Socioeconomics, Diversity, and the Politics of Online Education

Foreword...xiv Preface...xvi Acknowledgment...xxiii Section 1 This section is a collection of chapters related to some unique attributes of online learning, such as incivility and cyb

Diversity, and the Politics

Purdue University Global, USA

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Names: Setzekorn, Kristina, editor | Patnayakuni, Nainika, editor |

Burton, Tina, editor

Title: Socioeconomics, diversity, and the politics of online education /

Kristina Setzekorn, Nainika Patnayakuni, and Tina Burton, editors

Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, 2020 | Includes

bibliographical references and index | Summary: “This book explores

online education’s optimal design and management so that more students,

especially those traditionally underserved, are successful and can

contribute to their communities and society Additionally, it looks at

the political/regulatory, diversity, and socioeconomic impacts on online

education, especially for online education demographic groups”

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Identifiers: LCCN 2019055633 (print) | LCCN 2019055634 (ebook) | ISBN

9781799835837 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799835844 (paperback) | ISBN

9781799835851 (ebook)

Subjects: LCSH: Web-based instruction Social aspects | Web-based

instruction Political aspects | Nontraditional college

students Services for | Education, Higher Effect of technological

innovations on

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This book is published in the IGI Global book series Advances in Mobile and Distance Learning (AMDL) (ISSN: 1892; eISSN: 2327-1906)

2327-Book Series

Private and public institutions have made great strides in the fields of mobile and distance learning in recent years, providing greater learning opportunities outside of a traditional classroom setting While the online learning revolution has allowed for greater learning opportunities, it has also presented numer-ous challenges for students and educators alike As research advances, online educational settings can continue to develop and advance the technologies available for learners of all ages

The Advances in Mobile and Distance Learning (AMDL) Book Series publishes research

en-compassing a variety of topics related to all facets of mobile and distance learning This series aims to

be an essential resource for the timeliest research to help advance the development of new educational technologies and pedagogy for use in online classrooms

Mission

Patricia Ordóñez de Pablos Universidad de Oviedo, Spain

ISSN:2327-1892 EISSN:2327-1906

• Managing Sustainable Learning

• Technology Platforms and System Development

• Administration and Organization

• Educational Presentation and Delivery

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Utilizing a 5-Stage Learning Model for Planning and Teaching Online Courses Emerging Research and portunities

Op-Riad S Aisami (Troy University, USA)

Information Science Reference • ©2020 • 168pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799820420) • US $185.00

Exploring Online Learning Through Synchronous and Asynchronous Instructional Methods

Cynthia Mary Sistek-Chandler (National University, USA)

Information Science Reference • ©2020 • 333pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781799816225) • US $195.00

Managing and Designing Online Courses in Ubiquitous Learning Environments

Gürhan Durak (Balıkesir University, Turkey) and Serkan Çankaya (İzmir Democracy University, Turkey) Information Science Reference • ©2020 • 356pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522597797) • US $185.00

Global Demand for Borderless Online Degrees

Robert P Hogan (Walden University, USA)

Information Science Reference • ©2020 • 266pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522589129) • US $185.00

Enriching Collaboration and Communication in Online Learning Communities

Carolyn N Stevenson (Purdue University Global, USA) and Joanna C Bauer (Claremont Lincoln University, USA) Information Science Reference • ©2020 • 319pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522598145) • US $195.00

Advancing Mobile Learning in Contemporary Educational Spaces

Dominic Mentor (Columbia University, USA)

Information Science Reference • ©2019 • 394pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522593515) • US $195.00

Student Support Toward Self-Directed Learning in Open and Distributed Environments

Micheal M van Wyk (University of South Africa, South Africa)

Information Science Reference • ©2019 • 321pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522593164) • US $195.00

Administrative Leadership in Open and Distance Learning Programs

Koksal Buyuk (Anadolu University, Turkey) Serpil Kocdar (Anadolu University, Turkey) and Aras Bozkurt adolu University, Turkey)

(An-Information Science Reference • ©2018 • 378pp • H/C (ISBN: 9781522526452) • US $195.00

701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USATel: 717-533-8845 x100 • Fax: 717-533-8661E-Mail: cust@igi-global.com • www.igi-global.com

Foreword xiv Preface xvi Acknowledgment xxiii

Section 1 Chapter 1

Lynne Williams, Purdue University Global, USA

Tamara P Fudge, Purdue University Global, USA

Chapter 4

MoreThanaCourse:ParticipationinMOOCstoSignalProfessionalValue 50

Sergey Gorbatov, IE Business School, IE University, Spain

Monika Hamori, IE Business School, IE University, Spain

Svetlana N Khapova, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Evgenia I Lysova, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Janneke K Oostrom, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Section 2 Chapter 5

GenderGap:FactorsAffectingFemaleStudents’RetentioninanOnlineUndergraduateIT

Program 79

Kristina Setzekorn, Purdue University Global, USA

Tina Burton, Purdue University Global, USA

Colleen M Farrelly, Staticlysm LLC, USA

Susan Shepherd Ferebee, Purdue University Global, USA

Judith E Larkin, Canisius College, USA

Harvey A Pines, Canisius College, USA

Section 3 Chapter 8

ManagingGenerationalDiversity:LessonsGermanCompaniesCanLearnFromSiliconValley 127

Martin Klaffke, Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin, Germany

Chapter 9

NativeAmericanCulturalIdentityExplorationinTheirPostsecondaryEducation:ANarrativeInquiry 142

Susan Shepherd Ferebee, Purdue University Global, USA

Andrew C Lawlor, University of Phoenix, USA

Foreword xiv Preface xvi Acknowledgment xxiii

Section 1

This section is a collection of chapters related to some unique attributes of online learning, such as incivility and cyberbullying, theories related to student involvement and transactional distance that should improve online students’ experience, and the role of massively open online courses in providing upskilling opportunities.

Chapter 1

FacilitatingCivilityinDistanceEducation 1

Catherine F Flynn, Purdue University Global, USA

Higher education has a long history of incivility, and the advent of distance learning has furtherexacerbated the issues. Increasing incivility in our society adds another challenging dimension tocombatingincivilityandmaintainingasupportive,educationalenvironment.Thischapteraddressesthechallengesofmaintainingcivilityintheonlineteachingandlearningenvironmentthatfacilitatesaccess24/7.Specificissuesrelevanttodisruptiveactionsindistancelearningarecovered,aswellasstrategiesforpreventingandreducingonlineincivility.Promotingasenseofconnectivenessandsocialinteractionisrecommended,whilealsomaintainingaprofessionalrelationship.Onlinecultureisdiscussedasakeyelementinestablishinganeffectiveonlineenvironment

Chapter 2

EnhancingStudentInvolvementinaTechnologicallyConnectedWorld 17

Joyce B Boone, Purdue University Global, USA

Inthemulti-faceteddomainofadultonlineeducation,administrators,researchers,andpractitionershaveanopportunitytoassistadultswhobringuniqueexperiences,talents,challenges,andneedstotheonlinelearningenvironment.Thepurposeofthischapteristorefreshthereader’sawarenessabouttwotheories:studentinvolvementandtransactionaldistance.Itisthehopeoftheauthorthataheightenedunderstandingofthesetheorieswillsparknewideas,research,andpractices,facilitatingsuccessfuloutcomes.Takenindividuallyorpairedastheoreticalorconceptualframeworks,thesetheoriesareseminaltobothadultanddistanceeducationdomains.Researchers,decision-makers,andpractitioners

Chapter 3

PedagogyinaPotentiallyHostileOnlineEnvironment 35

Lynne Williams, Purdue University Global, USA

Tamara P Fudge, Purdue University Global, USA

Student-on-studentbullyinginbrickandmortarschoolsisunfortunatelycommonplaceandhasbeenthesubjectofresearchformanyyears.Alongsidethegrowthofonlinelearning,therehasbeenacorrespondinggrowthincyberbullying,notonlyinthestudent-on-studentcategory,butalsostudent-on-teacher.Thisnewformofbullyingcanbedevastatingforthetargetbecause,unlikethetraditionalformofbullyingwhereinteractionstakeplacefacetoface,cyberbullyingincorporatesemail,socialmedia,andtexts,whichallowstheaggressiontospreadrapidlyacrossapotentiallyvastrangeofcommunicationoutlets,thusmagnifyingtheeffect.Giventhepotentialforsignificantharmtoinstructorswhoareatriskofbeingtargetedbyanaggrievedorangrystudent,moreresearchneedstobedoneconcerningstudenttoteachercyberbullying.Thischapterwillexaminevariouscasesofstudenttoteachercyberbullyingaswellastherolethatgenderplaysinonlinebullyingandendwithrecommendationsforpreventionorrecourseonthepartofthetargetedinstructor

