coastal areas of Accra revealed that inundation coupled with submersion of the coastal area claimed over one hundred and fifty (150) lives after hours of rainfall And properties destroyed was estimated at GHc 1,658,847 ($ 377,000) (GSS, 2015) The District-Level Stakeholders’ Meeting of the DECCMA Project Ningo-Prampram District (2015) identifies that in few decades past, the capital city has been experiencing an increasing trend of climate change events that have triggered consistent inundation and gradual submersion of the coastal belt of Ningo-Prampram and its effects on livelihoods Again, sea level rise has resulted in inundation and gradual submersion along the 37 km shoreline of Prampram and Old Ningo

Based on recent available data, it is concluded that there has been sea level rise

of 2.1 cm per year in the last 30 years The rise is estimated at 5.8 cm, 16.5 cm and 34.5 cm by 2020, 2050 and 2080 respectively Data identifies that coastal erosion and salt water intrusion are the major associated problems that impact Ningo Prampram and other coastal areas in the Greater Accra Region (NCCAS, 2010) These have resulted in displacement of many homes and infrastructure Many have lost their livelihoods and fishing in Ningo-Prampram is no more attractive as fishermen have lost dock areas It is hoped that the problem of inundation and submersion will worsen in the next thirty (30) to forty (40) years Among the several impacts, there exist several budget hotels on the beach front and a modern polo grounds and club which have been rendered dysfunctional

as a result of inundation and submersion of the coast

More so, it has been identified that most of the baobab trees and the mango plantation, mangroves and coconut trees along the Ningo-Prampram beach have been lost due to constant harvesting them for domestic purposes Other reasons also include population increase, congestion and residence These have impacted negatively on livelihoods of the district (DECCMA Project, 2015)

Tourism is also hampered and many firms including recreational grounds in the Ningo-Prampram area have to be relocated because physical adaptations are not present Sea level rise has again rendered most of the coastal lands to submerge thus reducing the potential land that could be used for aquaculture and agriculture programs It is estimated that for over two decades now, the forest cover has decreased by seventeen point 5 percent (17.5%) to four point one (4.1%) percent and thirty three point nine (33.9%) percent to eighteen point one (18.1%) percent respectively This has given way to grass and bare surface and flood plains, which have increased from zero point one (0.10%) percent to eight point eighty two (8.82%) percent and twenty seven point three (27.3%) percent

to fifty seven point one (57.1%) percent respectively (Darko, 2015) The Prampram area has a long history of fresh water supply Due to inundation and gradual submersion of the coastal area, the water table has been altered There

Ningo-is lack of fresh and portable drinking water due to the phenomena resulting in salt water intrusion Local people have to queue with ‘’Koffuor gallon’’ awaiting their turn to fetch the scarce resource

In spite the devastating impacts of inundation and submersion on the coast of the study area, there have been several adaptation strategies tabled down by the government of Ghana and the local assembly to cope with the impacts as enshrined in the National Climate Change adaptation Strategy (NCCAS) and the District-Level Stakeholders meeting of the DECCMA Project (2015) of the Ningo-Prampram District This research would ascertain as to whether these adaptation strategies and interventions are present and yielding their meant impacts on the poor, vulnerable groups and their livelihoods It is in regards to the above that this study as its objectives, seek to identify and evaluate the impacts of inundation and submersion on households along the coast of the study area; to investigate and examine the adaptive and coping strategies available to the households in Ningo-Prampram and to assess how these adaptations have impacted on the livelihoods of households in the coastal community

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study is intended to assess the livelihood impacts if adaptive measures in relation to coastal inundation and submersion in the Ningo-Prampram coastal area in the Greater Accra Region in Ghana The study therefore, hopes to answer the following questions;

1 What are the impacts of coastal inundation and gradual submersion of land

in the study area?

2 What suitable adaptive measures are been developed by individual households, the local assembly and other collaborative organizations in dealing with coastal inundation and gradual submersion of land in the study area?