Chapter 4

MoreThanaCourse:ParticipationinMOOCstoSignalProfessionalValue 50

Sergey Gorbatov, IE Business School, IE University, Spain

Monika Hamori, IE Business School, IE University, Spain

Svetlana N Khapova, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Evgenia I Lysova, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Janneke K Oostrom, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Theauthorsexploretheroleofmassiveonlineopencourses(MOOCs),oneofthelearningalternativesthathasbecomeavailabletomillionsofpeople,inthejobsearchprocess,linkingtheinvestedeffortinobtainingacertificationorcompletingseveralcoursesfromthesamespecializationwiththejobseekingoutcomes,suchasgettingajob.InastudyofamarketingMOOClearners(N=278),theyexploretheantecedentsandoutcomesofsuchinvestedeffortthroughthelensofthesignalingtheory.Theresultsindicatedthatschoolbrandimportanceandself-promotionwereimportantpredictorsofinvestedeffortinMOOCs,whilelearninggoalorientationtowardsMOOCswasnot.TheinvestedeffortinMOOCspositivelyrelatedtoperceivedusefulnessofMOOCsingettingajobthroughbothsignalingofMOOC-relatedcompetenciesandperceivedemployability.Theauthorscomplementedthequantitativedatawith19semi-structuredinterviewstoprovidenuancestothefindings.TheoreticalandpracticalimplicationsoftheroleofMOOCsinthecontextofcontemporarycareersarediscussed

Section 2

This section is a collection of chapters regarding online education’s gender-related attributes, including the role of online faculty gender in supporting female IT students’ persistence, mitigation of barriers for women completing doctoral programs, as well as the online environment’s support of women students’ preference for privacy and risk aversion.

Chapter 5

GenderGap:FactorsAffectingFemaleStudents’RetentioninanOnlineUndergraduateIT

Program 79

Kristina Setzekorn, Purdue University Global, USA

Tina Burton, Purdue University Global, USA

Colleen M Farrelly, Staticlysm LLC, USA

Susan Shepherd Ferebee, Purdue University Global, USA

Women are underrepresented in information technology (IT) fields. This study aims to understandfacultygender’simpactsonfemaleITstudentretentioninintroductorycoursesinanonlineuniversity’sundergraduateITprogram.Univariateandmultivariatestatisticalmodelsindicatethatfacultygenderdoesnotmoderatetheretentionoffemalestudentsinthiscontext.However,theretentionratesofwomenareencouraging,suggestingthatanonlineformatmaybeconducivetotheretentionoffemalestudents

Chapter 6

OnlineDoctoralPrograms:BreakingDownBarriersforWomen 90

Kathleen Scarpena, Purdue University Global, USA

Thischapterexaminestheroleofonlineeducationinremovingthebarriersthatpreventwomenfromentering,andultimatelysuccessfullycompleting,doctoralprograms.Threecorequestionsguidethischapterasitexaminesthiscomplexproblemofpractice:Doonlinedoctoralprogramsmitigateaccessbarriersspecificallyforwomen?Whataretheimplicationsofaccess-basedcollegechoicedecisionsforwomen?Howcanincreasedaccesstoonlinedoctoralprogramsshrinkthegapforwomeninfieldswheretheyareunderrepresented?Thischapteralsoincludessolutionsandrecommendationsforpracticedesignedtosupportonlineprogramsincreatingexpandedaccessandopportunityforwomen,particularlythoseimpactedbyunderrepresentation,intermsofentryintoandcompletionofdoctoralprograms

Chapter 7

ASaferPlaceforWomen:OnlineEducation 111

Judith E Larkin, Canisius College, USA

Harvey A Pines, Canisius College, USA

Afeatureofonlinestudynotwidelyrecognizedisthatapartfromitsconvenience,whicheasestheburdensofmanagingfamilyandworkdemands,theonlineeducationalenvironmentofferscontroloverprivacyandvisibility.Toconveyhowwomen,inparticular,placeimportanceonhavingcontroloverprivacy,thischapterdescribesstudiestheauthorshaveconductedtoinvestigategenderdifferencesinreactionstosituationswherepublicperformancevs.privacyisinvolved.Whilerecognizingthesuccessofonlinecoursesinmeetingprivacyneeds,attentionisalsodrawntothechallengethatonlineinstructorsfacetopreparestudentswithskillsinpublicpresentationimportantforsuccessbeyondtheclassroom

Chapter 9

NativeAmericanCulturalIdentityExplorationinTheirPostsecondaryEducation:ANarrative

Inquiry 142

Susan Shepherd Ferebee, Purdue University Global, USA

Andrew C Lawlor, University of Phoenix, USA

ThirteenpercentofAmericanIndians/AlaskanNativeshaveachievedabachelors’degreeorhighercomparedto28%oftheoverallUnitedStatespopulation.ImprovingNativeAmericaneducationalattainmentiscriticalasapathwaytoeconomicprosperityandsocialequality.TheproblemisthateducationalleadersdonotknowwhatAmericanIndians/AlaskanNativesconsiderasuccessfuleducationalexperienceasalignedwiththeirculturalidentity.Thepurposeofthisqualitativenarrativeinquirywastoexaminethepost-secondaryexperiencesofAmericanIndians/AlaskanNativesthroughtheironlinestoriesviasocialmedia.ResultsshowedtheAmericanIndians/AlaskanNatives’culturedominatedtheireducationalexperience,andtheywereunlikelytowidentheirsocialidentity.Movingfromamono-culturalviewtoonethatincludesaEurocentriccollegeculturecouldbecontributoryandfruitful.OnlineeducationmightallowtheseNativeAmericanstudentstoremainintheircultureandstillexperiencetheEurocentriccollegeculture

Chapter 11

TheInfluenceofPoliticsandDiversityinEducationalDifferentiation 184

Desiree L DePriest, Purdue University Global, USA

Currentsocietalshiftsareunfoldingconnectionsbetweenlaws,acts,andbehaviorsofthepastthataffecteducationinthepresent.Thereislimitedscholarshipthatrevealsthehistoricalintentionalityinexcludingunderrepresentedandmarginalizedpersonsfromeducation.Theconcernisthatthequestforhigherindustryrecognitionbasedontheoldmodelsofeliteandtraditionalschoolswillmakeonlineenvironmentsvulnerabletothosesameexclusions.Themissionistoapplytransparencytotheunderlyingdisparatehistoryineducationandhowseverelyithasaffectedsomanygenerationsofpeople,changetheparadigmgoingforward,andnotrepeathomogeneityonline.Thischapterproposesacriticalexaminationoffactorsthatnecessitatedtheevolutionfrompasteducationmodelsestablishedtoperpetuatesocietaldominancebyaselectfew,tothepresentinclusiveonlinelearningmodels.Thechapterarguesthattechnology,alongwiththefailuretoincludediversepopulationsasauniquedemographic,contributedtothedisruptionthatbecameonlinelearning

Chapter 12

ACriticalReviewofBarrierstoUnitedStatesMilitarySpouseEducationandEmployment 193

Crystal Lewis, Northcentral University, USA

IntheUnitedStates,thereareoveronemillionmilitaryspouses.Frequentgeographicalrelocations,thepsychologicalstressandanxietyassociatedwithspousaldeployments,andsupportingtheirchildrenastheonlyparentwhiletheiractivedutyspouseisawayleavemilitaryspousesdisproportionatelyaccountableforallfamilyobligations.Ultimately,theseinequitiescreatebarriersformilitaryspousesandtheiremploymentandeducationalpursuits.Despitesimilaritiesinlifestyletoactivedutyservicemembers,militaryspousesarenotcategorizedasanat-riskpopulationandhavenotbeenstudiedindepth.Thischapterutilizedthesource,survey,synthesizemethodtoaddresstheliteraturegapsurroundingthebarrierstomilitaryspouseeducationandemployment.Findingsfromtheexistingliteratureweresynthesizedtopresentthekeythemesforstudiesthatinvestigatedthemilitaryculture,barrierstomilitaryspouses’pursuitsofhighereducation,employment,andcareeradvancementandearnings

Chapter 13

RedefiningEducationalOpportunityinAmerica 216

Peter Plympton Smith, University of Maryland Global Campus, USA

ThischapterdiscussesthehistoricprogressionofAmericanhighereducationanditsroleinopportunityandwork.Therearesocialandeconomiccostsinhighereducation’scurrentopportunitystructure,inthatmanyAmericansareexcludedbycampusmodels,traditions,andvaluescoupledwithbroadersocietalnorms.Forthem,thehighereducationopportunitypathwayremainsanopportunitymonopolybeyondtheirreach.ClaytonChristiansen’stheoryofdisruptiveinnovationisreferencedtoreframethiseducation-opportunitydebate

Chapter 14

ImprovingSocialandEconomicMobilityforPeopleWithDisabilitiesThroughOnlineEducation229

Jessica D K Love, Purdue University Global, USA

Compilation of References 244 About the Contributors 281 Index 286

Foreword

Thisbookismorethanawell-organizedandthought-provokingtapestryoffamiliarissuesconfrontingstudents,teachersandclassroomsofanykind.Itisaninvitation,inapostpandemicworldofworkandlearning,toheedsageadviceaboutthedangeroffailingtolearnfromhistory.Itisareminderthatwearenotdoomedtolinkoneparadigmtothenext.Thisbookcanalsobeafantasy-provokingexercisewithsomethingIpersonallyliketoavoid:ablankpieceofpaper