3 How have these adaptations impacted on the livelihoods of households in the coastal community?

1.3.1 EXPECTED RESULTS

The purpose of this research is to find out livelihoods impacts of adaptive measures in relation to coastal inundation and submersion in Ghana using Ningo Prampram fishing community as a case study It is therefore anticipated that this study would satisfy the following, that there would be: an identification of vulnerable areas and extent of vulnerability along the coast The livelihood outcomes of households would be identified and the major and minor impacts inundation and submersion have on these livelihood outcome This should therefore bring the awareness of the extent of damage on the Ningo-Prampram coastal area and local people

An identification of initiated long-term adaptation and short-term coping measures that conform to suitable modern curtailing measures against inundation and gradual submersion in the coastal community To achieve this, the research will find out are there natural and artificial sea defences, is there in existence or plans to build a dyke by the government of Ghana, what is the state

of mangrove forest, is there in existence incentives and motivation to reinforce individuals to enhance the growth of the mangrove forest to prevent sequestration

An assessment done to ascertain the how these coping and adaptation have impacted on the livelihoods of the local people in relation to coastal inundation and submersion in the coastal community and other pragmatic measures suggested

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Considering the fact that climate change has been given a priority as a sensitive issue that must be dealt with in recent times, the findings of this study will rebound on to the local people considering the fact that, the plight that coastal inundation and submersion has reduced them to a high vulnerability and risk would be identified and swift appropriate measures taken by policy makers Again, assessment and evaluation of adaptation measures available to both individuals and community at large would determine the need for an improvement of them in order to reduce the community’s exposure These would also determine the kind of modern adaptations to be suggested and employed to enhance household’s adaptation to coastal inundation and submersion due to climate change All in all, the local fishing community would benefit as they are the direct focus of this study

Last but not least, this research would serve as a document upon which other researches could be built, new hypothesis formulated and researched into and newer adaptation strategies recommended

1.5 CHAPTER ORGANIZATION

This dissertation has been designated in seven major but well linked chapters Chapter one gives the background of the study, research problem and objectives, research questions in connection with expected results, and the significance of this study

Chapter two reviews related literature of existing studies in line with the objectives

of this study This chapter therefore addresses climate change in Ghana, Causes of Inundation, Review on adaptations and the theoretical framework used for this study

Chapter three borders on the general methodology, sampling methods and data collection Data analysis, limitations of the study and validity and reliability Chapter four presents description of the case area and background information of respondents that are necessary and impact the objectives of this study

Chapter five presents information and results gathered to satisfy the expected results of this study Residents’ assets are analyzed and results are presented in this chapter

Chapter six presents an in-depth results on the findings, results and discussion of adaptive measures as regards the focus group discussion (FGD), Intervention programs and institutional aid

The final chapter which is chapter seven holds a discussion of findings in relation

to the theoretical framework, conclusion and recommendations

The following chapter will review the scholarly papers that take into accounts current knowledge which comprise substantive findings as well as the theoretical and methodological contributions to livelihood impacts of adaptive measures in relation to coastal inundation and submersion in Ningo-Prampram

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The earth’s climate has been very stable over ten thousand (10,000) years when human civilisation began On the contrary, and in recent times, this stability has ended Greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere due to activities of humans have trapped heat which have added additional heat energy to the earth’s system (King et al, 2015) From 1850, average global temperature has increased by 0.74 oC and it is expected to soar to 1 oC by 2040 if pragmatic measures are not initiated and taken to decrease CO2 emissions and other greenhouse gases (IPCC Emissions Scenarios, 2000) The IPCC’s fifth assessment report highlights that climate change is rapidly occurring because of activities of humans that have increased the rate of greenhouse gases (GHG) resulting in increased global temperatures The new assessment report released

by the IPCC, AR5, assesses global average warming at 0.87 oC The report makes it clear that warming which is greater than the global average has been experienced in several other regions and seasons, with a higher average warming on land as compared to the ocean The report notes that the earth has experienced more than 1.5 oC warming up between the years 2006 and 2015, which is above pre-industrial, with human activities related accounting for approximately 1 oC which is above the pre-industrial levels in 2017, and this is increasing at 0.2 oC every decade

Greenhouse effect and warming up of the earth surface have therefore been the driving forces to climate factors whose results are coastal climate hazards which comprise coastal erosion and inundation that are caused by sea level rise (Macintosh, 2012) Greenhouse effect has again been the major cause of recent rise in sea surface temperatures which in turn has caused coral bleaching, flooding triggered by heavy rainfall, growing frequencies of tropical cyclones, promoted the intrusion of saline water in inland water bodies rendering most of them saline and claiming vast arable lands and properties These hazards have posed much challenges for coastal dwellers and threatened their livelihoods

These challenges also include coastal climate hazards such as coastal erosion, inundation, sea level rise, more frequent and intensive storms According to Macintosh (2012), urban planning measures can be a choice to adapt these hazards However, poorly designed and implemented urban planning measures

by decision-makers without perfect foresight can lead to maladaptation, high cost, vulnerability and inequitable and inefficient outcomes

Available literature points out that warming up of the earth has led to a gradual increase in sea level rise which has resulted in coastal inundation with erosion and gradual submersion of coastal areas For instance, similar study has been carried out in Israel (Rosen, 2009) The study basically is an ongoing and a progressive report on coastal erosion at the beach and coastal cliff of the Mediterranean coast of Israel The study made an extensive use of methods adapted to study coastal processes that bring about erosion using aerial photography, mappings of the coastal zone and shifts of the waterline position

It also used numerical modelling of the coastal processes The study employed these methods so as to inform decision, and proper management of the Mediterranean coast of Israel

Narrowing it to the local context, (Appeaning et al, 2011) touched on impacts

of inundation due to climate change in a cluster of communities in the Greater Accra region Their studies basically presents a comprehensive assessment of the expected impacts of sea level rise in the three communities in the coastal area of Accra, Ghana and a projected future sea level rises based on global scenarios and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Both studies point to the fact that the phenomena will adversely cause changes which would unsettle socio-economic activities of fishing, market and livelihoods in general

Per the impacts of inundation and submersion on the coastal areas, adaptation

to them are key and by these, coastal communities must therefore be designed with appropriate adaptation measures so as to cope with these climate change hazards It must be pointed out that if investment in coastal adaptation is not increased, it is expected that yearly damages bothered on human lives and

properties, caused by coastal inundation and submersion will increase by the

end of the century (European Commission, 2018)

2.1.1 CLIMATE CHANGE IN GHANA

Data on Ghana from the year range 1961 to 2000 identifies a steady temperature rise and mean annual rainfall increase in Ghana’s six agro-ecological zones, thus, the Sudan zone, Guinea, Transitional, Deciduous rainforest, Rainforest and the Coastal Savannah zones respectively (NCCAS, 2006) Climate change has been seen and experienced in Ghana through increase in temperatures, decrease in the amount of rainfall and variabilities in the pattern they occur Furthermore, climate change has been manifested in see level rise and occasional incidence of extreme weather and disasters such as occasional floods The National Disaster Management Organization (NADMO, 2018) reports that more rains this year have affected Ghana and worsened situation for people and their livelihoods Reports show that families who are living near the banks of the Black and White Volta River have relocated to other communities for safety and shelter NADMO gives an initial assessment of report of the situation which identifies the damaging effects of the floods caused by the rains The assessment as captured in the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies report indicates that 23 communities in 2 districts comprising 13 communities in the Bawku West and 11 communities in the Talensi Districts respectively, were affected A total of 3,556 households comprising 21,336 people have been impacted by the flood in the Upper East region The Northern region recorded 202 communities in 9 districts with 10,567 people been displaced All in all, the report estimates a total of 31,903 people in 5,317 households have been affected both in the Upper East and the Northern regions respectively (IFRC, 2018)

Data as presented by the (NCCAS, 2006) document shows that average annual temperature has increased by 1 oC in the last thirty (30) years In respect to this data, there has been an estimation which indicates that there will be a continuous temperature rise and amount of rainfall drop in all the agro-ecological zones (Minia et al, 2004, Ghana Environmental Protection Agency, 2000)

2.1.2 CAUSES OF INUNDATION AND GRADUAL SUBMERSION

The District-Level Stakeholders’ meeting of the DECCMA project of Prampram comprising three groups identified the main environmental issues pertained to the study area These included deforestation, sea erosion and poor rainfall The groups identified that massive deforestation has occurred mostly from the beach of Prampram to Dawhenya It was realised and noted that the baobab trees and mango plantations that used to align along the Ningo-Prampram and the Dawhenya beaches stretch have all been cut down Among the purpose for such deforestation were attributed to cutting them for the use of firewood and residence purposes This was in response to expansion as a result