Readerswillrecognizeandhavestrongmentalframeworksfortheideashere,whethertheybringabackgroundofformaleducationexperience(atanylevel),oraresimplyintriguedbytheevolutionoflearningcultureandpotentialopportunityonlineoffers.Thechaptershighlighthowtheuniversalissuesofourworldanditssocietalmoresseemforeverreflectedinourinstitutions,eventhosewepromoteandclingtoastoolsofchange,likeeducation.Eachauthorinvitesustolookaheadandapplyourbestcriticalthinkingskillstoreshapethefuturewiththepossibilitiesofavirtuallearningspace.Whetherthechallengeisgenderorrace,psychologicaltraitsorphysicaldisability,studentengagementorinstruc-torskills,nichesofdegreepursuitorculture,technologyitselfortheinequitiesofitsaccess,thereisamessagetohope,asweexpandthisnewvirtualhorizon

Takemyblankpieceofpaperforamoment,then,whileIsuggestthatmaybehopeisokay,evenif

hopeisNOTaplan.Perhapstheamorphousvirtueofhopecanencourageusawayfromthesolidcomfortofwhatresearchandscholarshavecreatedasafoundationonwhichwetendtobuild.Learningissci-ence,afterall,facilitatedbyartists.Magichappenswhensciencetakesleapsawayfromitsconventionalwisdomandtowardsomeblackhole

IamproudthatwhenCOVID-19meantasacrosancttraditionlikeagraduationceremonywaslost,PurdueGlobalhadalreadyhelditsfirstvirtualceremony.Wehadmovedalongwhatwebelievedwasaninevitablepathfora21stCenturyonlineuniversity.Itwasgratifyingtosharethatoptionwithourcolleaguesinaspiritofservicetostudentseverywhere,andwithacollectiverespectforthevalueofatradition,changingasitmustwithreality.Andyet,ifthatiswherewestop… takingthenextstepwithallthatweknowandcarryingforwardwhatwedesiretopreserve,wedonotembracetheblankpieceofpaperorbravelycrossthethresholdofablackhole

Readthisbookwithablankpieceofpurewhitepaper.Asyouareprovokedtocompareandcontrastwhatyouknowandwhatmaybepossible,remindyourselfthattruthdoeschange.Whatwecancreateisnotrealityweknoworwouldrecognize.Bornofscience,technologystilldemonstratesitshumannatureofgoodandevil.Don’ttrustitalone.Technologydazzleswithitspowertoliterallyalterrealityandsuspendbelief,butrememberwhatwasonceviewedasmiraculous,isnowthemundane.Onechal-lenge,asarticulatedhere,istofindthekernelofthatnextBigIdea.Howwillthepossibilitiesofvirtualeducationhelpwritethenext,betteriterationforevenoneofthedeservingissuesexplored?

Carolyn Nordstrom

Purdue University Global, USA

Preface

Theideaforthisbookwastriggeredbyaseriesofarticlesexplaininghowhighereducation,ratherthanpromotingsocialmobility,nowactuallyexacerbateswealthandincomeinequality.Whereasphysicalhailstormswerecitedashistoricallypostponingorderailingfarmers’sons’educationplans,socioeco-nomichailstormsoftenderailworthystudents’educationstoday(c.f.,Fischer,2016,Rivard,2014,Schneider,2018,Wolfston,2014)

racy.Thiscivicmissionhassincebeenhijackedtooneof“spendingforglory”togarnerhigherplacinginTheUSNews&WorldReport’sBestCollegesrankings.Heavilyweightedcriteriaincludehowmuchtheuniversityspendsperstudentforeducation,facultysalaries,maintainingalowstudent/facultyratioandminimizingstudentdebt(Wolfston,2014).Collegesreduceacceptancerates,decreaseclasssize,pursuestudentswhohavehighertestscoresandGPAs;hoardendowments;buildexpensivefacilities;competeforsuperstarfaculty,coachesandathletesandmarketthemselvestoeachothertoenhancetheir

Until40yearsago,highereducationpromotedsocialmobility,broadeconomicgrowthanddemoc-“peerassessments.”(socialmobilityindex.org)

Pursuitoftheserankingsmakeshighereducationlessattainableformostmiddle-andlower-incomestudents. Students from diverse ethnic and working class families; who attend mediocre or failingneighborhoodelementaryandsecondaryschools;whoaretraumatizedbysubstandardhousing,foodinsecurityandviolence;andwhosefamiliescannotaffordtutoringortestprepclassesearnlowergradesandunderperformonstandardizedadmissionsexamsthatdonotreflecttheirworldview.Tomaintaintheirlargeendowments,eliteresearchuniversitiesdonotspendtheirfundsmeaningfullysupportingneedystudents.Theirgraduates,whosefamiliespayfortuition,roomandboard,booksandfeesoutofsavings,havelittlestudentdebt,whilestudentsfromlessprivilegedbackgroundsmustborrowtocoveralltheseeducationcosts,andthusgraduatewithhigherdebt(Fischer,2016)

ties.Businessandpoliticalleaderstendtomatriculatethere,andtheirchildrenwithallthepreviously-mentionedadvantagesandmanymore,arepreferentiallyadmittedas“legacies”oronathleticscholar-shipsforsportsinwhichonlyprivilegedstudentshaveparticipated,e.g.,lacrosse,rowingorequestriansports.Thiscircular,insulatedenvironmentisthusreinforcedbysociety,economicsandpolitics,andisfurtherreinforcedwhentheseuniversitiesonlyconsiderothereliteinstitutions’graduateswhenhiringfacultyandadministrators

Theseskewedinstitutionalincentivesthusreducesocioeconomicdiversityateliteresearchuniversi-Thereisaroleforeliteresearchuniversities,butsadly,mosttraditionaluniversitiesalsocompeteonthesesamecriteria.Thecontextisscarcity,withaspirationsofelitismandexclusivity.Theiruseofstandardizedtestscoresexcludesotherwisecapableapplicantswithdiverseworldviews,andtheyselectfacultybasedonpublications,mentorandalmamater—onecouldargue,criteriaminimallyrelatedto

However,agrowingnumberofnon-traditionalstudentsdemandtheno-frills,time-andcost-efficientversionofacollegeeducation—i.e.,justtheknowledge,skillsandcredentialstoadvancetheircareers—withthelogisticsandschedulethatallowthemtoattendwithoutquittingtheirjobormovingtoauni-versitytown.Onlineeducationisanexampleoftechnology-enableddisruption(Christenson,1997),inthatitreducescostbynotinvestinginanybutthemostrelevantfeaturesandthusenablesmorestudentstoattend,regardlessoftheirfinances,locationandschedule

Whilethenon-elitetraditionaluniversityhasincreasinglypriceditselfoutofthemarket,itsmainstrengthshaveconstraineditsstrategy,limitingitsabilitytoadjusttoshiftingmarketdemandandpriceelasticity.Climbingwalls,physicallibraries,parkingstructures,sportsarenas,coaches’contractsandfacultytenurearelegacycostsbuiltintoatraditionaluniversity’sbusinessmodel,andincreasinglymustbecoveredbystudenttuitionandfees,asthepopulationofresidentialcollege-bound18-year-oldsde-clines,andstategovernmentfundingdropsinresponsetothecurrenteconomiccontractionprecipitatedbytheCOVID-19pandemic

dia’smostcompetitivefeatures(luxuriousleatherbinding,gilt-edgepages,full-colorpictures)becameirrelevantwiththeadventofthePC+MSEncarta,whichofferedthesamebenefit(informationforchildren’sschoolreports)andmore(e.g.,continuousupdates,wordprocessing,calculations,andmore)atthesamepricepoint.Britannica’slegacystrategywaslocked-inbyitspreviouspath-dependentstra-tegicsuccess,e.g.,itscommission-basedsalesforce(opposedchange)andfull-colorcontentthatcouldnotbedigitizedwithtechnologyavailableatthattime(Evans&Wurster,1999)

ThisdisruptionmodelwasillustratedwithEncyclopediaBritannicainthe1980s.Theencyclope-Onlineeducationalsothreatenstodisruptcross-subsidiesinthetraditionalmodel.Forexample,intraditionaluniversities,largefreshmanclassessubsidizesmallspecializedsenior-levelandgraduateclasses.Ifuniversitiesacceptcompetencyassessments,MOOCsandprofessionalcertificationsinlieuofthesefreshmanclasses,howwillthesmallspecializedclasses’costsbecovered?Howaretraditionaluniversitiesgoingtocovertheirlegacycosts(e.g.,climbingwalls,infrastructure,sportsarenas,tenuredfacultyandcoaches’pay)withoutthoselargefreshmansurveyclasses?Traditionaluniversitiesarenotscalable.Theyhavelargelegacyfixedcosts,andthisbecomesuntenablewithdwindlingenrollment.Thisissueofcrosssubsidieswasalsoseenintheprintnewspaperindustry’sbusinessmodel.Classi-fiedadssubsidizedtherestofthenewspaper,sowhenonlineclassifiedadscherry-pickedasmallpartofthisbusiness,ithadanoutsizeimpact,pushingfirms(andtheindustry)intoadeathspiral.Newspapershadtoreplacethatlostadrevenuebyreducingcost(e.g.,lower-qualitymaterials,fewerpages,skilledjournalistlayoffs)andraisingsubscriptionprices.Theresultinglowerperceivedvaluecausedpeopletocanceltheirsubscriptions,whichloweredadratesandbothresultsfurtherloweredrevenue,whichhadtobemadeupbymoredrasticcost-cuttingandhighersubscriptionprices–thusthedeathspiral(Evans

&Wurster,1999)

ThisgetstotheideaofMission.Manytraditionaluniversitiesaspiretoanelitist“spendingforglory”missionmeasuredbytheUSNews&WorldReport’sBestCollegescriteria,suchasspending/student,universityendowment,numberofvaledictoriansadmitted,classsize,facultyprestigepublications,en-trantGPAsandstandardizedtestscores,etc.,andthisisalsoreinforcedtosomeextentbyaccreditors.Onecouldarguethough,thatpublicuniversities’missionsshouldbedirectedtoimprovingstudents’socialmobility,whichsupportsthem,theirfamilies,employersandcommunities.Thissocialmobilitymissionisantitheticaltolowacceptancerates,andfrillslikecampusclimbingwalls,sportsprograms,smallclasssizeandnewclassrooms,whosecostincreasinglydetersstudentsofmodestmeansandthosewithfamilyandworkresponsibilities

Socialmobilityisimprovedwhenuniversitiesinsteadfocusonmeetingopenenrollmentstudentswheretheyare,customizingtheireducationofferings,whilecharginglowertuition,sotheycangraduatewithrelevantskillsintohigh-demand,stable,good-payingcareers(http://socialmobilityindex.org/).Suchfocusonaccess,affordability,relevanceandgraduationpromotespolitical,socialandeconomicstability(Berg&Ostry,2011).Thepublicinterestwouldthusbebetterservedifaccreditationandprestigewererecastaroundsocialmobilitycriteria,ratherthanelitist“BestColleges”criteria

Onlinepublicuniversitiescouldoffertrajectory-changingeducationatmoreaffordablecostiftheyunabashedlypursuedasocialmobilitymissionandculture.Suchactionmeetsstudentswheretheyare(e.g.,thosewithGEDsorlowGPAs,militaryfamilies,lowincome,immigrant,rural,disabled,FirstNationandfirstgenerationstudents,workingparentsandothernontraditionalstudents),supportingtheireducationalon-boardingandfinancial/social/careerneeds,offeringcreditforpriorlearningtograduatethemquickly,withskillsandcredentialssupportingemploymentandgrowthinexpandingfields(Smith,2014).Thismissionalsoprovidesamoreinclusive,diversestudentbodyandworkforce.Itrequiresinstitutionalizingaconsistentlysupportiveorganizationalculturedrivenby“what’sbestforstudentsandsociety.”

Totheextentthatthesocialmobilitymissionsaremuddiedwithelitistaspirations,onlinepublicuniversitiesriskPorter’s“stuckinthemiddle”dilemma(1980).Thishappenswhenapubliconlineuni-versity’sstrategyincludes,inadditiontosocialmobility,someaspectsofaprestigeresearchuniversity,suchthatinthenameof“quality”andforbrandprestige,andsometimesmandatedbyaccreditors,theylimitadmissionbasedonhighschoolGPA,classstandingandtestscores;institute“gatekeepercourses;”haveapunitiveculturewhereinadequateadvisingandskillspreparation,missedseminarsandartificialdeadlinesthreatenstudentsuccess.Anotherelementistheadditionalcostincurredfrommaintainingphysicallocations,smallclasssizes,largefulltimefacultiesandresearchrequirementsaswellasother

“reputational”aspirations

endowed,long-standingprestige-branded,top-20researchuniversities,yettheydirectscarceresourcestotheirotherwiseirrelevantcriteria.Totheextentthatonlineuniversities’resourcesandpoliciesarefocusedonlyonstudents’socialmobility,i.e.,meetingthemwheretheyareandofferingthemin-demand

Forreasonspreviouslydiscussed,onlineeducationhasbecomeaseriouscontenderinthelast20years.Thefirstquarter2020hasseenanemergencymassmigrationofnearlyalltraditionalhighereducationstudentsonline,toslowtheCOVID-19pandemic’sspread.Thismassmigrationwaseffectedwithlessthanamonthofpreparation,withlittleattentiontobestpractices,training,resourcesorcon-sistentoutcomes.Consequently,thebook’stopics(onlinelearning’sattributes,multi-culturaleffectsandgender-relatedaspects)arequiterelevanttoinstructors’andinstitutions’effortstobetterunderstandandoptimizetheironlineofferingswithsocioeconomicanddiversityimpacts

Thispublichealth,andresultingsocialandeconomicdisasterhasbeendescribedbothasa“blackswan”andperhapsmoreaccuratelyasa“grayrhino.”Thatis,politiciansandfinancialtradersreferenceablackswaneventascomingoutofnowhere,being“highlyimprobable,evenunimaginable”(Wucker,2020,para2).Ontheotherhand,grayrhinoeventslikethecurrentpandemic,recession,inequalityandclimatechangeare“obvious,visible,comingrightatyou,withlargepotentialimpactandhighlyprob-ableconsequences”(Baram,3/10/20,para4)

GivenpredictionsthatCOVID-19willbeapersistenthazarduntilavaccineiswidelyavailable,andthatnewpandemicscanemergejustasquickly,onewouldexpectmostknowledgework,e.g.,workconductedingovernmentoffices,businessesandeducationalinstitutions,tobedo-ableremotelygoingforward.Otherreasonstomoveknowledgeworkonlineincludetheincreasedeffectiveness(e.g.,fewergeographicconstraintsinsourcingpersonnel,improvedabilitytoaccommodatethosewithdisabilities,increaseddiversity,fewerdistractionsandbetterlife-workbalance)andcostreductionforallconcerned(e.g.,realestate,utilities,insurance;commutetimeandcost;andhighwaymaintenance).Time,moneyandenergyarespentunnecessarilytransportingpeopleto,andmaintaining,parkinglotsandbuildingsfullofcubicles

Remoteworkalsoreducespollutionandgreenhousegasemissions.Transportationisresponsiblefor23%ofglobalcarbonemissions;drivingandaviationcontribute72%and11%oftransportation’sgreenhousegasemissionsrespectively(Henriques,2020).ThepositiveeffectstheCOVID-19StayHomeorderhashadontheenvironment,wildlifeandclimate(moregrayrhinos),suggestbenefitsofexpandingremotework/study,afterthispandemicresolves.Theworldwillalsobebetterpreparedforthenextemergency.Addressingonegrayrhinowillhavethuscatalyzedprogresstowardmitigatingothergrayrhinos

Thebook’stopics(onlinelearning’sattributes,multi-culturaleffectsandgender-relatedaspects)arealsoquiterelevanttoanyonewantingtobetterunderstandonlineoperations’socioeconomicanddiversityimpacts.Thebookisorganizedinthreesectionsandfourteenchapters

Section1includesacollectionofchaptersrelatedtosomeuniqueattributesofonlinelearning,suchasincivilityandcyberbullying,theoriesrelatedtostudentinvolvementandtransactionaldistance,andtheroleofmassivelyopenonlinecoursesinprovidingupskillingopportunities

Chapter1discussesthetopicofincivilityintheclassroomandhowonlineeducationisimpactedbythisissue.Specificissuesrelevanttodisruptivebehaviorsindistancelearningarecovered,aswellasstrategiesforpreventingandreducingonlineincivility.Theuniquecultureofonlineeducationisdiscussedasakeyfactorinestablishinganeffectiveonlineenvironment

Chapter2presentstheoriesrelatedtostudentinvolvementandtransactionaldistance.Theauthorsbelieveanincreasedunderstandingofthesetheorieswillenableinnovationandimprovetheeducationalenvironmentforadultanddistancelearners

Chapter4reviewstheroleofmassiveonlineopencourses(MOOCs),whichhaveopenedaccesstomillionsofpeopletoupskillandearnnewcredentials.Bothaquantitativeanalysisoflearners’investedeffortinMOOCsandaqualitativeanalysisviainterviewsareincluded.TheimplicationsoftheroleofMOOCsintheeducationallandscapeisalsodiscussed

Section2includesacollectionofchaptersregardingonlineeducation’sgender-relatedattributes,includingtheroleofonlinefacultygenderinsupportingfemaleITstudents’persistence,mitigationofbarriersforwomenpursuingdoctoralprograms,aswellastheonlineenvironment’ssupportofwomenstudents’preferenceforprivacyandriskaversion