Ningo-of increase in population Livelihoods Ningo-of the community has been impacted by these actions The group identified also that annual rainfall patterns have changed due to deforestation in the Ningo-Prampram district which has affected farm harvest and productivity with other alternative livelihoods Farming has therefore become unattractive in recent times as compared to twenty (years) ago and sadly the farming lands are been sold out to estate developers instead Again, deforestation in the study area is linked to the drying up of the major useful water bodies such as “Vakpo” and “Kpoiete”

In addition to the problems raised, the DECCMA report highlights coastal erosion which has occurred as a result of sea level rise This phenomena has been the major cause of the damages caused to the major tourist structures such

as the Fort Venor built by the Danes

It is therefore noted that, the construction of the Tema and Harbour and the Keta Sea Defence has resulted in causing heavy and strong wave impacts that cause erosion and flooding of the Ningo-Prampram shoreline Removal of the stones

in the sea that serve as natural defence and sand wining along the beaches of Ningo-Prampram have made the area highly prone and susceptible to coastal inundation and submersion Contributing to the cause of sea level rise and coastal inundation, the DECCMA report notes that people in the study area buy scraps of wrecked ships After use, the remaining unused parts are dumped into the sea Sea level rise has in turn caused the lack of and scarcity of fresh water because of salt water intrusion

2.1.3 A REVIEW ON ADAPTATIONS ON IMPACTS OF INUNDATION AND SUBMERSION

The aftermath of the December 2004 tsunami off the coast of Indonesia intensified the calls for a higher-technology and solutions such as early warning systems that employs and use a cutting-edge satellite and ocean buoy technologies to prevent if not curtail the effects of such or similar disastrous occurrence (Gyampoh et al, 2007) There was the report on how indigenous communities such as the Moken and Ong of Thailand had escaped the effects of the tsunami by resorting to and using their traditional knowledge This highlights how necessary traditional knowledge is in natural disaster preparedness and response management

Traditional knowledge is basically defined as the wisdom, the knowledge and the practices that indigenous people have developed over a period of time which is as

a result of their experiences to certain events For example, coastal communities and dwellers may build defence walls, dykes, fill and put sand bags to prevent erosion and water from flooding their homes These wisdom and knowledge are transmitted by word of mouth and actions from one generation to the other (Gyampoh et al, 2007) Traditional knowledge has been very useful in solving problems that are related to climate change and its variability Natives and settlers that live close to natural resources have taken notice of the changes that are evident

in their environment and are able to identify these changes as and when they occur and adapt to them as well For example, appearance of certain species of birds and flowers of certain plants are well understood in traditional knowledge as important signs of changes that are expected to occur within a particular time and season This is to say that, Indigenous settlers basically depend on their habitat and ecosystem to determine variations and make the necessary adaptations towards curbing and minimizing effects of disasters (Salick and Byg, 2007)

Africa countries are among the countries in the world that are most vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change yet have the lowest adaptive capacity Adaptations to effects of climate change largely depend on the resources that are available and by this, indigenous people are embracing the facts that they must make efforts to adjust and adapt to the variations as they occur Traditional knowledge should therefore form the basis to developing more potent strategies

It is therefore, worthy of acknowledgement that traditional knowledge contribute

to adaptive capacity This stems from the fact that the society and its family components have been exposed to the climate hazard of coastal inundation and submersion and have therefore developed certain adaptive measures to cope and decrease their sensitivity to the hazards and their potential after math devastating impacts (Mouat et al, 2006; UNCCD, 2006) The advantages of traditional adaptation is again seen as in its cost Traditional adaptations are low cost and suits the culture of the society they are developed It is therefore, prudent to merge traditional knowledge with scientific knowledge and methods to ensure a sense of ownership, its sustainability and acceptance in order to deepen and enhance resilience to climate risks The merge of the two must be subjected to consistent evaluation and monitoring after its implementation

As part of adaptation measures to buttress traditional knowledge, The DECCMA report noted certain key adaptive measures such as afforestation, an extension of the Ada Sea Defence to be constructed in Ningo-Prampram, the choice of governance to include all stakeholders, creating alternative sources of livelihoods and education to desist people from sand mining and removal of stones from the sea