Chapter5addressestheshortageofwomenininformationtechnology(IT)fieldsbyexploringthepossibleimpactfacultygenderhasonfemaleITstudentretention.Astudywasconducted,andthere-sultsindicatethatfacultygenderdoesnotdirectlyaffecttheretentionoffemalestudentsinthecontextofthisstudy.However,thedatagatheredregardingtheretentionratesofwomenintheonlineeducationenvironmentarepositive

Chapter6examinestheroleofonlineeducationinremovingtheobstaclesthatpreventwomenfromapplyingforandfinishingdoctoralprograms.Barrierstoentry,successfactors,andthepositiveimpactonunderrepresentedfieldsareexplored.Inaddition,solutionsandrecommendationsforexpandedac-cessandcompletionofdoctoralprogramsforwomenareincluded

Chapter7discussestheconditionthatonlineeducationdrawsmorewomenthanmen.Thisgreaterlevelofattractionforonlineonthepartofwomenisexplored,toincludefactorssuchasconvenience,privacyandvisibility.Inaddition,theauthorsnotetheconcernthatlackofvisibilityfailstopreparestudentswiththeconfidenceforpublicpresentationwhichcanbecriticalforsuccessintheworkplace.Section3includesacollectionofchaptersaddressingmulti-culturalisminonlinelearning

Chapter8focusesonthesignificantdemographicchangesinGermancompaniesthathasmadeworkforcetalentofallagesastrategicpriority.GermanpractitionerstendtofocusonGenerationYem-ployeesbecausetheseyoungeremployeesrepresentnewanddifferentwork-relatedvalues.Thediversityofattitudesandbehaviorscanleadtoconflictandhaveanoverallnegativeimpactonorganizationalperformance.TheauthorssharedatagatheredfromSiliconValleyorganizationswhichmayassistwithsettingupinnovativeworkplacesinGermanytomanagethediversity

Chapter9addressesthedisparatenumbersofAmericanIndians/AlaskanNativeswhohaveearnedabachelors’degreeorhigher,incontrasttotheoverallUnitedStatespopulation.ThisisaqualitativenarrativeaddressingtheneedtoimproveNativeAmericaneducationalfulfillment.DataindicatedtheAmericanIndians/AlaskanNatives’culturedominatedtheireducationalexperience.OnlineeducationcouldpermittheseNativeAmericanstudentstostaytruetotheircultureandstillgainbenefitfromtheEurocentriccollegeculture

Chapter10reviewshowtheonlineeducationcultureserveswomenandminorities.ThedistincteducationcultureisviewedthroughthelensofVygotskyianSocioculturalTheory.Theabilityforonlineeducationtoinhibitbiasandmakestridestoleveltheplayingfieldforwomenandminoritiesisexploredinbothstudentandfacultypopulations

Chapter11presentsopinionsregardinghowtheactivitiesandactionsofthepasthaveaffectededuca-Chapter12exploresmilitaryspousaleducationandtheuniquestressesfacedbythesestudents.Withfrequentrelocations,spousaldeploymentandsingle-parenthomescreated,barriersexistforspousestopursueeducation.Theauthorsseektobringlighttothegapofresearchthatsubsistsforthisunderservedpopulation

nityandwork.Therearesocialandeconomiccostsinhighereducation’scurrentopportunitystructure,inthatmanyAmericansareexcludedbycampusmodels,traditionsandvaluescoupledwithbroadersocietalnorms.Forthem,thehighereducationopportunitypathwayremainsanopportunitymonopolybeyondtheirreach.ClaytonChristiansen’stheoryofdisruptiveinnovationisreferencedtoreframethiseducation-opportunitydebate

Chapter13discussesthehistoricprogressionofAmericanhighereducationanditsroleinopportu-Chapter14discussesthechallengesfacedbystudentswithdisabilitiesattemptingtocompletetheircollegeeducationinatraditionalcampussetting.Theoptionofonlineeducationisexploredinrefer-encetoqualityandstudentsuccessduringtheireducationandthesupporttheirgainwhentheyseektofindcareers

Henriques,M.(2020).WillCovid-19havealastingimpactontheenvironment.BBC News.Retrieved

from ment -_BBC_Future.pdf

https://www.joliet86.org/assets/1/6/Will_Covid-19_have_a_lasting_impact_on_the_environ-Porter,M.(1980).Competitive strategy.FreePress.

cananyonereallychangeinthe‘beautypageant’ofthereputationalsurvey?Inside HigherEd.Retrieved

fromhttps://www.insidehighered.com/news/2014/06/03/what-would-it-really-take-be-us-news-top-20Schneider,N.(2018,May20)TheUniversityIsNotanAristocracy:Sowhydowevalueselectivity

oversocialmobility?The Chronicle of Higher Education.Retrievedfromhttps://www.chronicle.com/

Theeditorswouldliketoacknowledgetheexperience,dedication,engagementandpassionthateachauthorhasshownfortheirprofessionandappreciatetheirexpertandinsightfulcontributionstothisbook.Second,theeditorswishtoacknowledgethereviewers’valuablecontributionstowardtheimprovementofquality,coherence,andcontentpresentationofchapters.Mostoftheauthorsalsoservedasreferees;wehighlyappreciatetheirdoubletask

This section is a collection of chapters related to some unique attributes of online learning, such as incivility and cyberbullying, theories related to student involvement and transactional distance that should improve online students’ experience, and the role of massively open online courses in providing upskilling opportunities.

exac-of maintaining civility in the online teaching and learning environment that facilitates access 24/7 Specific issues relevant to disruptive actions in distance learning are covered, as well as strategies for preventing and reducing online incivility Promoting a sense of connectiveness and social interaction is recommended, while also maintaining a professional relationship Online culture is discussed as a key element in establishing an effective online environment.

INTRODUCTION

Civility in public discourse has garnered a great deal of attention in recent times with much debate on its role in our lives, both personal and professional (Levine, 2010) A “Civility in America” survey administered in 2018 found that 93% of Americans reported a severe civility deficit in this nation, with almost 70% identifying it as a major problem Indeed, incivility permeates all corners of our lives, and academic institutions struggle against students and faculty that can be contentious and disrespectful

William Ouchi, author of Theory Z, contends Americans have lost their sense of trust and the

apprecia-tion for friendship (1981) Clearly lack of civility is not a recent phenomenon Ouchi cited shortcomings more than three decades ago Of relevance to distance education is that Ouchi did not cite technology as being the cause of increased incivility in the nation, but rather how we manage people and engage with one another: our connectiveness and social interaction

Facilitating Civility in Distance Education

Catherine F Flynn

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0732-7976

Purdue University Global, USA

Distance learning and its inherent technology was scarcely a consideration in 1981 when Ouchi called out Americans for failure to trust, appreciate, and demonstrate concern for one another Today, online de-gree programs are ubiquitous and unprecedented in their scope and scale Distance learning, by design, is geographically unconstrained, opening the doors of higher education to the most diverse populations ever served New populations of students are entering online colleges and universities at a time when much lower financial support is being provided by the government The resulting competition for students and dollars pits institutions against one another to recruit, retain, and graduate students, resulting in shifting strategies in the student-faculty relationship and higher education as a whole (Misawa & Rowland, 2015).The shifting landscape of higher education presents students, faculty, and administrators with a myriad of challenges in achieving their respective objectives With changing demographics in distance learning, civility issues are escalating (Offstein & Chory, 2017) The disruptive actions are associated with an increasingly socially, economically, and racially diverse student population Research points to issues of entitlement among college students, as well as lack of preparation for college-level work, and student-as-consumer mindsets as causes for anxiety and associated disruptive actions in the classroom (Nordstrom, Bartels & Bucy, 2009; Reich & Crouch, 2007) Further, increasingly diverse college popu-lations bring numerous student expectations and attitudes about learning in general and the academic environment in particular Incivility has received much focus in higher education because it has the po-tential to seriously compromise the learning environment Strategies for preventing and reducing online incivility include building a sense of connection and social interaction, maintaining an environment of respect and professional decorum, in addition to a clearly established online culture (Offstein & Chory, 2017; Weeks, 2011).

Technology and its associated innovations, particularly the World Wide Web, have restructured higher education, bringing enormous variety to learning environments and modalities (Hamann, Pollock, Smith,

& Wilson, 2016) Perhaps most jarring to traditional learning environments is the shift from a centered to learner-centered world, and from a face-to-face environment, to online delivery (Rieck & Crouch, 2007) Opportunities presented by distance learning are substantial, with availability of diverse experiences, encounters with different cultures, and a venue for exchanging ideas and knowledge without the restraints of physical boundaries (Lagier, 2003) However, few opportunities arrive without negatives associated with their emergence Forni, author of several volumes on civility, observed in 2008 that “For quite some time, we have observed that the disengaged, disrespectful, and unruly student behavior that used to be confined to secondary schools has reached higher education” (p 15)

teacher-Issues of student disengagement, disrespect, and unruly behavior have now reached online tion where the removal of physical boundaries can create an impersonal, disconnected environment that generates an “atmosphere of distrust and indifference” (Nilson, 2003, p 56) Extensive research has been conducted over the past two decades to consider the issue of incivility in the classroom (Feld-man, 2001; Galbraith, 2008; Nilson, 2003; Misawa & Rowland, 2015) The rapidly expanding world of distance learning has further challenged the issues of civility with a set of new questions and concerns Online culture and a sense of connectiveness emerge as compromised elements in online learning (Rieck

educa-& Crouch, 2007) The absence of visual cues and face-to-face interactions has the negative outcome

of making connectivity less accessible and incivility easily adopted (Wilhelm et al., 2003) Classroom and institutional policies to reduce incivility are imperative to protect institutions from both legal issues and stress on students, faculty and staff (Ritter, 2012) Incivility in all aspects of our lives academic and otherwise must be addressed because civility is the foundation of our society, a moral virtue, an aid to social cooperation, and a highly desirable alternative to repression

face-of conduct in the learning environment are not followed Feldman (2001) points to a lack face-of decorum, manners, deportment, and politeness as indicative of incivility.

Acts of incivility are more readily identified in the face-to-face classroom where student actions are clearly intended to disrupt and interfere with the learning environment (Morrissette, 2001) Galbraith and Jones (2010) compiled a list of student behaviors deemed unacceptable, annoying, and uncivil by college instructors, including the following: eating in class, talking in class, making offensive remarks/gestures, missing deadlines, sleeping in class, and engaging in academic dishonesty Incivility in the distance classroom plays out with a different set of actions on the part of students Incivility online manifests itself in bullying comments to instructor or students, disruptions in synchronous sessions, and discussion board postings designed to demean and distract (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2016)

Teacher-Centered to Learner-Centered

Online delivery models necessitate a shift in teaching paradigms from the “sage on the stage” to the

“guide by the side,” from a teacher-centered to a learner-centered environment (King, 1993; Mayer 1984) This move set the stage for a mentality of entitlement on the part of some online learners who took the shift to mean greater power and control on the part of the student (Galbraith & Jones, 2009; Rieck & Crouch, 2007) Student assertions that they are in control of the learning environment, that the instructor would not have a job without the student, supports a lack of civility and a set of behaviors that are disrespectful and counter-productive in the online classroom (Boice, 1996; Edmundson, 1997; Gose, 1997; & Trout, 1997) Offstein and Chory (2017) suggest this trend may have precipitated faculty

“breaking bad” in higher education to gain student favor through the faculty members’ own set of uncivil, inappropriate behaviors Increasing incivility is also seen as the result of a three-pronged problem in higher education: student attitudes towards incivility, consumer orientation to the educational process, and narcissism manifesting as a concentration of psychological interest in the self (Andersson & Pear-son, 1999; Delucchi & Korgen, 2002; Delucchi & Smith, 1997; & Nordstrom, Bartels, & Bucy, 2009).Regardless of the uncivil student’s motivation, the actions are the same: an uncivil student is one who

is seemingly bent on disturbing the expected functioning of the course as perceived by the instructor (Dickerson, 2005; Galbraith & Jones, 2010) The disrupter may attempt to take control of the class by leading discussion, or by questioning the content being delivered, suggesting some flaws or inconsisten-cies in the class structure The uncivil student may answer questions addressed to the professor, contradict the instructor, stage a “mutiny” among the students and in some cases, become abusive (Ko & Rossen, 2004) Few students will display such behavior in the face-to-face classroom, but more are empowered

to do so online where distance prompts a sense of safety (Morrissette, 2001) The opportunity to municate freely through cyberspace is seen by many as a “triumph of democracy” (Forni, 2008) Others

com-have fear online communication may diminish our lives in ways we com-have yet to see Whatever the final outcome may be, we are experiencing a heightened level of rudeness (Forni, 2008).

Online All the Time

The sense of anonymity and separation in cyberspace is further amplified by the constant access to the online environment Incivility can rage on at all hours, day and night Standlee (2016) points to an increase in technology use that has created an all-day, every-day, always-on platform for connectivity that produces stress and burn-out Quan-Hass and Wellman (2006) define this hyperconnectivity as

“the ability of people to communicate anywhere and anytime” (p 285) This wealth of resources for connecting creates incivility by connecting people at all times, increasing stress and decreasing down time (Dickerson, 2006; Vickers, 2006) Ironically, one of the criticisms of distance learning is the sense

of isolation it creates, despite the fact that this hyperconnectivity keeps participants engaged 24/7, often whether they want to or not (Diekelmann & Mendias, 2005) And yet the anonymity and isolation also perpetuates a sense of invincibility and invisibility that leads to a belief that misbehavior can escape punishment (Ritter, 2012)

Hyperconnectivity takes its toll on both students and instructors, both feeling pressured to be online all the time simply because they can Distance education provides opportunity for students balancing work and life to manage course loads at their convenience; however, the full-time availability of online platforms was not intended to demand full-time attention from students or faculty Research supports the need to disconnect Unplugging on a regular basis is vital to relieving the stress and burn-out that emerge from being online all the time Limiting time spent online reduces stress and improves overall mental and physical health Research findings suggest that periods of disconnection from technology have the potential benefits of reducing negative mental and physical health outcomes (Cheever et al., 2014; Thomee, Harenstam, & Hagberg, 2011) One study in which individuals were asked to disconnect from technology for a period of time revealed a parallel concern in online learning for both students and faculty: the fear of missing out when unplugged (Morris & Cravens Pickens, 2017) Some distance learners and facilitators are rabidly checking their online courses to alleviate their sense of missing out, further aggravating their hyperconnectivity

Insecurities and Anxieties

Rude actions and behaviors emerge from a variety of sources Incivility can be attributed to insecurities and personal anxieties being acted upon (Akhtar & Thompson, 1982; Forni, 2008) Anger and dissatis-faction can manifest into disruptive, passive-aggressive online actions (Diekelmann & Mendias, 2005) Proactive strategies in the online environment can prevent this sense of alienation from erupting into full blown incivility Considering Chickering and Gamson’s (1987) principles of good practice for education provides a framework for building a civil online classroom Five of the seven principles point to the need for connectiveness in learning “Good practice encourages student-faculty contact, cooperation among students, active learning, prompt instructor feedback, and respect for diverse talents and learning styles” (Chickering & Gamson, 1987, p 2)

Connectiveness provides students with a sense of belonging, a relatedness (Clarke & Springer, 2010) and a link to the world outside the online environment (Chen & Yen, 2004) Feeling connected reduces frustration felt by students who may be struggling with the course, personal issues, or other disruptions

in their own lives The balancing act faculty must practice, however, is ensuring they do not cross lines

of acceptable classroom behaviors Offstein and Chory (2017) found that while students may suggest they like “fluid power relationships” they tend to assess professors who narrow the power distance and gain student favor as being less ethical and honorable These students further report a greater likelihood

of engaging in incivility and academic dishonesty in these professors’ classes So ironically, rather than engendering more positive perceptions, professors who attempt to close social distance may actually violate student expectations and produce higher levels of incivility in their classroom (Offstein & Chory, 2017)

Social Isolation and Connectivity

Social isolation has long been a criticism of distance learning with the belief that students and faculty feel disengaged and isolated from the learning environment (Michinov et al., 2004) This same sense of isolation has been linked generally to cyberspace and the idea that what happens online is not “really real” but some sort of alternative reality (Forni, 2008) The absence of spatial proximity and co-presence further accentuate the sense of isolation Beyond the individual student, social isolation has a negative

impact on the groups the student belongs to, as well as society at large Putnam (2000), author of

Bowl-ing Alone, cites significant decline in virtually all areas of civic life, from politics to parent-teacher

or-ganizations and neighborhood associations He cites these activities as core to a civil society A variety

of factors impact social isolation, including the students’ upbringing, events in that individual’s life, and technology that leaves the individual reliant on devices over individual connections (House 2001; Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, 2003)

The concepts of connectivity and isolation are frequently addressed in distance learning literature Faculty members and students point to the connection between the absence of a physical presence and

a sense of connectivity to students and the classroom (Diekelmann & Mendias, 2005) Strategies for drawing connections online include use of tools like email, telephone, and other synchronous options (Maor, 2003) The addition of a social element is also encouraged to build a sense of connectivity (Maor, 2003) Often a brief encounter via a telephone exchange or a synchronous chat can bridge the distance, decreasing both anxiety and potential incivility

A sense of connectivity has benefits for online institutions beyond student satisfaction A direct link exists between workplace incivility and job satisfaction Faculty experiencing reduced job satisfac-tion have been found to demonstrate lower teaching effectiveness, which in turn reduces the quality of education for students (Cranton & Knoop, 1991; Zimmerman, 2002) Students experiencing a lowered value in their education are more likely to withdraw from the institution (House, 1999) Turnover of faculty and students is costly to higher education Bartlett and Bartlett (2016) contend that “Technology based incivility that goes unmanaged may negatively impact the students, faculty and higher education institutions” (p 2)

Response to Frustration

Incivility is often a response to frustration, which can be averted by increasing connectivity and reducing isolation Students may be disruptive because they are angry and anxious for reasons that go beyond the immediate situation Instructors who carefully monitor student activities will see these students slip-ping behind, missing discussion postings, and assignments (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2011) Staying in touch with students and encouraging them to seek assistance is crucial in preventing uncivil behavior

and maintaining enrollments It will help the student stay focused on what is important and how to appropriately deal with their frustration and anxiety Connectivity must not, however, be sought at the expense of the professors’ own professionalism and civility Offstein and Chory (2017) cite never-before-seen challenges in higher education, including students and parents who identify as customers, and who see professors as service providers This setting pressures faculty members to assume the dual role of imparting knowledge and producing high levels of student satisfaction Regrettably, this environment can produce behaviors that strip professors of their own professionalism and civility in their yearning to entertain and engage with students.