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Macchi (2011) describes a community-based vulnerability and capacity assessment (VCA) approach This technique has its foundations on the sustainable livelihood approach suggested by the Department for International Development (DFID, 1999) which acknowledges that a community or individual willingness to implement adaptation plans need livelihoods assets that include financial entitlements, social and physical capital in conjunction with human and natural resources (Brooks et al, 2005) These rely on varying institutions (Agrawal and Perrin, 2009) The VCA approach considers both impact driven by climate change and non-climate factors which are either beneficial or adverse to livelihoods of local communities

2.2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF VULNERABILITY AND ADAPTATION TO INUNDATION AND SUBMERSION OF COASTAL AREAS

 Human/Natural Resources

Affected Community

Vulnerability Assessment

Exposure Sensitivity Coping Capacity Resilience Robustness/Mitigation Adaptation Capacity

of the framework is to contribute to reducing vulnerability by fortifying resilience

in coastal communities so as to provide terms of reference on what to do and expect (Action Aid International, 2006)

The framework again indicates the physical impacts of the climate driven event of coastal inundation and submersion which range from land residual, sea level rise, salt water intrusion and impacts on habitat These in turn have adverse effects on the livelihoods of the coastal dwellers and therefore impact on poverty, demography, property, social and political bond, sanitation, income and other economic factors and food security

The framework would therefore, be a guide to carry out a vulnerability assessment

of the study area and to determine the livelihood impacts of the adaptation measures in relation to coastal inundation and submersion In this sense, key adaptation strategies such as social capital, individual and traditional knowledge, asset insurance, diversified livelihoods, improved technology, established networks and cooperatives together with natural resources would be assessed and evaluated since they, to a larger extent, play major roles in the adaptation of the community to the climate change and human induced actions of coastal inundation and gradual submersion

The assessment is necessary because the Ningo-Prampram community is vulnerable to coastal inundation and submersion and based on the experiences gathered from the locals and institutions, a proper account of the climate changing event will determine the kind of adaption available to the community and the livelihood impacts of these adaptations

This will therefore represent the real situation and will serve as a guide to development stakeholders towards planning and implementation of adaptive strategies and the choice of governance that will seek to promote stakeholder participation in addressing coastal inundation and submersion in the study area Hence, there would be the need to formulate a framework that will serve as a guide

to the local assembly to plan adaptive measures

2.2.2 Coastal Vulnerability

Fussel, 2007, asserts that there is no universally accepted definition for the term vulnerability and it is therefore defined in many ways by several authors and authorities Studies on natural threats and epidemiology define vulnerability as the degree to which an unprotected unit is prone to being harmed by exposure to a perturbation or stress, in conjunction with its ability or lack to cope, recover or fundamentally adapt, become a new system or go extinct (Kasperson et al., 2001; Fussel, 2007)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defines vulnerability to climate

change as ‘‘The degree to which a system is susceptible, or unable to cope with adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes, and vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude and rate of climate variation

to which a system is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive capacity’’ (IPCC,

2001) Vulnerability is therefore, the extent to which a system is liable to, and unable to cope with the negative effects of climate change, taking into account climate variability and extremes

Vulnerability and its reverse, thus resilience, are ascertained by physical, environmental, social, economic, political, cultural and institutional factors (ProVention Consortium, 2007) Petersen et al, (2014) discussed vulnerability as

a function of sensitivity, exposure and adaptive capacity and shows how the functions over lapse

Vulnerability (t) = f (Exposure t) + (Sensitivity t) – (Adaptive Capacity t)

Figure 2.2.Effects of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity

Effects of Exposure, Sensitivity and adaptive capacity:

Vulnerability = Exposure (+)

Vulnerability = Sensitivity (+)

Vulnerability = Adaptive Capacity (-)

Sensitivity bothers on the level at which a system is impacted either negatively or positively by changes in climate The impacts may range from direct; for example change in fish growth resulting from changes in mean, range and differences in temperature Impacts can also be indirect; for example, damages as a result of rise

in the rate of occurrence of coastal flooding caused by sea level rise (IPCC, TAR, 2001)

Exposure on the other hand determines the rate at which a system or a community

is exposed to climate variabilities Exposure subjects a systems components thus human lives and their livelihoods, resource and societal structures such as economic, social and cultural and all assets to potential future harm, losses and damages (UNDP, 2005)