FROM SAGE TO GUIDE

Distance education by necessity and design adheres to a student-centered model of learning, a constructivist approach, rather than the transmittal model where the all-knowing professor transmits knowledge to the student who acts as a receiving vessel The outdated sage on the stage scenario has been replaced by the guide on the side, shifting the role of the instructor from dispenser of knowledge to facilitator, support-ing student learning in less directive ways While the instructor remains responsible for presenting the course material, it is done in such a way as to make the material accessible and relevant for the student (King, 1993) The constructivist view of learning engages students in actively processing information because they reconstruct the information in personally meaningful ways This strategy is consistent with earlier approaches like information-processing theories that adhere to the philosophy that reformulating information helps students build cognitive structures that enhance learning (Mayer, 1984)

A learning environment that engages students in active learning experiences, moving away from the reproduction of knowledge toward its production, would seemingly be a positive shift for all And while becoming critical thinkers and creative problem solvers is the goal in the application of constructiv-ist learning, a negative outcome of the shift from instructor-centered to student-centered has been an environment of entitlement Faculty and administrators face students who believe little effort should be required of them (Boice, 1996), that they should be entertained in the classroom (Edmundson, 1997), feel comfortable (Trout, 1997), and be granted high grades for simply showing up (Gose, 1997) Ironically, student expectations of the student-centered learning environment results in a passive learning role for the students, with high demands on faculty to bear responsibility for student acquisition of knowledge When students are challenged to take on a greater role in the learning process, they are often resistant if not hostile “Uncivil behaviors are characteristically rude and discourteous, displaying a lack of regard for others” (Andersson & Pearson, 1999, p 457)

A general shifting in students’ attitudes toward higher education has filtered through to distance education A consumer orientation toward the educational process has placed focus on the economic imperative alone with a college degree simply being a means of increasing earning potential (Delucchi

& Korgen, 2002) Previous generations cited knowledge acquisition as being their primary motivation for attending college Grades as commodity has led to a practice Delucchi and Smith (1997) called “grade grubbing” where students will dispute earned low grades and engage in unethical practices like cheating and plagiarism because all that matters is the grade itself Narcissistic tendencies also explain the sense

of entitlement in grades and degrees Further, narcissists often have difficulty seeing how their uncivil behaviors affect others, both faculty and fellow students (Akhtar & Thompson, 1982)

INSECURITIES, ANXIETIES, AND FRUSTRATIONS

Over the past few decades technology has become an indisputable and indispensable part of our daily lives Devices are used for any number of tasks carried out in schools, workplaces, sports arenas, entertain-ment venues, and our homes Our technology-saturated world has granted us access to a mind-boggling array of entertainment services, educational opportunities, and the negatives that accompany a world in which more than 90% of us are connected to some technology at all times, day and night (Smith, 2019).Comfort levels among users of technology vary widely, with some digital denizens settling solidly into a virtual world Other less tech-savvy users may not share this level of comfort, and unease settles

in Incivility is often driven by a combination of insecurity and anxiety, particularly in the online ronment where students are facing a number of unknowns Given the shifting demographics in online, students enrolled in distance learning may lack experience in higher education as first-generation en-rollees They may be products of the economic and social digital divide, and lack experience with life always connected to some technology Given these individual characteristics, online courses may be the single best opportunity these students have to pursue a degree, so despite their lack of comfort with technology and higher education, they enroll

envi-Arguably, the classroom – online or face-to-face – is often the best environment for students to learn civil and constructive ways to manage their insecurities, address conflict, and engage with others Students can learn to engage civilly and constructively when the appropriate frameworks exist to build civil discourse Incivility remains a serious problem, not simply because it presents itself in an absence

of politeness or courtesy, but also because it is the root of much more poignant problems in our society, including a lack of regard for the opinions, backgrounds, and beliefs of others This disregard is the core problem for much violence, apathy, and remoteness (Weeks, 2011)

Educational environments are a source of both insecurity and anxiety for students, as well as an portunity to succeed in achieving goals and milestones Often students’ sense of self-worth is tied to the value they perceive in the specific expectations within the course (Zimmerman, 2002) Students may express displeasure and a lack of motivation in meeting goals that require working in teams or other activities they deem unacceptable, uncomfortable, or inconvenient Distance learners value controlling their schedule and exercising flexibility, and yet can despair over other course requirements Effective learners have control of their thoughts, feelings, and actions to achieve academic success These charac-teristics could be applied to a variety of course delivery models and may account for periodic incivility

op-in the onlop-ine classroom Success op-in higher education is achieved through personal op-initiative, perseverance and ability to adapt, as well as the ability to engage in civil discourse

PREVENTING INCIVILITY

Academic institutions are powerful organizations with resources to promote dialog and debate and educate participants on the role of civility in their lives Colleges and universities have the ability to set the tone for collaborative problem solving, and in doing so, to establish guidelines for participants to engage with one another making matters of civility central to their processes and actions Levine (2010) challenges higher education institutions to graduate students with an understanding of how to challenge ideas without attacking people individually or as members of a group “Learning and dialogue about

civility is a learning tool, a means to an end, the end being more reasoned public engagement, a more inclusive and respectful public square, and a stronger democracy” (Levine, 2010, p 16).

The vast majority of online students behave in a professional, academically-appropriate manner They exercise prudence and good judgment in their interactions with students, instructors, and support personnel However, incivility is encountered by virtually all educators at some time or another We oc-casionally have to contend with disruptive students, those who post inappropriately to the message board

or in a synchronous online environment, causing discomfort among students and instructors Galbraith and Jones (2010) noted similarities between disruptive online students and their on ground counterparts, and many strategies are used to address these issues both online and on ground

The greatest challenge online is the open classroom environment that permits students to post to the message board at any time day or night, resulting in disruptive episodes taking place literally while

we are sleeping (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2016) With an on ground class, instructors are better equipped to address disruptive behavior quickly Effective strategies exist for recognizing and resolving disruptive behaviors online swiftly and effectively, and better yet, means to avoid these occurrences in the first place (Alkandari, 2011)

Online classrooms are guided by course policies and practices Clear statements regarding acceptable behaviors must be part of any online course Ground rules must be established with clear repercussions for students who violate those guidelines Recommendations for ground rules include never writing in a course or an email or a text message something you would not say to that individual face-to-face, being respectful of one another’s opinions in the classroom, and recognizing diverse perspectives (Bartlett & Bartlett, 2016; Galbraith & Jones, 2010)

Connectiveness in the online classroom is a strong defense against incivility (Rieck & Crouch, 2007) The instructor is responsible both for establishing online connectiveness and engaging with students to diminish isolation Strategies to increase connectiveness are presented in Table 1

Table 1 Strategies to increase connectiveness

Make it

personal Incivility declines with identification of the person on the other side of the communication Encourage socialization in chats, emails, discussions, and initial introductions in the class.

Set a schedule Incivility emerges when students feel isolated, uncertain, and ignored Setting a schedule creates expectations for responses, grades, and other communication Faculty must commit to a schedule for posting grades and providing

feedback to reduce anxiety for students waiting for feedback.

Model civility Faculty need to model activities and practices expected of students Adopting an overly casual tone and delivery in the online classroom can create lack of respect and increased incivility Being overly formal can suggest the faculty

member is unapproachable or aloof Striking a balance of professionalism and approachability is vital.

Post guidelines Expectations for civility must be clearly stated throughout the course Guidelines and examples should be presented, discussed, and enforced.

While we all assume the best intentions on the part of our students, we also know that one student has enormous potential to damage the atmosphere for the entire class Pre-emptive strategies like those outlined in Table 1 for addressing these issues are critical (Rieck & Crouch, 2007) Posting rules of conduct on the discussion board, outlining appropriate synchronous session protocol, and reminding students of rules governing use of the eLearning platform and internal mail are good ways to set the ground work Learning to recognize and resolve difficulties quickly is also critical to classroom success and harmony Veterans of online classrooms share that swift and firm action is the best tool they have (Galbraith & Jones, 2009).