Exposure and sensitivity increase with an increased vulnerability thus both have positive effects as against vulnerability while adaptive capacity increase with a corresponding decrease in vulnerability thus adaptive capacity has a negative effect as against vulnerability

This implies that with an increased exposure and sensitivity, a system’s vulnerability increases Invariably, the more or increased adaptive capacity decreases vulnerability and therefore, in assessing a systems vulnerability, all three determinants thus exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity must be considered

= Vulnerability

Figure 2.3 Conceptual Model of Vulnerability

Exposure (E)

The nature and degree to which a

system or community is exposed

to climate change phenomena

(coastal inundation and

submersion)

Sensitivity (S)

Degree to which the system’s livelihoods are dependent on the marine resource and therefore, becomes sensitive to any change

Potential Impacts (PI)

The totality of all impacts that

may occur without considering

any planned adaptation

Adaptive Capacity (AC)

The strength of a system to change in order to cope with changes in climate events such as coastal inundation and submersion

(Source: Lecture Notes prepared by Professor Kim Anh Nguyen, University

of Nha Trang) (V = f (E, S, AC)

2.2.3 Adaptive Capacity

This is the prospective or capability of a community or a system to adjust to climate change, its variabilities and extremes By this, adaptive capacity is first and foremost, to decrease potential risks and damages so as to take advantage of all opportunities present Secondly, to cope with all effects (Smith and Pilifosova, 2001) Adaptive capacity then suggests the ability and capability of climate change affected community or a system to adjust and adapt to the impacts of climate change

Adaptation is an adjustment to ecological, social and economic systems and as response to future climate stimuli and impacts (IPCC, 2000) This is elaborated that, adaptation to the impacts of climate change must include responses to climate change phenomena such as flooding, inundation and submersion so as to reduce exposure and build resilience through strengthening the available necessary infrastructural capacities (Gallopin, 2006)

Figure 2.4 The Vulnerability Scoping diagram

(Credit: Polsky, Neff, and Yamal (2007))

Jha et al, (2012), elaborated extensively on adaptation strategies which are summarized by Afornorpe in his studies on vulnerability and adaptation to flooding in the Greater Accra, Ghana

First and foremost is the use of probability models that will determine vulnerability and potential damages of climate change hazards

More so, is to use maps to show communities more affected by natural disasters in order to determine what strategies are best in adapting to the disasters in those areas

There should be the development of early warning systems

Furthermore, there should be land use planning and settlement development and Lastly, there should be drainage system development

Jha et al noted that clearly mapping areas that are exposed and sensitive to climate disasters, is a method that is highly economical, realistic and action driven It is observed that one of the most vulnerable areas is the African continent which comprise mostly, regions and communities that have limited adaptive capacities These countries mainly have limited economic resources, low and unimproved levels of technology, access to poor information, have underdeveloped and poor infrastructure These climate vulnerable countries in addition have unstable and weak institutions, unequal access to resources and empowerment and all these together render them less adaptive and highly vulnerable to climate variabilities (Smit and Pilifosova, 2001)

2.2.4 Adaptation Constraint

Aside vulnerability factors mentioned above, Klein et al (2014) also highlight other key constraints to adaptations and adaptive strategies which are depicted in the figure below:

Figure 2.5 Adaptation Contraints

(Credit: Klein et al, 2014; IPCC AR5, 2014.)

As depicted by the figure, Klein et al, 2014, stipulate adaptation constraints that militate implementation of effective adaptive strategies and to a larger extent increase the level of vulnerability of a group of people who are exposed and sensitive to climate change

By physical, it implies the physical environment and it’s characteristics that constrain adaptation strategies of the coastal society and area These include the geography of the land and coastline, infrastructure and the technology to manage climate risks (Adger et al, 2007)

With respect to economic constraint, a mangrove or a swamp may be cleared for shrimp and fish aquaculture These increases vulnerability of the land to climate change events such as typhoons, floods, sea level rise among others (Agrawala et

al, 2005) When all these economic activities are not managed properly, they tend

to constrain the implementation of effective adaptation measures Other economic factors such as limited access to credit facilities, capital, tax, revenue, and insurance could either militate the effective implementation of adaptation strategies (Herwijer et al, 2009; Islam et al, 2014)

Adaptation

Constraints

Degree of Vulnerability

&

Effectiveness

of Adaptation

Physical

Biological and Ecological

Economic and Financial

Governance and Institutional Social and Cultural Affect

Social and cultural constraints regard the beliefs and practices of a society and their world view that would militate adaptation (Hartzell-Nichols, 2011) Many studies from developing countries show that the beliefs and practices of the local people explain that these climate change events are natural phenomena that is controlled by God and supernatural forces They occur naturally and may also occur as a result of a sort of punishment for their deeds These therefore tend to hinder adaptive strategies and the awareness created on climate change and its impact (Pearce et al, 2011)

Furthermore on constrains due governance and institutions, it is realised that developing countries are not able to attain and implement adaptation strategies as

a result of complexities in governance and weak institutions through its legal and regulatory bodies Effective co-ordination between stakeholders could bring proper decision making regarding implementation of adaptation strategies On the other hand, variable ideas, objectives and power among stakeholders would limit the fruition of planned adaptations to reduce climate vulnerability (Zinn, 2007; Preston, 2009) In the light of these, Preston, (2009) and National Research Council (2010) suggest governance approaches such as decentralization policy, top-down and bottom-up approaches which require stakeholders participation and consultation in the formulation and implementation of climate change adaptations Biological constraints mainly compose of the innate capabilities and behaviours of

an organism to adapt to the variable climate stress (Somero, 2010) Studies on migration and adaptation attest that, biological capacity for migration and diversification are linked to the organism ability to produce off-spring, differences

in genotype and phenotype, interspecific interactions and dispersal rate (Aitken et

al, 2008; Hellmann et al, 2012; Klein et al, 2014)

It is necessary to add that, biological constraints on the implementation of adaptation strategies could be linked to ecological degradation as well This affects and reduces the availability of ecosystem goods and services, their functions and end-points for human population For example, depletion of coastal wetlands and coral reefs would affect buffer systems in coastal areas and hinder the ability to regulate strong tidal waves, tropical cyclones and extreme weather conditions (Gedan et al, 2011)

to the sea level rise (DECCMA Project, 2015 p10) The impacts are numerous and have immense toll on livelihoods in the coastal area Sea erosion has destroyed people’s homes, buildings and livelihoods including farming and salt mining Fishing as well is greatly impacted as there is little or no space to dock To curtail the issue of deforestation and sea erosion, the Ningo-Prampram district carried out afforestation project which was supported by Standard Chartered Bank between the 2014 and 2015 year periods and also in negotiations with AMANDI Construction for a possible extension of the Ada Sea Defence Wall to the Ningo-Prampram coastal area respectively

3.2 Study Design

Based on the ecological and social conditions of Ningo-Prampram, the research adopts a case study design and focuses on livelihoods impacts of adaptive

measures, with respect to coastal inundation and submersion with Prampram as the case study The case study is designed and inspired by figure 2.1 and focuses on the factors and variables that are presented in the figure With Ningo-Prampram as the case study, the research conduct an in-depth investigation

Ningo-of the problem Ningo-of inundation and submersion that have been a major course Ningo-of concern at the study site (case sites) over a long period of time (Anol, 2012, p.40)

Case study is again defined as ‘‘an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon (the ‘case’) in depth and within its real-world context’’

(Robert K Yin, 2014, p 199) The case study enables the research to focus on the

‘case’ being studied so as to keep a holistic and a real-world perspective of livelihood impacts of adaptive measures in relation to coastal inundation and submersion in the study area To achieve this, (Blaikie, 2000) proposes four main plans of action (inductive, deductive, retroductive and abductive) among which could be selected, followed and included in the social research with each specific ways to dealing with social enquiry These research strategies ensure myriad of ways to answer research questions by identifying clearly a starting point, a number

of steps and an end point These strategies specify in their own ways how to collect data, analyse them, develop generalizations that would be subjected to further testing and granted the possibility to become a law-like statement which can explain the phenomenon being studied It should be emphasized here that all these steps typify these four strategies that could be adopted but differ in the mode of application and structure This research therefore, adopts and follows the inductive approach by identifying and observing situation of inundation and submersion, formulate a theory and collect appropriate data to explain the case of livelihood impacts of adaptive measures in relation to coastal inundation and submersion with Ningo Prampram as the study area