THE DISRUPTORS

Experienced instructors recognize patterns of behaviors from students that result in disruptive incidents

On the whole, disruptive students online mirror their on ground counterparts: the class clowns, the noisy students, the zealots, and the belligerent, angry students – who can appear individually, as well as in

“gangs.” An analysis of these students and means for working with them are outlined below

The Class Clown

Class clowns populate many classrooms, and while the clown is occasionally on target with respect to the focus of the academics, often antics are primarily for a laugh The clown spends more time looking for the next gag than learning the material Strategies that are successful with the clown include redirecting the energy in a more positive direction and asking questions directly of the jokester to reset the focus.Levin (2010) pointed to institutions of higher education as more than venues for the gathering of professors and students, acknowledging their role as powerful organizations that promote dialog and debate Framing the academic environment as one focused on learning and advancement is critical for establishing a meaningful forum and quelling the clown

The Noisy Student

Incivility online includes long, frequent, and irrelevant messages, often referred to as spamming Babatz & Jeffrey, 2002) “Noisy” online students engage in activities comparable to those of their on ground counterpart, designed to fill time, distract others, and raise issues only peripherally relevant to the discussion (Ko & Rossen, 2004)

(Pankoke-Noisy students seek personal recognition and often a virtual nod of acknowledgement will reduce the noise factor Reminders of the need to remain on track and focused will often be productive in reducing the noise Periodically stronger measures need to be taken, including exclusion from the classroom until the noise can be controlled (Pankoke-Babatz & Jeffrey, 2002)

The Zealot

The zealot is a common fixture in the online classroom In response to student posts about personal struggles – time management, dealing with children, etc – the zealot will quote chapter and verse offering advice and answers to all The zealot posts vigorously and enthusiastically in synchronous venues, offering

grace and salvation to all who embrace his or her beliefs This sort of passion makes many students (and instructors) uncomfortable and is inappropriate in an academic environment A policy regarding zealous postings is helpful in controlling the issue Something such as ‘each of us holds our own personal beliefs and morals, and we all respect our individual rights to those philosophies An academic environment

is not an appropriate venue for sharing these philosophies and promoting their inclusion in the lives of others We need to respect each other’s privacy and maintain a professional, academic discussion level that does not include our personal religious and moral beliefs.’

Individual emails to the zealot are often beneficial as well Recognize the student’s strong ment to his or her beliefs, but note that not all environments are appropriate for discussion of religious beliefs or political persuasions, and that an academic community is one such setting Should these efforts

commit-be unsuccessful in addressing the zealous posting, a personal phone call is recommended

The Angry, Belligerent Student

A force to be reckoned with in the online classroom is the belligerent, angry student The first and most important step is to tap into the source of the anger Frequently, it is anxiety manifesting as anger, and

an instructor who monitors classroom activities and works with students who fall behind can often help alleviate the anxiety and thus reduce the belligerent, angry actions Intervene to assist the student Re-mind him or her of your office hours and other resources available And always maintain a professional, courteous tone

The Gang

On occasion a group of students will align themselves against other students or against the instructor and instigate gang warfare strategies They will post inappropriate threads to the message board, supporting one another and advancing their concerns Often they believe they have been treated poorly, or detect some weakness in the instructor and they band together to right these wrongs Gang strategies must be addressed immediately An email sent to all members of the group is a good starting point, followed

up with a synchronous telephone conference or virtual chat session that includes all members Strive to determine what their concerns are, and to address those concerns as best as possible Individual phone calls to the members can also help address the issue and give the instructor opportunity to hear their concerns one-on-one, without benefit of the crowd

ONLINE CULTURE

Education is most effective when students are challenged to discuss controversial issues and values that conflict with their own Consideration of civility provides an opportunity for students to self-reflect and consider Socrates’ “examined life.” By examining and analyzing incidents of incivility, students can learn to think critically about their own beliefs, choices, and habits They can practice navigating reason and conflicts that emerge over values Further, they can be guided toward an understanding and sense of empathy for those who live different lives, or who see life differently than they do Academic environments must be conducive to effective teaching and learning Actions and activities that disrupt

that environment must be eliminated An online culture that values the ideologies and beliefs of higher education is desirable Distance learning has shifted the teaching paradigm from an instructor-driven environment to a student-driven, challenging the concepts of connectivity and social engagement (Rieck

& Crouch, 2007) It remains the responsibility of the institution and professor to establish ground rules and reduce incivility within the online culture

Cultivating civility in academics not only helps to prepare students to be engaged citizens who participate with civility in both their professional and personal lives, but it will also enhance working and educational environments for everyone This will decrease the number of disengaged employees and students, and increase productivity No single method will create a culture of civility Rather, each institution must consider its own strategy, taking into account its mission and values, faculty, staff, and students Uncivil disrupters can be devastating to the morale and confidence of even a veteran online instructor, damaging the learning environment Balancing assertion of authority and reaction to the student provocation is essential Abusive or threatening students must be brought to the attention of the institution

to ensure protection of the professor and university Instructors must document any incidents of abuse.Barrett and Barrett (2016) make the argument that social skills and social expectations diminish in an environment driven by technology A redefinition of civility is reflected in these declining expectations Retraining of students to address issues of incivility is recommended, providing guidance in appropriate communication using technology Cranton (2001) offered that a learning environment is “organized and spontaneous, caring and critical, structured and flexible, calm and enthusiastic, challenging and support-ive, firm and empathic, warm and disciplined, collaborative and questioning, reflective and charismatic, practical and innovative…” (p 27) Teachers and students must recognize and accept these elements as essential to the learning environment

An effective pedagogy and collaborative culture should enhance learning and foster civility Further,

it should be inclusive and respectful, as well as active, and contextual (Chickering & Gamson, 1987) Paula Lustbader (2006) cited the following items as fundamental to an effective pedagogy for civility:

• Uses a variety of methods for disseminating a substantive knowledge base of theory

• Teaches and models the attitudes, behaviors, and skills that foster civility

• Immerses students in mindfulness practices

• Promotes self-reflection and approaching life changes with an open mind

• Expands the students’ world view

• Develops active listening and effective communication skills

• Encourages collaborating with others

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESEARCH

Two significant areas for future research emerge from this analysis The first is a study of students’ ceptions of uncivil communication from instructors and fellow students Little attention has been paid

per-to the role faculty members have in incivility, and insight inper-to how students see their online instrucper-tors would inform steps toward establishing a more civil environment The second area of research that should

be conducted is an investigation of what students can and should do to promote connectivity and civility

in online courses and what active processes help facilitate a supportive, engaged community

Civility is mutual respect and willingness to recognize and value one another’s views Civility is both significant and essential simply because it grounds our civilization In all corridors of our lives we have the responsibility to be civil while leaving enough room for disagreement and dissent Cultivating civil-ity should not be a frightening prospect but rather an opportunity to learn from one another and value each other’s views The purpose of this chapter was to learn more about civility in distance learning and

to establish a set of guidelines for addressing instances of incivility Online instructors strive to develop

a culture in which students both accept and adopt basic beliefs and values inherent in the teaching and learning environment Both proactive and reactive strategies need to be implemented, and training of both faculty and students is imperative

Navigating the world of technology and online engagement is new and ever-changing, demanding vigilance in setting goals and establishing a culture conducive to learning While many theories over the years have held that closing social distance and engaging in downward convergence with students helps to bridge the sense of isolation and reduce incivility, caution is urged Students have suggested the potential negative implications of faculty crossing professional borders in an attempt to connect with them These strategies have failed to close the gap and have instead fostered incivility and classroom instability Educators have long been charged with developing students into citizens who will engage in ethical and civil practices A balance must be struck between bridging the distance inherent in distance education, and maintaining the professional, ethical, and civil classroom and our roles in that relationship

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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Civility: Politeness and civility in behavior and speech; the act of showing regard for others through

words and actions

Connectivity: Concept is often linked to computers or computer systems, but also applies to human

connection and the ability to communicate effectively

Disruptors: Someone or something that temporarily or permanently interrupts an activity by causing

a disturbance or problem

Guide by the Side: An educator whose teaching method is designed to provide students with advice

and assistance, while primarily allowing them to explore an area of interest independently

Hyperconnectivity: The use of multiple means of communication including instant messaging,

telephone, email, online sources, face-to-face contact, and other information services

Learner-Centered: Places the learner at the center of the learning process The learner or student is

responsible for learning while the tutor or instructor supports facilitation of the learning process

Sage on the Stage: An educator, typically at the postsecondary level, who imparts knowledge largely

be lecturing to an audience The phrase is generally seen as derogatory, indicative of a “chalk and talk” strategy rather than working to facilitate education

Social Isolation: Condition in which persons, groups, or cultures lose or do not have communication

with one another

Teacher-Centered: Students put their attention on the teacher, listening to the instructor’s lecture

and discussion Students work alone in classroom activities with little collaboration