The coast of Ningo-Prampram is the study area which comprise of the Old Ningo and the New Prampram as unit areas Using Ningo-Prampram as a single case study area is necessitated due to gradual submersion and inundation events caused

by spring tides, sea level rise and other human factors Ningo-Prampram has one

of the cleanest beaches in the city of Accra with several resorts and tourist attractions Several livelihoods in the area are dependent on fishing and

agricultural activities directly or indirectly Notwithstanding, Ningo-Prampram has become one of the most vulnerable areas in the Greater Accra region of Ghana, thus the need to carry out the research

3.3 Source of Data

The research makes extensive use of primary and secondary sources of data to reveal the real picture as regards livelihood impacts of adaptive measures in relation to coastal inundation and submersion at the Ningo-Prampram study area Primary source of data are assembled with the aid of a well-structured questionnaire, focus group discussions, informal interviews and observation as the researcher and the field assistant are familiar with the Ningo-Prampram coastal area Secondary data sources are also used extensively Existing literature on Ningo-Prampram such as reports from the Deltas, vulnerability and Climate Change: Mitigation and Adaption (DECCMA) project; National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS) and other relevant internet documents are used In addition, information is gathered from the key institutions visited in the study site

to aid in achieving the research objectives Other literatures such as scholarly articles, books and journals which bother on coastal inundation and adaptations that impact livelihoods are reviewed and reconceptualised These helped in getting insights into the trends, comparison of data and developing new strategies to enhance adaptation and improve livelihood outcomes

3.3.1 Vulnerability Matrix

Based on the case study description and per the model as depicted by figure 2.1, a vulnerability matrix is designed to determine the effects that climate change hazards under listed (coastal inundation/erosion, gradual submersion, rainfall, higher temperature, flooding, disease outbreak, salt water intrusion and drought) have on expected livelihoods, resources and activities and the impacts of adaptive measures designed to curtail the hazards The vulnerability matrix is used in this study to investigate the important areas and activities of local people’s livelihoods which are most vulnerable to inundation, submersion, erosion and sea level rise

The levels of vulnerability range from highly vulnerability (3), moderate vulnerability (2), low vulnerability (1) and not vulnerable (0) These outcomes represent the confirmation from respondents, through their maximum agreement

in the focus group discussion

Table 3.1 Vulnerability Matrix 1

Vulnerability

Category

Higher Temp

Inundation &

Submersion

Erratic Rainfall

Sea Level Rise

on

Gradual Submers ion

Erratic Rainfall

Higher Temp

Flooding Disease

Outbrea

k

Salt water Intrusion

Final

Rank

3.3.2 Focus Group Discussion

A first focus group discussion (FGD) is held comprising the following key personalities of the Ningo-Prampram assembly; the District Planning Officer, Assembly members, Environmental Safety Officer, the District Chief Executive, the Chief Fisherman and the Beach Manager of Ningo These are key and experienced people who are involved with the governance and administration of the Ningo-Prampram coastal community and the district in entirety Among the key findings from the focus group discussion include the ecological and social situation of Ningo-Prampram coastal area, major climate and sanitation problems

of Ningo-Prampram, impacts of climate hazards on the major livelihood outcomes, and action plans to enhance adaptation which are under consideration by the assembly and the Ghana government During the focus group discussion, participatory appraisal tools such as score cards are issued and used and the response from participants are ranked

A second focus group discussion is held among the locals and other professions to ascertain the impacts of the climate variables such as higher temperature, inundation, erratic rainfall, sea level rise and floods, on the major livelihoods which are captured under vulnerability categories such as rice and crop farming, fishing activity, basketry weaving, infrastructure, tourism and salt production These are the major alternative livelihoods and the major activities that the locals survive on thus the need to compare them against the climate variables

3.3.3 Questionnaire

To ascertain the livelihood impacts of adaptive measures in relation to coastal inundation and submersion in Ghana, specifically at the Ningo-Prampram coastal area, a survey instrument is used to gather relevant information from local residents In this respect, the questionnaire is developed to study the variables as enshrined in the figure 2.1, and pertained to the local community The